User:Nikkivartuli/sandbox
Credentialism and educational inflation are any of a number of related processes involving increased demands for formal educational qualifications, and the devaluation of these qualifications. In Western society, there has been increasing reliance on formal qualifications or certification for jobs, a process called credentialism that is not easily differentiated from professionalization. This process has, in turn, led to credential inflation (also known as credential creep, academic inflation or degree inflation), the process of inflation of the minimum credentials required for a given job and the simultaneous devaluation of the value of diplomas and degrees. These trends are also associated with grade inflation, a tendency to award progressively higher academic grades for work that would have received lower grades in the past.
Causes
[edit]Knowledge economy
[edit]The developed world has transitioned from an agricultural economy (pre-1760s) to an industrial economy (1760s - 1900s) to a knowledge economy (late 1900s - present) due to increases in innovation. This latest stage is marked by technological advancement and global competition to produce new products and research.[1] The shift to a knowledge economy, a term coined by Peter Drucker, has led to a decrease in the demand for physical labor (such as that seen during the Industrial Age) and an increase in the demand for intellect. This has caused a multitude of problems to arise. Economists from the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, who categorized jobs as being either routine cognitive, routine manual, nonroutine cognitive or nonroutine manual, have examined a 30 million increase in the number of nonroutine cognitive jobs over the past 30 years, making it the most common job type. These nonroutine cognitive jobs, according to researchers, require "high intellectual skill."[2] This can be rather difficult to measure in potential employees.[3] Additionally, production outputs differ amongst labor types. The results of manual labor are tangible, whereas the results of knowledge labor are not. Management consultant Fred Nickols identifies an issue with this:
The working behaviors of the manual worker are public and those of the knowledge worker are private. From the perspective of a supervisor or an industrial engineer, this means the visibility of working is high for a manual worker and low for a knowledge worker.[4]
Decreased visibility in the workplace correlates with a greater risk of employees underperforming in cognitive tasks.[5] This, along with the previously mentioned issue of measuring cognitive skill, has resulted in employers requiring credentials, such as college degrees. Matt Sigelman, CEO of a labor market analysis firm, elaborates on why employers such as himself value degrees:
Many employers are using the bachelor’s degree as a proxy for quality employees—a rough, rule-of-thumb screening mechanism to sort through the resume pile. Employers believe in the college experience, not just as an incubator for job-specific skills but particularly for the so-called soft skills, such as writing, analytical thinking and even maturity.[6]
History
[edit]Western culture, specifically that in the United States, has experienced a rise in the attractiveness of professions and a decline in the attractiveness of manufacturing and independent business. This shift could be attributed to the class stratification that occurred during the Gilded age.[7]
The Gilded age was period of time marked by a rise in big businesses and globalization, particularly within the construction and oil industries. The popularity of farming declined as individuals took jobs working on large projects such as the Transcontinental Railroad. Rapid advancements such as railroad developments and increased use of steamboats to import/export goods made cities such as New York and Chicago convenient places to operate a business, and therefore ideal places to find work. Local business owners had a difficult time competing with the large companies such as such as Standard Oil and Armour operating out of cities. The popularity of entrepreneurship declined, and people began taking underpaying jobs at these companies. This fueled a class divide between the working class and industrialists (also called "robber barons") such as Andrew Carnegie and John Rockefeller.[8]
Attempting to increase the prestige of one's occupation became standard among working class individuals trying to recover from the financial hardships of this time. Unqualified individuals turned to professions such as medicine and law, which had low barriers to entry.[9] Referring to this phenomena, historian Robert Huddleston Wiebe once commented:
The concept of a middle class crumbled to a touch. Small businesses appeared and disappeared at a frightening rate. The so-called professions meant little as long as anyone with a bag of pills and a bottle of syrup could pass for a doctor, a few books and a corrupt judge made a man a lawyer, and an unemployed literate qualified as a teacher. Nor did the growing number of clerks, salesman, and secretaries of the city share much more than a common sense of drift as they fell into jobs that attached them to nothing in particular, beyond a salary, a set of clean clothes, and a hope that they would somehow rise in the world.[10]
The establishment of legitimized professional certifications began after the turn of the twentieth century when the Carnegie Foundation published reports on medical and law education. One example of such reports is the Flexner Report, written by educator Abraham Flexner.[11] This research led to the closing of low-quality medical and law schools. The impact of the many unqualified workers of the Gilded age also increased motivation to weed out unqualified workers in other professions. Professionalization increased, and the number of professions and professionals multiplied. There were economic benefits to this because it lowered the competition for jobs by weeding out unqualified candidates, driving up salaries. [12]
The alliance of employers with educational institutions progressed throughout the twentieth century as businesses and technological advancements progressed. Businessmen were unable to keep schedules or accounts in their heads like the small-town merchant had once done. New systems of accounting, organization, and business management were developed. In his book The Visible Hand, Alfred Chandler of Harvard Business School explained that the increase in large corporations with multiple divisions killed off the hybrid owner/managers of simpler times and created a demand for salaried, “scientific” management.[13] The development of professional management societies, research groups, and university business programs began in the early 1900's. By 1910, Harvard and Dartmouth offered graduate business programs and NYU, the University of Chicago, and the University of Pennsylvania offered undergraduate business programs. By the 1960's, nearly half of all managerial jobs formally required either an undergraduate or graduate degree.[14]
References
[edit]- ^ Powell, Walter; Snellman, Kaisa (2004). "The Knowledge Economy". Annual Review of Sociology. 30: 199–220. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100037.
- ^ Dvorkin, Maximiliano. "Jobs Involving Routine Tasks Aren't Growing". www.stlouisfed.org.
- ^ Weber, Alan (2011). "The role of education in knowledge economies in developing countries". Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences. 15: 2589–2594. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.151.
- ^ Nickols. "The Shift from Manual Work to Knowledge Work". nickols.us.
- ^ Richardson, Joanne (2010). "AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PREVALENCE AND MEASUREMENT OF
TEAMS IN ORGANISATIONS: THE DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION
OF THE REAL TEAM SCALE". Aston University: 2.
{{cite journal}}: External link in|website=|website=and|journal=specified (help); line feed character in|title=at position 54 (help) - ^ Sigelman. "Do Employers Value the Bachelor's Degree Too Much?". nebhe.org.
- ^ Larson, Magali (1979). "Review: The Matrix of Professionalization: Three Recent Interpretations". Michigan Law Review. 77 (3): 641–654. doi:10.2307/1288142.
- ^ Smith, Jusith (2008). "The Class Divide in American Culture in the Early Twentieth Century". American Studies. 49 (3/4): 255–267. doi:10.1353/ams.2010.0024.
- ^ Tan, Chay-Hoon; Macneill, Paul (2015). "Globalisation, economics and professionalism". Medical Teacher. 37 (9): 850–855. doi:10.3109/0142159X.2015.1045856.
- ^ Wiebe, Robert (1967). The Search for Order, 1877-1920. New York: Hill and Wang. p. 13-14. ISBN 9780809001040.
- ^ Flexner, Abraham (1910). Medical Education in the United States and Canada. New York: Carnegie Foundation.
- ^ Khurana, Rakesh (2007). From Higher Aims to Hired Hands: The Social Transformation of American Business Schools and the Unfulfilled Promise of Management as a Profession. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 66-70. ISBN 9780691120201.
- ^ Chandler, Alfred (1977). The Visible Hand. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674--94052-0.
- ^ Emerson. "The Value of Certification and Professional Experience". https://www.cpajournal.com.
{{cite web}}: External link in|website=