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Microplastics

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Microplastics in Mljet National Park, Croatia

Microplastics are particles that are smaller than 5 mm in size. [1] These microplastics are ingested by the marine wildlife and it ends up in the food-web which is a concern because they have a tendency to adsorb pollutants on their surface.[2][3] Microplastics are also a concern due to their ability to accumulate. When these particles are ingested by organisms they usually end up in tissues such as the digestive glands, circulatory system, gills and guts.[4][5][6] When these organisms are consumed and shifted upwards in the food chain, they end up creating an exposure risk towards bigger organisms and ultimately humans. Microplastics possess many risks to various organisms. They are known to disrupt algal feeding, increase mortality and lower fertility in copepods.[7][8] Amongst mussels, microplastics are known to interrupt filtration and induce inflammatory responses.[9] There is still a lack of data in how these particles ultimately affect humans because most marine organisms are gutted before consumed. In spite of that, their environmental effects are well documented and the extent of their damage is well understood.

Local and regional impacts

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Produced water and drilling waste discharges

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Main article: Produced water

North Sea Oil Rig

Produced water (PW) discharges from petroleum extraction results in PAH (Poly-aromatic Hydrocarbon) emission in the ocean. Approximately 400 million tons of PW discharge is released annually from oil-fields in the North Sea, UK and Norwegian discharges combined.[10] PW discharge is the largest emission event in the marine environment world and it is a result of offshore oil and gas production.[11] The composition of materials in the PW depends on the characteristics of the region. [12] However, PW mainly contains a mixture of a few select products such as formation water, oil, gas, brine water and added chemicals. Just like PW, formation water composition also depends on its surroundings although, it mainly consists of dissolved inorganic and organic compounds.[13] PW was responsible for releasing 129 tons of PAHs in 2017. [14] Due to the presence of harmful chemicals in PW, it is responsible for evoking toxic responses in the surrounding environment.[15] For example, surveys done in the Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS) found that PAHs released by PW were responsible for biological changes in mussel and Atlantic cod. Formation of PAH burden caused DNA damage and digestive-gland histochemistry in mussel.[16] PAHs also pose a serious threat to human health.[17] Long term exposure to PAHs have been linked to a series of health problems such as lung, skin, bladder, gastrointestinal cancer.[18]

  1. ^ Sharma, Shivika; Chatterjee, Subhankar (2017-09-01). "Microplastic pollution, a threat to marine ecosystem and human health: a short review". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 24 (27): 21530–21547. doi:10.1007/s11356-017-9910-8. ISSN 1614-7499.
  2. ^ Batel, Annika; Linti, Frederic; Scherer, Martina; Erdinger, Lothar; Braunbeck, Thomas (2016-07). "Transfer of benzo[ a ]pyrene from microplastics to Artemia nauplii and further to zebrafish via a trophic food web experiment: CYP1A induction and visual tracking of persistent organic pollutants: Trophic transfer of microplastics and associated POPs". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 35 (7): 1656–1666. doi:10.1002/etc.3361. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ^ Rillig, Matthias C. (2012-06-19). "Microplastic in Terrestrial Ecosystems and the Soil?". Environmental Science & Technology. 46 (12): 6453–6454. doi:10.1021/es302011r. ISSN 0013-936X.
  4. ^ Watts, Andrew J. R.; Lewis, Ceri; Goodhead, Rhys M.; Beckett, Stephen J.; Moger, Julian; Tyler, Charles R.; Galloway, Tamara S. (2014-08-05). "Uptake and Retention of Microplastics by the Shore Crab Carcinus maenas". Environmental Science & Technology. 48 (15): 8823–8830. doi:10.1021/es501090e. ISSN 0013-936X.
  5. ^ Lusher, A. L.; McHugh, M.; Thompson, R. C. (2013-02-15). "Occurrence of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract of pelagic and demersal fish from the English Channel". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 67 (1): 94–99. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.11.028. ISSN 0025-326X.
  6. ^ von Moos, Nadia; Burkhardt-Holm, Patricia; Köhler, Angela (2012-10-16). "Uptake and Effects of Microplastics on Cells and Tissue of the Blue Mussel Mytilus edulis L. after an Experimental Exposure". Environmental Science & Technology. 46 (20): 11327–11335. doi:10.1021/es302332w. ISSN 0013-936X.
  7. ^ Cole, Matthew; Lindeque, Pennie; Fileman, Elaine; Halsband, Claudia; Goodhead, Rhys; Moger, Julian; Galloway, Tamara S. (2013-06-18). "Microplastic Ingestion by Zooplankton". Environmental Science & Technology. 47 (12): 6646–6655. doi:10.1021/es400663f. ISSN 0013-936X.
  8. ^ Lee, Kyun-Woo; Shim, Won Joon; Kwon, Oh Youn; Kang, Jung-Hoon (2013-10). "Size-Dependent Effects of Micro Polystyrene Particles in the Marine Copepod Tigriopus japonicus". Environmental Science & Technology. 47 (19): 11278–11283. doi:10.1021/es401932b. ISSN 0013-936X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ von Moos, Nadia; Burkhardt-Holm, Patricia; Köhler, Angela (2012-09-27). "Uptake and Effects of Microplastics on Cells and Tissue of the Blue Mussel Mytilus edulis L. after an Experimental Exposure". Environmental Science & Technology. 46 (20): 11327–11335. doi:10.1021/es302332w. ISSN 0013-936X.
  10. ^ Sundt, Rolf C.; Baussant, Thierry; Beyer, Jonny (2009-01-01). "Uptake and tissue distribution of C4–C7 alkylphenols in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua): Relevance for biomonitoring of produced water discharges from oil production". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 58 (1): 72–79. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.09.012. ISSN 0025-326X.
  11. ^ "North sea produced water PAH exposure and uptake in early life stages of Atlantic Cod". Marine Environmental Research. 163: 105203. 2021-01-01. doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105203. ISSN 0141-1136.
  12. ^ Bakke, Torgeir; Klungsøyr, Jarle; Sanni, Steinar (2013-12). "Environmental impacts of produced water and drilling waste discharges from the Norwegian offshore petroleum industry". Marine Environmental Research. 92: 154–169. doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2013.09.012. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ Neff, Jerry; Lee, Kenneth; DeBlois, Elisabeth M. (2011), Lee, Kenneth; Neff, Jerry (eds.), "Produced Water: Overview of Composition, Fates, and Effects", Produced Water: Environmental Risks and Advances in Mitigation Technologies, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 3–54, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0046-2_1, ISBN 978-1-4614-0046-2, retrieved 2021-02-21
  14. ^ "MILJØRAPPORT" (PDF). Norsk olje og gass. 2018. Retrieved February 25, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  15. ^ N.L.), Aquatic Toxicity Workshop (27th : 2000 : St. John's, (2000). Proceedings of the 27th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop : October 1-4, 2000, St. John's, Newfoundland = Comptes rendus du 27e atelier annuel sur la toxicité aquatique: du 1 au 4 octobre 2000, St. John's, Newfoundland. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. OCLC 46839398.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Brooks, Steven J.; Harman, Christopher; Grung, Merete; Farmen, Eivind; Ruus, Anders; Vingen, Sjur; Godal, Brit F.; Baršienė, Janina; Andreikėnaitė, Laura; Skarphéðinsdóttir, Halldóra; Liewenborg, Birgitta (2011-03-09). "Water Column Monitoring of the Biological Effects of Produced Water from the Ekofisk Offshore Oil Installation from 2006 to 2009". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A. 74 (7–9): 582–604. doi:10.1080/15287394.2011.550566. ISSN 1528-7394.
  17. ^ Boström, Carl-Elis; Gerde, Per; Hanberg, Annika; Jernström, Bengt; Johansson, Christer; Kyrklund, Titus; Rannug, Agneta; Törnqvist, Margareta; Victorin, Katarina; Westerholm, Roger (2002-06). "Cancer risk assessment, indicators, and guidelines for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the ambient air". Environmental Health Perspectives. 110 (suppl 3): 451–488. doi:10.1289/ehp.110-1241197. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 1241197. PMID 12060843. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  18. ^ Kim, Ki-Hyun; Jahan, Shamin Ara; Kabir, Ehsanul; Brown, Richard J. C. (2013-10-01). "A review of airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their human health effects". Environment International. 60: 71–80. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2013.07.019. ISSN 0160-4120.
  1. Added a citation: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.11246-1
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