User:Quasar G./Minimum control speeds

The minimum control speed (V_MC) of an aircraft is a V-speed that specifies the calibrated airspeed below which directional or lateral control of the aircraft can no longer be maintained by the pilot, after the failure of one or more wing-mounted engines. V_MCs only apply if at least one engine is still running at maximum (takeoff) setting, and are included in the aircraft flight manual of all multi-engine aircraft. V_MCs are also used by aircraft design engineers for sizing the vertical tail and flight control surfaces of aircraft.

Minimum control speeds are typically established by flight tests as part of an aircraft certification process. In addition to being used by the pilot, they are often used by accident investigators to determine whether the pilot was following aviation regulations such as FAR 23 and FAR 25.

Regulations and variants

Fig. 1. Overview of all existing minimum control speeds V_MC for all multi-engine aircraft types. In this article, V_MC(A) is used rather than V_MC for air minimum control speeds.

Aviation regulations (such as FAR and EASA) define several different V_MCs and require design engineers to size the vertical tail and the aerodynamic flight controls of the aircraft to comply with these regulations. The minimum control speed in the air (V_MCA) is the most important minimum control speed of a multi-engine aircraft, which is why V_MCA is simply listed as V_MC in many aviation regulations and aircraft flight manuals. On the airspeed indicator of a twin-engine aircraft of less than 2722 kg, the V_MCA is indicated by a red radial line, as standardised by FAR 23.

Most test pilot schools use multiple, more specific minimum control speeds, as V_MC will change depending on the stage of flight. Other defined V_MCs include minimum control speed on the ground (V_MCG) and minimum control speed during approach and landing (V_MCL). In addition, with aircraft with four or more engines, V_MCs exist for cases with either one or two engines inoperative on the same wing. Figure 1 illustrates the V_MCs that are defined in the relevant civil aviation regulations and in military specifications.

Engine malfunction

The most important forces and moments acting on the aircraft while using the rudder to counteract the asymmetrical thrust and while keeping the wings level. Notice a sideslip cannot be avoided for when the yawing moment is being counteracted.

When an engine on one wing fails, and the corresponding opposite engine is generating maximum thrust, the thrust distribution on the aircraft becomes asymmetrical, resulting in a large yawing moment in the direction of the failed engine. A sideslip develops, causing the total drag of the aircraft to increase considerably, resulting in a drop in the aircraft's rate of climb. The rudder, and to a certain extent the ailerons, are the only aerodynamic controls available to the pilot to counteract the asymmetrical thrust yawing moment, whether on the ground or in the air.

The higher the speed of the aircraft, the easier it is to counteract the yawing moment with the rudder or ailerons. The minimum control speed is the airspeed below which the force the rudder or ailerons can apply to the aircraft is not large enough to counteract the asymmetrical thrust yawing. The heading and the bank angle cannot be maintained below this speed, resulting in loss of control: the aircraft stops responding to the pilot's inputs.

Minimum control speed when airborne

The effect of bank angle on V_MCA and sideslip when the left engine (No. 1) is inoperative and the other is at maximum thrust. The bank angle for zero sideslip is used for sizing the vertical tail and also during flight-testing to determine V_MCA in-flight.

The vertical tail or vertical stabilizer of a multi-engine aircraft plays a crucial role in maintaining directional control while an engine fails or is inoperative. The larger the tail, the more capable it will be of providing the required force to counteract the asymmetrical thrust yawing moment. This means that the smaller the tail is, the higher the V_MCA will be. However, a larger tail is more costly and harder to accommodate, and comes with other aerodynamic issues such as increased prevalence of slipstreams. Engineers designing the vertical tail must make a decision based on, amongst other factors, their budget, the weight of the aircraft, and the maximum bank angle of 5° (away from the inoperative engine), as stated by FAR.

V_MCA is also used to calculate the minimum takeoff safety speed. A high V_MCA therefore results in higher takeoff speeds, and so longer runways are required, which is undesirable for airport operators.

Factors influencing minimum control speed

Any factor that has influence on the balance of forces and on the yawing and rolling moments after engine failure might also affect V_MCs. When the vertical tail is designed and the V_MCA is measured, the worst-case scenario for all factors is taken into account. This ensures that the V_MCs published in the AFMs guaranteed to be safe.

Heavier aircraft are more stable and more resistant to yawing moments, and therefore have lower V_MCAs. The longitudinal centre of gravity affects the V_MCA as well: the further from the tail it is, the lower the minimum control speed, because the rudder will be able to provide a larger yawing moment, and so it is easier to counteract the imbalance in thrust. The lateral centre of gravity also has an effect: the nearer the inoperative engine it is, the larger the moment of the working engine, and so the more force the rudder has to apply. This means that if the lateral centre of gravity shifts towards the inoperative engine, the aircraft's V_MCA will increase. The thrust of most engines depends on altitude and temperature; increasing altitude and higher temperatures decrease thrust. This means that if the air temperature is higher and the aircraft has a higher altitude, the force of the operative engine will be lower, the rudder will have to provide less counteractive force, and so the V_MCA will be lower. The bank angle also influences the minimum control speed. A small bank angle away from the inoperative engine is required for smallest possible sideslip and therefore lower V_MCA. Finally, if the P-factor of the working engine increases, then its yawing moment increases, and the aircraft's V_MCA increases as a result.

Other minimal control speeds

Aircraft with more engines

Aircraft with four or more engines have not only a V_MCA (often called V_MCA1 under these circumstances), where the critical engine alone is inoperative, but also a V_MCA2 that applies when the engine inboard of the critical engine, on the same wing, is also inoperative. Civil aviation regulations (FAR, CS and equivalent) no longer require a V_MCA2 to be determined, although it is still required for military aircraft with four or more engines. On turbojet and turbofan aircraft, the outboard engines are usually equally critical. Three-engine aircraft such as the MD-11 and BN-2 Trislander do not have a V_MCA2; a failed centerline engine has no effect on V_MC.

When two opposing engines of aircraft with four or more engines are inoperative, there is no thrust asymmetry, hence there is no rudder requirement for maintaining steady straight flight; V_MCAs play no role. There may be less power available to maintain flight overall, but the minimum safe control speeds remain the same as they would be for an aircraft being flown at 50% thrust on all four engines.

Failure of a single inboard engine, from a set of four, has a much smaller effect on controllability. This is because an inboard engine is closer to the aircraft's centre of gravity, so the lack of yawing moment is decreased. In this situation, if speed is maintained at or above the published V_MCA, as determined for the critical engine, safe control can be maintained.

Ground

If an engine fails during taxiing or takeoff, the thrust yawing moment will force the aircraft to one side on the runway. If the airspeed is not high enough and hence, the rudder generated side force is not powerful enough, the aircraft will deviate from the runway centerline and may even veer off the runway. The airspeed at which the aircraft, after engine failure, deviates 9.1 m from the runway centerline, despite using maximum rudder but without the use of nose wheel steering, is the minimum control speed on the ground (V_MCG).

Approach and landing

The minimum control speed during approach and landing (V_MCL) is similar to V_MCA, but the aircraft configuration is the landing configuration. V_MCL is defined for part 25 aircraft only in civil aviation regulations. However, when maximum thrust is selected for a go-around, the flaps will be selected up from the landing position, and V_MCL no longer applies, but V_MCA does.

Safe single-engine speed

Because of the risks of shutting down an engine suddenly mid-flight, manufacturers define a safe single-engine speed (V_SSE) in accordance with aviation regulations. This is a speed at which the critical engine can be safely shut down, and is published in the aircraft flight manual. If the V_SSE is safe for rendering the critical engine inoperative, it is certainly also safe for rendering any other engine(s) inoperative. This means that V_MCA is always lower than V_SSE.

See also

• V speeds
• Yaw

References

Category:Airspeed Category:Aerodynamics Category:Aviation safety