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Urban Forest Inequity

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Urban forest inequity is an example of environmental injustice and it occurs when certain communities within an urban area contain less greenery and vegetation than other areas. Some problems associated with urban forest inequity include physical and emotional health issues, air quality, and higher surface temperatures, among other problems. Potential solutions to urban forest inequity include investment in marginalized communities and tree-planting initiatives, among others. Many examples of urban forest inequity can be seen in various cities across the world.

Definition of Urban Forests and Urban Forest Inequity

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Urban forests are areas of land covered by trees or other vegetation located in and around places of intensive human influence, particularly metropolitan, urban areas such as cities. Urban forests can be located both on public and private land, but particular importance is typically given to public land since the majority of urban forests, especially street trees, are located on public land in densely populated urban areas. [1] Urban forests can help mitigate the impacts of climate change[2], and they are important in maintaining the biodiversity of an urban area, particularly the avifauna (birds) of the area.[3]

Urban forest inequity is an example of environmental injustice.[2] It is a phenomenon in which the distribution of and access to trees and nature is inequitable in urban areas.[4] Many studies have found a positive relationship between income and urban forest coverage.[2] As a result of the inequitable distribution of greenery in urban areas, some residents cannot access the benefits of urban forests, which include reducing stress and anxiety, creating a welcoming and safe environment for the community, contributing to emotional fulfillment, combatting the effects of global warming, and more.[4] Various historical, cultural, and institutional factors contribute to the current state of urban forestry management and inequitable distribution of urban greenery. [4] Socially vulnerable residents of an urban area, particularly lower-income residents, and those who live further from urban forests and greenspace are particularly susceptible to the urban heat island effect.[5] Examples of urban forest inequity exist in many cities globally, some of which are listed below.

Problems of Urban Forest Inequity

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Problems commonly associated with urban forest inequity include the urban heat island effect, health concerns, and inequitable distribution of environmental benefits, among others. Environmental justice and spatial justice seek to understand the disproportionate quality of life due to uneven environmental conditions and benefits. These concepts assume a close interconnectedness of geographical space and quality of life.[6] Environmental inequities are most often visible along the lines of “income, race, color, or national origin.”[7] Risk of cancer and chemical poisoning, as well as of respiratory diseases like asthma, are of a much greater likelihood in communities negatively affected by environmental and spatial injustice, for individuals there may be more often be at risk of exposure to dangerous pollutants in water or in the air.[8]

The urban heat island effect is defined as the phenomenon where urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas.[9] Air temperature inside urban areas can be about 1–3°C or 1–7°F higher than rural or surrounding air temperatures, on average.[10] This is due to a variety of reasons, which include but are not limited to lower albedo on urban surfaces, anthropogenic heat released from buildings and vehicles, and reduced areas of evapotranspiration.[10]Asphalt and concrete, surfaces that are more common in urban areas, have a higher albedo than surfaces such as trees, grass, or snow. In addition, evapotranspiration is a powerful cooling process,[11] and the relatively reduced amount of greenery in urban areas compared to rural areas contributes to the urban heat island effect. Without urban forests, the cooling mechanisms of high albedo and evapotranspiration do not work to cool the geographic area. In addition, communities of color and lower-income communities are particularly susceptible to the phenomenon known as intra-urban heat islands, which is due, in part, to historical redlining.[12] As established, urban forests help combat urban heat islands and intra-urban heat islands, so redlining is thought to be another problem contributing to this environmental injustice.

Potential Solutions

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Solutions to urban forest inequity must effectively combat both environmental and spatial injustice in addition to urban heat islands; this may include activists and policymakers engaging directly with marginalized communities,[13] public investment in underserved neighborhoods, and tighter government restrictions regarding land use and pollution concerns.[14] Potential solutions to eliminate urban heat islands include increasing green space by planting trees along streets or sidewalks, converting existing roof spaces to green roofs, replacing normal pavement with sustainable alternatives, subsidies for planting trees, and active engagement of low-income communities, among others.[2] [15]

Examples

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Some cities have historically faced problems concerning urban forest inequity. They may have a disproportionate amount of green space in higher-income communities or face criticism from environmental justice advocates. Beijing, China is one of those examples, demonstrated by the lack of accessibility to green spaces compared to gated communities. Research conducted with data from the Beijing Green Spaces System Planning found that higher-income gated communities had more access to green spaces than lower-income residential communities and that the urban planning was not meeting the demand for public parks and playgrounds in the densely populated regions of the city.[16]

New York City is another example of a city that has historically faced challenges with urban forest inequity. Because of the urban heat island effect, concrete in the city draws more heat and raises temperatures, so more shade coverage is needed to protect inhabitants. However, there are neighborhoods that lack shade protection and can subsequently face temperatures “20 to 45 degrees hotter than those with more shade,” which are typically lower-income communities. [17]Chicago is facing a similar problem to New York City and is actively trying to combat the lack of greenery and pollution they are facing through planting trees across different neighborhoods.[18]

Delhi, India had research conducted that determined which regions were facing the most urban heat and if they consequently had any greenspaces, or areas containing urban forestry of some kind. The results “documented how the spatial distribution of heat and greenspace relates to the spatial distribution of social vulnerability at the ward level in Delhi.”[19] Mexico City, Mexico also had similar research done pertaining to the distribution of green public spaces for inhabitants. It was found that these spaces are biased against marginalized populations. The evidence showed that they mostly exist in the wealthy areas of the capital city, while the more populated lower-income communities lacked green public spaces. [20]

  1. ^ Strom, Steven (2007), Kuser, John E. (ed.), "Urban and Community Forestry: Planning and Design", Urban and Community Forestry in the Northeast, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 99–117, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4289-8_6, ISBN 978-1-4020-4289-8, retrieved 2024-02-20
  2. ^ a b c d Gerrish, Ed; Watkins, Shannon Lea (2018-02-01). "The relationship between urban forests and income: A meta-analysis". Landscape and Urban Planning. 170: 293–308. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.09.005. ISSN 0169-2046. PMC 5726445. PMID 29249844.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  3. ^ Wood, Eric M.; Esaian, Sevan (2020). "The importance of street trees to urban avifauna". Ecological Applications. 30 (7): 1–20. ISSN 1051-0761.
  4. ^ a b c Grant, Amber; Millward, Andrew A.; Edge, Sara; Roman, Lara A.; Teelucksingh, Cheryl (2022-11-01). "Where is environmental justice? A review of US urban forest management plans". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 77: 127737. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127737. ISSN 1618-8667.
  5. ^ Mitchell, Bruce C.; Chakraborty, Jayajit; Basu, Pratyusha (2021-04-30). "Social Inequities in Urban Heat and Greenspace: Analyzing Climate Justice in Delhi, India". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (9): 4800. doi:10.3390/ijerph18094800. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 8124940. PMID 33946259.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ Bret, Bernard; Moreau, Sophie (2022), Barozet, Emmanuelle; Sainsaulieu, Ivan; Cortesero, Régis; Mélo, David (eds.), "Spatial and Environmental Justice", Where Has Social Justice Gone? From Equality to Experimentation, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 145–158, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-93123-0_9, ISBN 978-3-030-93123-0, retrieved 2024-02-20
  7. ^ US EPA, OEJECR (2015-02-13). "Learn About Environmental Justice". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  8. ^ Chersich, Matthew; Wright, Caradee; Venter, Francois; Rees, Helen; Scorgie, Fiona; Erasmus, Barend (2018-08-31). "Impacts of Climate Change on Health and Wellbeing in South Africa". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 15 (9): 1884. doi:10.3390/ijerph15091884. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 6164733. PMID 30200277.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  9. ^ US EPA, OAR (2014-02-28). "Heat Island Effect". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  10. ^ a b Ryu, Young-Hee; Baik, Jong-Jin (May 2012). "Quantitative Analysis of Factors Contributing to Urban Heat Island Intensity". Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 51 (5): 842–854 – via ProQuest.
  11. ^ Pokorny, Jan (2019-01-01), Fath, Brian (ed.), "Evapotranspiration☆", Encyclopedia of Ecology (Second Edition), Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 292–303, ISBN 978-0-444-64130-4, retrieved 2024-02-20
  12. ^ US EPA, OAR (2019-11-06). "Heat Islands and Equity". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  13. ^ Weiss, Caroline. "Environmental Injustice: Roots, Impacts, and Urgent Solutions". www.climatecenter.pitt.edu. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  14. ^ US EPA, ORD (2017-11-02). "Contaminated Land". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  15. ^ "Urban Heat Island Effect Solutions and Funding". National League of Cities. 2023-02-13. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  16. ^ Wu, Jiayu; He, Qingsong; Chen, Yunwen; Lin, Jian; Wang, Shantong (2020-05). "Dismantling the fence for social justice? Evidence based on the inequity of urban green space accessibility in the central urban area of Beijing". Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science. 47 (4): 626–644. doi:10.1177/2399808318793139. ISSN 2399-8083. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ Bottcher, Erik; Brewer, Gale; Krishnan, Shekar; Maxwell, Emily Nobel (2023-09-12). "We must protect NYC's urban forest". New York Daily News. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  18. ^ Openlands (2017-02-01). "Chicago's Urban Forest". Openlands. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
  19. ^ Mitchell, Bruce C.; Chakraborty, Jayajit; Basu, Pratyusha (2021-04-30). "Social Inequities in Urban Heat and Greenspace: Analyzing Climate Justice in Delhi, India". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (9): 4800. doi:10.3390/ijerph18094800. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 8124940. PMID 33946259.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  20. ^ Fernández-Álvarez, Rafael. "Inequitable distribution of green public space in Mexico City: an environmental injustice case". Economía, sociedad y territorio. XVII (54): 399–428.
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