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India Since Independence-Bipin

C6-Initial years of Independence

Pg.75,76	1. Independence had accompanied by a multitude of problems: 1. Centuries of backwardness, prejudice, inequality still weighed on the land 2. Two centuries of colonialism 3. Had to fulfill promises of freedom struggle 4. Immediate problems: Territorial and administrative integration of princely states Communal riots that accompanied Pakistan Rehabilitation of refugees Protection of Muslims threatened by the communal gangs Communist insurgency Need to avoid war with Pakistan Restoration of law and order and political stability And security and stability of India 5. Medium term problems: Framing of constitution, Building a democratic political order, responsible govt.`s in centre and state And agrarian reforms 6. Long term issues: Promoting national integration Facilitation of rapid economic growth Removing poverty Initiating the planning process Fulfillment of expectation of people Getting rid of centuries long social injustice, inequality and oppression Foreign policy that will defend India`s independence and promote world peace
Pg.77	1. India embarked on its journey with some outstanding leadership 1. Nehru, Sardar Patel, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra prasad, Maulana Abul kalam azad, Govind Ballabh Pant 2. Congress enjoyed nationwide popularity among masses. Its position was unchallenged. 3. Many felt the need of a strong opposition that will bring wide variety of thoughts into the decision making
Pg.78-83	1. Accession of princely states 1. Post-indpendence, unification of India was one of the most important task at hand. 2. Princely states enjoyed protection by the British govt. Once they left future of princely states became a matter of concern 3. Many princely states desired to become independent and become nation. 4. Even British govt. hinted to them that they could remain independent if they desire to do so. But at the time of Independence, British govt. changed its stand and asked all the princely states to be in one of the dominions(India or Pakistan) 5. Sardar Patel with his diplomacy succeeded in pursuing the princely states to integrate with India in a number of stages. 6. In general, common people of these princely states have participated in the freedom struggle and had feelings of Indian nationalism. Thus it was becoming difficult for the princess to hold on to their states. 7. Fearful of the people`s movement and pressure from the govt. most of the princely states acceded to India by 15th Aug 1947. But 3 states - Jammu and Kashmir, Junagadh and Hyderabad acceded by 1948 only. 8. During this time, govt. was of the opinion that the people should themselves decide there fate, so the then govt. didn`t wanted to force these princes. Indian govt. was open to the option of holding plebiscite in these areas. 9. Junagadh prince wanted to join Pakistan but the masses wanted to remain in India. Pakistan accepted the accession of Junagadh, but the prince was forced out by the people and a plebiscite was conducted which went in favour of India. 10. J&K At the time of Independence, Hari singh, a hindu was ruling and the population was mostly Muslim. Fearing democracy in India and communalism in Pakistan he stayed out of both. The popular political force National conference wanted to join India. But the Indian govt. wanted the people of J&K to decide where they wanted to go. Nehru and Patel offered the same offer of plebiscite to J&K as well as offered to Hyderabad and Junagadh. But Pakistan not only refused to accept the principle of plebiscite for deciding the future of Junagadh and Hyderabad. It invaded Kashmir with Pathan tribesman with the support of Pakistan army officers. Maharaja`s army was ill-trained to protect itself, and he pleaded to India for military assistance. British govt. pointed out that under International law India can only send troops after the state has been acceded to India. Thus Maharaja acceded, but India in conformity with its democratic commitment announced it would hold a referendum on the accession issue once law and order and peace is restored. India thus moved troops to Kashmir, but raiders were still holding parts of the state even after months of struggle. On advice of mountbatten, India moved to UNSC to resolve the Kashmir issue. This decision was regretted by Nehru. As UNSC guided by Britain and US sided with Pakistan and ignored India`s complaint. The resolution ordered ceasefire and the state was divided along the ceasefire line. In 1951, UN passed a resolution providing for a referendum under the UN supervision after Pakistan had withdrawn its troops. Pakistan refused to withdraw its forces. Since, then Kashmir has remained an issue between India and Pakistan 11. Hyderabad It was the 3rd state that didn`t accede before 15th Aug 1947 The Nizam claimed an independent status The Nizam started raising an army, imported arms and common people were being opressed Indian army was moved in Hyderabad in Sep,1948. And Hyderabad was acceded to India. 12. Second stage of integration of princely states Smaller state were either merged into the neighbor states or merged together to form a centrally administered area Five new unions were formed - Madhya Bharat, Rajasthan, Patiala and east punjab states union (PEPSU), saurashtra, Travancore-cochin. Mysore, Hyderbad and Jammu and kashmir remained separate states. 13. Other areas French occupied areas - mainly Pondicherry After many negotiations French settlements were acceded to India in 1954 Portuguese settlements But they remained defiant, especially as Portugal`s NATO allies Britain and US supported them. Govt. of India was not willing to take military action, it wanted to commit to policy of peaceful discussion The people of Goa took matters in hands, and started freedom movement. But it was brutally suppressed But, after having no international support to pressure Portugal, India govt. moved troops into Goa and it was surrendered 14. This completed the integration of India.
Pg.83-85	1. The communal holocaust 1. Partition led to nearly 6 million refugees 1. India was in the midst of a communal holocaust Senseless communal slaughter Unspeakable atrocities perpetrated on minorities in both in India and Pakistan 3. The communal sentiment was affecting politics. But the national leadership managed to maintain India`s secular policy. 3. Communalism was contained by force but not eliminated. It still was a danger to India`s integrity. 5. Constitution was amended to enable the govt. to impose `reasonable restrictions` on the right to free speech and expression in order to curb communal speeches and writings. 6. Gandhi was assassinated. 7. Govt. came down heavily on communal forces, banned RSS
Pg.85	1. Rehabilitation of refugees 1. Rehabilitation of 6 million refugees was a daunting task. 1. Rehabilitation on west front was done by 1951, since almost all the refugees moved to this side in one go. 1. But the rehabilitation on the east front was stretched till 1971. During Independence, a large population of Hindus stayed on the other side. 1. As the atrocities and communal forces broke on the other side, a steady stream of refugees kept coming till 1971. 1. Govt. had the task of providing them with food, shelter, job and psychological assurance. 1. On the west front, refugees could be settled in the lands vacated by the muslims on this side and it was easier to settle them in himachal, delhi, rajasthan areas due to similarity in language 1. But on the east front, Bengali`s could only be settled in Bengal, parts of Assam or Tripura. Many peasants had to be settled in sub-urban areas.
Pg.86	1. Relations with Pakistan 1. Despite the Kashmir issue, Indian govt. followed the policy of fair dealing and promoting conciliation and reducing mutual tension. 2. In 1948, following a fast by Gandhiji, India paid Pakistan Rs 550 million as part of the assets of partition, even while it feared that the money would be used to finance military action in Kashmir. 3. Along with the Kashmir issue, the atrocities in the east Bengal was carried on. Migration from both sides was happening. 4. Many urged to intervene in east Bengal militarily to protect the minorities. 4. Regarding it as human problem, the govt. tried to solve it through persuasion 4. In 1950, Nehru-Liaqat pact was signed to resolve the issue of protection of minorities. 4. Other issue of distribution of canal water in Punjab. India agreed to supply an undiminished water supply. 8. In general, the Indian govt. followed policy to improve relations.

CH-7

Pg.89,90	1. Making of India as a nation is a product of a historical process and has been therefore in the making for a very long. 2. The roots of India`s nationhood lies in its history and also in its experience of freedom struggle. 3. Rabindranath Tagore put, the unity of India is the `unity of spirit`. 4. Elements of administrative, political and economic unity has developed especially under Mughals. 5. National movement played a pivotal role in welding Indians together politically and emotionally into a nation. 6. The depth and duration of this struggle penetrated the feeling of nationhood into the masses. 7. Political leaders realized that the making of a nation is a prolonged and continuous process. And one which was open to continuous challenges, interruption and even reversal. As seen in 1947, with the creation of Pakistan. 8. Indian leaders were aware that keeping India united will be a challenge even after the Independence. 9. India`s complex diversity - Myriad number of languages, religions, tribals 10. The emergence of a strong national identity and development of regional cultural identities were seen as simultaneous process. 11. Consequently, the consolidation of India was to occur around the concept of `Unity in diversity`. 12. It was recognised that this diversity of India could also be a source of weakness. Diversity could be used for divisive purposes such as communalism, casteism, and regional and linguistic differences. 13. The issues of job, educational opportunities, access to politcal power, share in the economic development could and did fuel conflicts based on religion, region, caste and language. 14. Special efforts were necessary. Unique solutions were to be divised not seen anywhere in the world. 15. Policies were to be framed to reduce glaring inequalities, to promote equal opportunity to all, to promote social justice. 16. Initially it was argued that an authoritarian political structure was needed to hold such a diverse nation. But it could have backfired, different regions could have pulled in different directions, hatred could have risen. It was for this reason, such a diverse nation needed democracy. Only democracy could have given equal opportunity and voice to different socio-economica, cultural and political sections.
Pg.91,	1. The constitutional structure established in 1950 encompassed the demands of diversity as well as the requirement of unity. 2. It provided for a federal structure with a strong centre but also a great deal of autonomy for the states. 3. The makers kept in view the difference between the disintegration and decentralization and between unity and centralization. 4. The parliament was to act as institution where the basic and the ultimate power resided. It was the institution uniting the nation. Every voice was given equal opportunity. 5. Also political parties acted as a great integration force. All the major political parties were all-india in character. They stood for the unity of the nation. 1. Differences between the political parties were only on ideological levels not based on religion or language. 2. A major asset of the congress leadership was that it was well versed in accommodative politics. It had been able to keep united diverse political and ideological trends during the anti-imperialist struggle. 3. After Independence also, Congress was willing to accommodate and listen to the voice of opposition, dissenters. It was sensitive to cultural and linguistic issues. 6. The Indian army and the IAS was also a force for forging national unity. 1. Recruitment was done on merit basis irrespective of caste or religion. 2. The services were all India in character 7. Indian economy: 1. Industrial development was promoted on a national scale. Dams, power plant, steel mills, factories etc. 2. Economic development was seen as an important element for national consolidation.
Pg.94	1. The Language problem: 1. The language problem was the most divisive problem issue in the starting years of Independent India. 2. People love their language and it is an integral part of culture. 3. There were two major issues: The official language issue: The demand was to replace English as language by mother tongue as a medium for higher education, administration and courts. The issue became a conflict between Hindi speaking and Non-Hindi speaking regions. India is a multi-lingual country and one single language can`t be chosen and forced upon the rest of the nation. Masses can grow fast educationally and culturally in their own languages. The issue was resolved, when all the major languages was accepted as `languages of India` But the matter didn`t end there, country`s official work cannot be carried on in so many languages. There had to be one common language for central govt. Leaders saw English as a world language. It opened the world of science and western education to India. Whereas, leaders also believed that the genius of masses cannot flower in a foreign language. Whereas, Hindi or hindustani had already played a official role during nationalist struggle as well. Hindi or hindustani was accepted by the non-Hindi speaking region leaders because it was considered to be most widely spoken and understood. In Congress`s session, English was replaced by Hindi or hindustani and provincial languages. But English was retained in case it was difficult to communicate. Hindustani can be written in urdu or devanagiri script. Hindi is written in devanagiri script. It was debated in constituent assembly, whether Hindi or Hindustani should replace the English. And in what timeframe the shift from English should happen. With creation of Pakistan, it claimed Urdu as language of Muslims and Pakistan. Votaries of Hindi saw Urdu as `language of secession`. Ultimately, Hindi was accepted as official language not the national language. The issue of time frame of shift. The spokespersons of Hindi areas wanted immediate switchover whereas Non-Hindi areas wanted a very long period if not indefinite. Nehru wanted to make Hindi as the official language but was also in favour of English continuing as an additional official language. English because of its usefulness in the contemporary world. The case for Hindi basically rested on the fact that it was the language of the largest number though not of the majority. It was also understood in most of the urban areas. The critics of Hindi talked about it being less developed than other languages as a literary language and as a language of science and politics. Their main fear was if Hindi was accepted as the official language the non-hindi especially south regions will be at a disadvantage in the economic and educational spheres. They fear it would lead to domination of Hindi speaking areas. The constitution makers were aware India being multi-lingual interest of other linguistic areas can`t be ignored. Thus a compromise was made though this also led to the language provisions in the constitution becoming complicated and confusing in some aspects. 1. Constitution provided that Hindi in Devanagari script with international numerals would be India`s official language. 2. English was to continue as official language till 1965, when it would be replaced by Hindi. 3. Hindi was to be introduced in phased manner. 4. After 1965, it would become the sole official language. 5. However, Parliament will have power to provide for the use of English for specified purposed even after 1965. 6. The constitution laid upon the government the duty to promote the spread and development of Hindi and provided for the appointment of a commission and a joint parliamentary committee to review the progress. 7. The state legislatures were to decide the matter of official language at the state level, though the official language of the Union would serve as the language of communication between centre and states and between the states. The constitution makers had hoped that by 1965 that the non-Hindi speakers will be able to be persuaded to accept Hindi as the official language. It was also hoped that Hindi will grow and expand in other regions aswell. But instead of taking up a gradual and moderate approach to gain acceptance of Hindi, Hindi supporters wanted an immediate change which irritated the non-hindi regions. One of the major weakness of the Hindi supporters was that, instead of developing a simple, standard language which would get wide acceptance, they tried to sanskritize the language in the name of purifying the language from foreign influence. This only made it difficult for the non-native speakers and even for regular speakers. All India radio also started to news bulletins in sanskritize version of Hindi which only made the split wide. The non-Hindi leaders also became less and less open to persuasion and their opposition to Hindi increased with time. They too were not open to rational arguments in favour of Hindi. Instead they wanted an indefinite continuance of English. Sharp differences on the official language issue came up in 1956-60. The official language commission (1956) recommended that Hindi should start progressively replacing English in various functions of central govt. Some of the committee members dissented. It was then given for review to parliamentary committee. President ordered that from 1965, Hindi will be the principal official language but English would continue as the associate official language without any restriction being placed on its use. In UPSC, it was made alternative medium. Translation of major texts was done in Hindi. Govt. was also blamed of being pro-English. Official languages act was passed in 1963, which said English may continue to be used in addition to Hindi. The non-Hindu groups were not satisfied. The act was to them ambiguous. As 1965 approached, there were demonstrations everywhere in the southern states, it started becoming violent. With 1965 Ind-Pak war, the debate was kept on the back-burner. After the death of Lal Bahadur Shastri, Indira Gandhi was the leader, official language act was amended in 1967, and provided that the use of English as an associate language in addition to Hindi for official work at the centre and for communication between centre and non-hindi states would continue as long as the non-hindi states wanted it. The public service examinations were to be carried out in english, hindi and other provisional languages. But candidates should be having additional knowledge of Hindi and English. The states were to adopt a three language formula, according to which in the non-Hindi areas - the mother tongue, Hindi and English or some other national language was to be taught in schools. While in Hindi areas a non-Hindi language as a compulsory subject. Indian languages were to made medium of education at university level. Thus a widely accepted solution was reached. And the issue gradually disappeared. This example shows the capacity of the India political system to deal with a contentious problem on a democratic basis and in a manner that promoted national consolidation. This was an issue which emotionally divided the people and could have divided the nation, but to which a widely acceptable solution was found through negotiations and compromise.

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CH-8

Pg.102	1. In pre-1947 India, boundaries of provinces were haphazard, no heed was paid to linguistic or cultural cohesion. Thus most of the provinces were multi-lingual and multi-cultural. And interspersed princely states had added a further element to the heterogeneity. 2. The case for linguistic states as administrative units was very strong. 1. Language is related to culture and thus to the customs of people 2. For spread of education and growth of mass literacy, it can occur only in mother tongue 3. Democracy can become real to common people only when politics and administration is done in mother tongue. 4. And administrative, political and judicial language can only be in mother tongue when the states are organized based on language. 5. It is for this reason, congress amended its constitution in 1921 and reorganised its regional branches on a linguistic basis. Since, then congress has committed itself to redrawing of provincial boundaries based on linguistic lines. 3. But immediately after Independence, which saw creation of Pakistan. It was considered the prime important thing is to work for the unity of nation and to keep it united. Dividing it on linguistic lines may fuel rivalries and may pull the nation in different directions. This was the time to be focused on economic development of the nation while keeping the nation united. The govt. was still committed to the idea of states based on linguistic lines but this was given low priority at this time.
Pg. 103	1. In 1948, Linguistic provinces committee (Dar Commission) was formed. Which advised against the linguistic provinces at the time for it might threaten national unity. Thus constituent assembly decided not to incorporate the linguistic principle in the constitution. But people were not satisfied especially in the south. 2. Thus JVP (J.L. Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Pattabhi Sittaramayya) committee was formed in Dec`1948. This committee advised against the creation of linguistic states for time being citing national unity, national security and economic development as the need of the hour. 3. JVP report was not against the formation of states based on linguistic lines. This report followed popular movements for states all over the country. The demand for a separate Telugu state-Andhra was very strong and had support of people and political parties. 4. JVP committee accepted that a strong case of Andhra formation out of Madras presidency existed, but the two sides could not agree on which state should take the Madras city. Andhra leaders were unwilling to concede Madras even though on linguistic as well as geographic grounds it belonged to Tamilnadu. 5. In 1953, a freedom fighter, Patti Sriramalu undertook a fast unto death over the demand for a separate Andhra state. After his death, there were violent protest all over the state, riots, ultimately govt. gave into the demand and Andhra state was formed in 1953. And Tamilnadu for tamil speaking population. 6. The success of Andhra struggle encouraged other linguistic groups to agitate for their own state. 7. In 1953, SRC (State reorganisation committee) was formed to look into the subject of reorganisation of the states of the union. SRC committee recommended linguistic principle for redrawing of boundaries but administrative and economic factors should be given due consideration. SRC was against the splitting of Punjab and Bombay. There were strong reaction to the report in many parts of the country. 8. States reorganisation act was passed in 1956, it provided for 14 stats and 6 centrally administered territories. 1. Telangana area of Hyderabad was transferred to Andhra, 2. Kerala was created by merging Malabar district of old Madras presidency with Travancore-Cochin. 3. Certain areas of Kannada speaking areas of Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad and Coorg were added to the Mysore State. 4. Bombay state was enlarged 9. Strongest reaction to SRC report came from Maharastra. Ultimately, In June,1956 Bombay was divided into Maharastra and Gujarat with Bombay city being centrally administered state. This was not acceptable to Maharastra side, there were strong protest. In July,1956 the decision was reverted. Both Mahrastra and Gujarat side was not happy both wanted separate states with bombay as there capital. 10. Despite the disagreement over Bombay city, States reorganisation act was passed in Dec,1956. But there were popular agitation everywhere in Bombay. Finally, In 1960, Bombay was split into Mahrastra with Bombay city as its capital and Gujarat with Ahmedabad as its capital.
Pg.105	1. Punjab: 1. In1956, The states of PEPSU had been merged with Punjab. It made it a trilingual state - Hindi, Punjabi and pahari. The Punjabi speaking population wanted a Punjabi suba (Punjabi speaking state). Unfortunately the issue assumed communal overtones. 2. Congress and SRC was against the redrawing of boundaries based on communal lines. 3. But ultimately, Punjab was divided - Punjabi speaking Punjab and Hindi speaking Haryana and Kangra was added to Himachal. While Chandigarh was made a UT and was to serve joint capital of Haryana and Punjab. 2. Events in 1956, showed the loyalty to a language was consistent with and was complimentary to loyalty to the nation. It has created coherent states willing to support the centre. It has kept the federal structure intact. 3. States reorganisation is `best regarded as clearing the ground for national integration`. 4. States reorganistation based on linguistic lines have strengthen the unity of the nation. 5. Language rather than being a force for division has proved a cementing and integrating influence. 6. Still reorganisation did not resolve all the problems related to linguistic conflicts. 1. Disputes over boundaries between states 2. Linguistic minorities 3. Economic issues - such as sharing of river waters, power, 4. Linguistic chauvinism
Pg.106	1. Minority Language: 1. Unilingual states were not possible in whatever manner their boundaries were drawn, which resulted in a large number of linguistic minorities. 2. Challenges: Protection of minority linguistic groups Integration of these linguistic groups with the major language group Assurance of no discrimination based on language or culture Assurance of minority linguistic rights to develop there language and culture At the same the majority group was to be given assurance that meeting the need of the minority linguistic groups will not lead to separatist demand and in long term they will develop a degree of state loyalty. To confront all these problems, certain fundamental rights were provided to linguistic minorities in the constitution. Article 30 states that -`all the minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice` and state shall not discriminate in granting aid to educational institutions. Article 347 lays down that on a demand being made on behalf of a minority, the President may direct that its language shall be officially recognised throughout the state or any part thereof for such purposes as he might specify. Constitution was amended to provide for the appointment of a commissioner for linguistic minorities. Implementation of various safeguards to linguistic minorities comes in the purview of state govt., Thus differs from state to state. In a number of cases, commissioner for linguistic minorities has reported innumerable cases of discrimination against linguistic minorities in matters of schooling, admission to technical and medical institutions. Lack of teachers and educational materials in minority languages, especially in tribal languages. 3. Urdu: Urdu is a special case, it is the largest minority tongue in India, It is also recognised as one of India`s national languages and is listed in the 8th schedule of the constitution. While nearly all the major languages of India were also the official languages of one state or the other, Urdu was not the official language of any state except the small state of J&K where mother tongue was in anycase was Kashmiri, Dogri and Ladakhi. Urdu did not get official support in any part of the country. It faced discrimination both in UP and Bihar. In UP: UP govt. decided to declare Hindi as the only official language, as they observed Hindi and Urdu are not different Urdu began to be abolished in primary schools, it usage was also diminished. Whereas Urdu speaking population demanded that it should not be seen as an offshoot of Hindi. Hindi supporters saw Urdu as a language of separatists, language of hatred - it started to turn into communal hues. UP govt. also justified its stance by citing SRC recommendation that atleast 30% population in a state should speak a language before it could become the second official language of the state. In Andhra, Urdu has been recognised as an additional language for the Telangana region. And provided adequate facilities for its usage. Two important aspects of Urdu` existence: 1. The question of Urdu language got entangled into the question of communalism. While many Muslims regard Urdu as the language of their community whereas many hindu communalist are hostile against it due to anti-Muslim idelogies. 2. Despite active hostility and official neglect, Urdu as a language has grown all these years. Number of journals, newspapers, literary items have increased in Urdu language.It has grown due to its inherent cultural roots among Indian people.

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CH-9

Pg.109	1. The task of integrating the tribal people into the mainstream was extremely complex due to: varied conditions under which they live Different languages, different cultures Residing mostly in hills and forest areas Historically, tribal people have had interacted with the non-tribal neighbours culturally, socially, economically and politically except in Northeast. 2. Colonialism brought radical transformation of the tribals Market forces penetrated and the tribals were integrated with British and princely administration Moneylenders, traders, revenue farmers and other middlemen and petty officials invaded the tribal areas Tribals lost their land to outsiders, became agricultural labourers, debt ridden Many were forced to retreat further into the hills Simulataneously, missionaries were destroying there culture, art, their dance, their weaving, etc. Tribals depend mainly on forest for food, fuel and cattle feed and also for raw materials for their handicrafts, in many parts of India peasants immigrate to forest areas and destroy forest land for farming. Colonialism brought forest land under forest laws which restricted access of forest areas for tribals and peasants to protect colonial officials commercial exploitation. Loss of Land, indebtedness, exploitation by middlemen and by govt. officials lead to a series of tribals uprisings in the 19th and 20th century. -Santhal uprising, Munda rebellion and many other uprisings in Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra, Maharastra and Gujarat.
Pg.110	1. Root`s of India`s Tribal policy Preservation of tribal people`s rich cultural heritage lay at the heart of the govt.`s policy of tribal integration. The challenge was to give them confidence and make them feel that they are a part of India and have an honorable place in it. There were two major approaches: ONE - To leave the tribal people alone, protect them from any outside influence. Let them be uncontaminated by the outside force. TWO - Assimilate them completely and as quickly as possible into the Indian society around them. The disappearance of the tribal way of living was not to be regretted and it was to be welcomed for that would represent their upliftment. Both of these two approaches were rejected by Nehru - First approach - will be akin to keeping the tribals in a musuem, and would be like specimens in zoos to be observed and written about. Second approach - will destroy their cultural heritage, if natural forces are allowed to freely enter the Tribal way of life, they will capture there forest land, this will upset there whole life and culture. A distinct approach was needed. Nehruvian approach - First - They have to progress in their own way, no imposition and compulsion from outside Second - (Tribal rights/livelihood) Tribal rights in land should be respected and no outsider should be able to take possession of tribal lands. Incursion of market economy into the tribal areas is to be strictly regulated and controlled. Third - (Culutre/Heritage) It was necessary to encourage the tribal languages - must be given all support that will allow it to flourish. Fourth - (Administration) - They should be administration themselves, administrators should be chosen among them and trained. Nehru`s policy for tribals was in turn based on Gandhi ji`s policy towards tribals, when he setup ashrams in tribal areas and promoted constructive work. To give the shape to govt.`s policy, provisions were made in the constitution: 1 - A46, The state should promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the tribal people and should protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation, through special legislation. 2- Governors of states in which tribal areas were situated, were given special powers to protect tribal interests, including the power to modify central and state laws in their application to tribal areas and to frame regulations for the protection of tribals right to land and also protection from moneylenders. 3- Reservation of seats in legislatures and positions in administrative services for ST`s Constitution also provides for setting up of Tribal advisory councils in all states containing tribal areas to advise on matters concerning the welfare of tribals. 4- A commissioner for SC`s and ST`s was appointed by President to investigate whether the safeguards provided for them were being observed. 5- Several welfare activities were undertaken - promotion of cottage and village industries to generate employment among them Progress and welfare of tribals: In spite of constitutional safeguards and the efforts of state and central govt.`s, the tribals progress and welfare has been very slow and even dismal. 1- Except in NorthEast, the tribals continue to be poor, in huge debts, landless and often unemployed. 2- The problem often lies in weak execution of even well-intentioned measures. 3- Often, there is divergence between central and state govt.`s policies. 4- Commissioner for SC`s and ST`s have often shown in their annual reports - misappropriation of funds, less allocation of funds 5- Often, the tribal administrative councils have not functioned effectively 6- Administrative personnel are ill-trained or even prejudiced against the tribals, even the sympathetic officials are quickly transferred on the pressure from traders, moneylenders and forest contractors, etc. 7- Denial of Justice - Tribals lacking knowledge of laws and the legal system are easily exploited. 8- Rapid extension of mining and industries in the forest lands 9- Education - The progress has been disappointing. In some areas, in primary schools education in tribal languages is provided but in higher schools it is negligible. 10- Also Class structure has arisen in many tribal communities. In many communities, a small section that has grown often take undue advantage of the others. 11- A number of tribal protest movements also sprung up - against the lack of development and welfare. The govt. has usually been conciliatory, this has also led to nationwide coverage of tribal problems 12- Massive migration of non-tribals into the tribal areas have increased the problems, tribals fear loss of remaining livelihood resources On the whole, though there are few danger signals, but certain positive developments in the tribal sphere have occurred since 1947. 1- Legislation to protect tribal rights and interest 2- Activities of tribal welfare departments 3- Panchayati raj 4- Spread of literacy and education 5- Reservations in govt. services and in higher educational institutions 6- They are demanding a greater role in political and economic development of the nation which is a great sign. The only solution is the increased interaction between the tribal and non-tribal, mutual co-existence and co-dependence will allow them to grow together and will allow them to be more sympathetic towards each other.
Pg.113	Tribals in the northeast: 1. The tribes in northeast shares many features and problems of the tribal people of the rest of the country. But their situation (during Independence) was different in several aspects 1 - These tribals were a majority in their respective areas whereas in other parts of the country tribals were a small minority in the respective regions. 2 - British policy did not allowed any outsider to acquire land in the tribal areas, thus they suffered very little loss of land. 3 - British govt. also allowed Christian missionaries to setup schools, hospitals and churches in the tribal areas - that imparted modern ideas among some tribal youth. 4 - Missionaries in turn collaborated with British govt. to keep the tribal population away from the nationalist movement. Some missionaries and foreigners also promoted sentiment in favour of separate and independent states in North-east India. 5- The feeling of belonging to a nation India - was consolidated in various parts of the nation through the nationalist freedom struggle. But this was absent in the north-east regions of India. Due to the British govt. policy of keeping the region isolated. 2. Thus, Tribal policy to be followed becomes even more relevant to the tribals of north-east. The reflection is shown in 6th schedule which is applied only to the tribal areas of Assam. 6th Schedule - offers a fair degree of self govt. Provides autonomous districts and the creation of district and regional councils which would exercise some of the legislative and judicial functions within the overall jurisdiction of the Assam legislature and Parliament. 3. NEFA (North east frontier agency) - was created out of Assam border areas in 1948. It was established an union territory. NEFA was named Arunachal Pradesh and given the status of a state in 1987. 4. Problems started in other hill areas of Assam, hill tribals felt the need of a separate state since they saw themselves different from the plains tribals and Bengali population. They feared losing their identity and being assimilated in the Assamese population. They felt neglected, attitude of superiority from non-tribals, etc. The demand was not vigorous and the govt. of India also thought that their future lies in Assam. 5. But the demand of a separate state gained strength in 1960, when Assamese political partties moved to make Assamese as the sole official language and they were successfully able to make it. And stopped the use of tribal language in the administration. This prompted the tribal people to demanding of a separate state. 6. After prolonged negotiations and discussions, In 1969, Meghalaya was carved out of Assam (initially law and order was with Assam), Slowly was made into a State, Manipur and Tripura was also made states. 7. But the problems arose in Nagaland and Mizoram, because of the secessionist demands. Nagaland: 1. Nagas were the inhabitants of the Naga hills along the Northeast frontier of the Assam-Burma border. 2. The British govt. kept Nagas isolated from the country and only allowed Christian missionaries activities. 3. Soon after India`s independence, govt. of India followed a policy of integrating the Naga areas with the rest of the India. But a section of Naga leaders opposed this and demanded separation and complete independence and British govt. and missionaries also supported this demand. 4. In 1955, extremists Naga leaders declared formation of a separate govt. and launched violent protest. 5. Nehru approached this with two pronged strategy - moved the Indian army into Nagaland to suppress any armed rebellion and was ready to negotiate with the moderate leaders about the autonomy of the region under the Indian constitution but was not ready for any demand for secession. 6. The more moderate leaders saw the advantage of being in the Indian union as a separate state and accepted the offer. 7. But still, rebels are active in the region, mostly trained by China, Pakistan and Myanmar. Periodic terrorist attacks are made. Indian army`s role is important in the region especially keeping the terrain in mind. But army`s presence is also with certain blemish`s. There have been reports of brutal cases with innocent people. And Indian army has lost its soldiers in guerrila attacks
Pg.117	Mizoram 1. A similar situation to Nagaland was risen in Mizoram. 2. Tribes demanded secession backed by some British officials but lacked support from the Mizo youth. Youth instead focused on the economic development of the Mizo society, wanted adequate representation of Mizo in the Assam legislative. 3. However, unhappiness with the Assam govt. rose during the relief measures during 1959 famines and Assam govt. act of Assamese as official language. 4. Some extremist leaders with support from east Pakistan - declared independence and revolted, Indian govt. moved in the Indian army and the rebellion was controlled with leaders hiding in the east Pakistan. 5. In 1973, Mizo leaders scaled down their demands to a separate state within the Union of India.
Pg.118	Jharkhand 1. It comprises of the tribal areas of the Bihar (Chota Nagpur, Santhal Parganas) 2. Major tribes - Santhal, Ho, Oraon, Munda 3. Unlike traditional tribes, they all practice settled plough agriculture on the basis of family famrs 4. Significant number of tribals work as agricultural labourers, mining and industrial workers. 5. Landholding pattern is unequal 6. A class society has developed among them. 7. Most of the tribals practice Hinduism or Christianism. 8. Many rebellions have been organised in past and they have also participated in the nationalist freedom struggle. 9. With spread of education, demand of separate state was raised. 10. But the state reorganisation commission rejected the demand on the grounds that the region didn`t have a common language. 11. Central govt. also claimed that the tribals being a minority cannot claim a state of their own. 12. The tribal political parties saw that demanding a tribal state cannot work. So they changed the strategy. They showed the economic difference between the north Bihar and the tribal region. Both tribal and non-tribal population was suffering from economic disparity. Thus they garnered the support from the non-tribals also. Tribal leaders also understood that this might not give them a tribal state but they would still get higher representation in the new state as compared to the current scenario. 13. Jharkhand came into existence in 2000. 14. Chhattisgarh and Uttaranchal in 2002.

Category:Uncategorized pages

CH-10

Pg.120	1. Regionalism: What is it? Having pride in one`s region or state is not regionalism Local patriotism and loyalty to a locality or region or a state and its language or culture do no constitute regionalism These are on the other hand quite consistent with national patriotism and loyalty to the nation. A person can be proud of his identity as a Gujarati, Bengali, etc. without being any less proud of being an Indian. Indian national movement too functioned on the same understanding. Indian national movement did not see any conflict between regional national movements and national movements. Aspiring to or making special efforts to develop one`s state or region or remove poverty and implement social justice cannot be branded as regionalism. A positive inter-regional rivalry for development, up-liftment is good for the nation. Defending the federal features of the constitution is not to be seen as regionalism. Demand for a separate state within the Indian Union of for an autonomous region within an existing stae may be objected to on certain practical grounds but should not be seen as regionalism unless it is put forward in a spirit of hostility to the rest of the population of the state. If interests of one region or state are asserted against the country as a whole or against another region or state in a hostile manner, it can be dubbed as regionalism. In India since 1947, there have been a very few cases of regionalism. DMK party in Tamil Nadu in 1950s and 1960s. Some say Punjab in 1980s, but it was a case of communalism.
Pg.121	1. Regionalism could have flourished in India if any state or regions had felt that it was being dominated culturally or it being discriminated. 2. But, India has been successful in not just accommodating diversity in unity but has been able to celebrate this diversity. 3. Different regions and areas have been provided and enabled with full cultural autonomy which has played important role in fulfilling their aspirations. 4. The linguistic reorganisation of the state and resolution of the official language issue have played a very important role in this respect, by eliminating potential a potent cause of feeling of cultural loss or cultural domination and therefore regional conflict. 5. Many regional disputes have the potential of becoming interstate hostility. Disputes in river water sharing Disputes of linguistic border boundaries Disputes over construction of dams 6. These issues occasionally arouse passions but state central govt. has been able to keep them under limit. Central govt. has successfully played the role of mediator in these scenarios and has kept interregional conflicts in check. Economic imbalances and regionalism 1. Economic inequality among different states and regions could be a potential source of trouble. However, despite breeding discontent and putting pressure on the political system, this problem has so far not given rise to regionalism 2. At independence, the leadership recognised that some regions were more backward than others. Development has happened in regions near to Bombay, Madras, West Bengal. Regions like Bihar, Orissa, Rajasthan were very backward. Agriculture output during colonialism has remained stagnant. There was a wide disparity between per capita income. 3. From the beginning the national govt. felt a responsibility to counter this imbalance between regional development. In 1956`s Industrial policy resolution of GOI, it asserted that only by a balanced and coordinated development of industrial and agricultural economy in all the regions the country can achieve higher standards of development. GOI, also recognised the need of regional balance in terms of development as an important factor for the integrity of the nation. Finance commission has played an important role in identifying the need of higher central grants to the poorer states. It decides the principles on which central grants and various other financial resources are granted to the states. Various finance commissions have tried to do justice and tried to reduce disparity among the states. Planning has also played an important role, from starting various five year plans have focused on widespread diffusion of industries in the country. For this purpose planning commission has allocated greater plan assistance to the backward states. Public investment by the central govt. in major industries - coal, steel, fertilizers, oil, heavy chemicals, etc. Govt. has provided incentives to pvt. Sector to invest in backward regions through tax subsidies, institutional loans at subsidized rates. Expansion of banking to backward regions. Poverty eradication programs, such as - food for work programme, integrated rural development programme Health and family planning programmes and the public distribution systems have favoured poorer states One sector where the principle of reduction of regional disparity has not been kept in view is that of investment in irrigation and subsidies to agricultural development. 1- In the starting phase of green revolution, infrastructural and technological investment was concentrated in Punjab, Haryana and Western UP - namely the states where irrigation was or could be made easily available. 2- In particular, raid-fed agricultural regions were neglected. But in the later phase of green revolution, investment was extended to other areas of Andhra, Karnataka, Assam, Bihar, etc. But still the regional imbalance cannot be redressed completely. 4. Migration of skilled labour from the backward regions and of skilled labour to them can also contribute in lessening the regional disparity. And the Indian constitution guarantees this mobility. Result of various efforts and policies in reducing regional disparity 1. The current scenario is a mixed one. Various efforts have resulted in marginal upliftment of the backward regions. But still the disparity is large in terms of per-capita income. The situation might have been worse without central and state govt.`s interference. 2. Other dimensions should also be looked into in regard to the impact of these policies: There has been a decline in inter-state industrial disparity, especially in the organized manufacturing sector. There is also less disparity in terms of social welfare as represented by lif expectancy, infant mortality and literacy, though a few states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu have moved far ahead. While the percentage of people below the poverty line has steadily declined, but it is the more developed states that have faired better and thus the disparity has only widened, 3. Why the regional disparity persist on such a wide scale? Why Bihar and UP have performed so badly? Geography, large size or even lack of natural resources are not the reason behind these states lagging, these states are very well endowed with natural resources, their people are very well known for their industriousness because of which they are welcomed all of the nation and also in other countries. 4. The major reason of still prevailing disparity is the low rate of economic growth. To make a dent on this requires a high rate of economic growth of the nation so that the large revenues can be raised and devoted to the backward regions. In 1979s and 80s, economic growth has hovered around 3.5 to 5 percent, this was not sufficient enough to have a significant impact on regional inequality despite policies being designed to favour backward regions. It is only in last decade that economic growth has increased, now it is regularly touching 8%. A reduction in economic inequality can be achieved provided the right type of regional developmental policies are undertaken. Roots of backwardness in states like Bihar, UP,etc. 1. The roots lie in the socio-economic and political organisation itself. 2. Agrarian structure in Bihar and eastern UP is still quite regressive and in many parts land reforms have been in-adequate. 3. Feudal mentality is still strong 4. Land consolidation has been weak 5. All of these factors have played important role in the agricultural development of Punjab and Haryana. 6. Backward states have a lower level of infrastructural facilities, such as power, irrigation, roads, telephones and modern markets for agricultural produce. These are essential for the development and has to be developed by the states as these come mostly under state subjects. 7. States also have a low level of social expenditure on education and public health and sanitation, which are also state subjects. 8. These states are gripped in a vicious cycle, they have lack of financial resources to meet plan expenditures, lack of finances means less economic development which means less production and thus resulting in less revenue which means less resources to spend on economic development, health and other social services. 9. Police and administrative failure - Bihar and UP are classic example cases of high level of corruption, bad administration, deteriorating law and order. As a result, the available central assistance is poorly utilized and often diverted to non-development heads of expenditure. 10. Further development of infrastructure - roads, electricity is neglected which repels the private sector, which is a major source of investment in developed states. 11. The role of greater administrative efficiency is also proved by the better rates of economic growth of southern states as compared to Bihar and UP. 12. Economic and developmental disparity is also prevalent within the states, which gives rise to tension between the sub regions and fuels the demand of a separate state - such as Telangana from Andhra, Darjeeling district from West Bengal, Vidharbha in Maharastra, etc. 13. Undoubtedly, regional economic inequality is a potent time-bomb directed against national unity and political stability. So far it has been absorbed and mitigated because the backwardness is not a result of domination and exploitation of backward states or discrimination against the backward states by the central govt. 14. Hindi speaking belt of UP, Bihar, MP and Rajasthan has nearly 37% seats in lok sabha and are economically weaker whereas as Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Maharastra have 17% seats in Lok sabha and are high income states. 15. On the other hand backward Hindi-belt states wield so much political clout that it is impossible for them to accuse the central govt. or non-hindi states of dominating or discriminating against them. 16. In all-India services too, like IAS, regions like Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Kerala have higher representation than their population warrants. 17. Another reason for the lack of regionalism or feeling of discrimination among the backward states is the realisation by their intelligentsia that the poverty and backwardness are basically the result of the actions of their own political and administrative classes. Whereas, the vast majority of the people in the poorer states are blissfully unaware of their backwardness and poverty in comparison with other states. This leads to both to absence of discontent with their status and also to a lack of effort to reach equality with others. However, with spread of education and reach of print and visual media the state of affairs is likely to change.
Pg.126	Sons of the soil 1. An acute kind of regionalism where people with a particular mother tongue brand themselves as the sons of the soil and claim the land belongs to a group of people who speak a particular language. Those who do not speak that language are branded as outsiders. 2. Unequal economic development in different parts of the country especially cities, made people demand preference to local people in the employment or educational opportunities. 3. In the struggle for the appropriation of economic resources and economic opportunities recourse was often taken to communalism, casteism and nepotism. Language loyalty and regionalism was often used to exclude outsiders from the economic life of the state or city. 4. Important questions to be asked: Why the sons of soil movement developed in some states/cities and not in others? Why they were directed against some migrants and linguistic minorities and not others? Why some types of jobs were targeted not others? 5. The sons of the soil movements have mainly arisen when there is actual or potential competition for industrial and middle-class jobs between migrants and local educated youth. The friction has been intense where outsiders had greater access to education and occupied more middle-class jobs, positions in govt. service, professions and industries Other active sections in this movement - lower middle class workers, rich and middle peasants who increasingly aspire to middle class status and want higher technical education for their children. 6. Economy`s failure to generate enough jobs has resulted in acute shortage of employment opportunities. 7. Outsiders have been often far more numerous in rural areas as agricultural labourers or low-paid industrial workers than in cities. Here sons of soil sentiment was absent nor any hostility towards the outsiders is seen mainly because no middle-class jobs were involved. The locals also did not compete with outsiders for these jobs. 8. Another important factor in the emergence or non-emergence of anti-migration feeling in an area has been the existence or non-existence of tradition of migration. When people of a state, especially the middle class, have themselves migrated there has been little opposition to immigration. Ex. West Bengal, Kerala, Punjab, Bihar and UP. On the other hand, In Maharastra, Assam and Telangana, people have not migrated much, thus the anti-migration feelings are strongest there. 9. The constitution is to some extent ambiguous on the right of the migrants. A15 - prohibits any discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. A16 - prohibits discrimination in the employment or appointments to any office under the state on grounds of descent, place of birth or residence. However, Parliament though not any state legislature, can pass a law laying down the requirement of residence within a state for appointments in that state. Many state govt. take advantage of the ambiguity in the constitution and reserve places in employment and educational institutions for the residents of the state. While constitution permits reservation in state jobs on the grounds of residence but not language. But some state govt.s have gone further and made reservations based on language. Many state govt.`s have given clear directions to private enterprises to give preference to local residents. The main argument put forward for reservation in employment and education for local people: 1- The local people in the concerned state has been socially, economically and educationally backward and are not able to compete with the more advanced migrants. 2 - Also in technical colleges, the more backward local students are unable to compete with the more advanced students from other states. It is because, even the central govt. has tended to support reservation based on residence. While reservations in state jobs and educational institutions for local residents in undesirable for national integration but however some justification can be found for it. But the anti-migrant movements and hostility towards the outsiders is against the national integration. 10. Shiv sena`s movement against the outsiders especially against Tamil`s in 1960s and 70s was hostile in nature. Shiv sena looted and vandalised shops owned by south Indians especially Tamils. 11. Federalism does not mean a weak national govt. , rather a non-dominating govt. which observes the federal features of the polity.

C11 - The years of hope and achievement:1951-64

Pg.131	1. These years were the years when India was more or less stable, country began to progress in all directions. 2. People experienced an advance towards the basic objectives of : Democracy, Civil liberties, Secularism, a scientific outlook, economic development and planning with socialism at the end of the road. 3. There was some discontent among the intelligentsia regarding the slow pace of development, problems of poverty, unemployment, slow land reforms, etc. 4. Among the several areas of progress and achievement, though marked by certain weaknesses and limitations, were: 1- The consolidation of the nation and the solution of the language and tribal problems, 2- The initiation of the process of independent and planned economic development, 3- The evolution of an independent and innovative foreign policy, 4- The initiation of the electoral process, 5- The rooting of democracy, 6- The setting in place of an administrative structure, 7- The development of science and technology, 8- The beginnings of the welfare state.
Pg.132	1. The Rooting of the electoral process First general election(1951-52), over 4-month period. These elections were the biggest experiment in democracy anywhere in the world. The elections were held on the basis of universal adult franchise, with all those 21 years of age and above having the right to vote. 173 million voters, most of them poor, illiterate and rural and having had no experience of elections. The big question was - how the mass would react to this opportunity. Many were skeptical -many thought such an electorate(illiterate) will not be able to exercise their rights in a politically mature and responsible manner. Some also thought it as an act of faith. India`s electoral system was developed according to the directives of the constitution. The constitution created an election commission, headed by a chief election commissioner. It was to be independent of the executive or the parliament or the party in power. People`s response was tremendous. Participation in the poll was treated as a festival, festive clothing, women wearing jewellery. People also demonstrated the ability to exercise their voting rights carefully despite their poverty and illiteracy and the complicated voting procedures. Congress performed well in these elections: More than 75% of the LS seats, Close to 45% of votes Left and communist parties did not do well Communal parties like - Jan Sangh, Hindi Mahasabha and Ram Rajya Parishad won very less no. of seats In former princely states, princes and big landlords still wielded a great deal of influence. Independents and small and local parties got a large number of votes and seats both in Lok sabha and state assemblies, but the role of independents started declining after 1962. Political system that was initiated by the 1951-52 elections, many described it as the beginning of one party dominant system. But in fact it represented the beginning of the multi party system.
Pg.136	1. Establishment of Democratic Institutions Foundations of democracy was further strengthened by giving due importance to the institutional aspects of the democratic system so that gradually attachment of people to parliamentary institutions grew. The govt. not only adhered to the democratic systems in spirit but also to the forms and procedures of the democratic institutions. The govt. and the opposition treated the parliament with the respect and effort was made to make it a major forum for expression of public opinion. Parliamentary committees made important contributions. Cabinet system evolved in a healthy manner, decisions were taken by consensus. Federalism, provided in the constitution. Efforts were to devolve power to the states, autonomy of states was respected. A major reason for the weaknesses of the agricultural, educational, health and other social welfare programmes lay in the centre`s dependence on the states for their implementation as they were state subjects. At the same time, authority of centre was not weakened but a sharo distinction was kept between centralization of power and a strong centre. A strong centre was necessary for the maintenance of unity and independence of the country, The threat of military intervention. The supremacy of civil govt. over the armed forces was fully established during these years. The Indian armed forces had been traditionally non-political and had accepted the civilian control and leadership. But the continuance of this role was not a guarantee. There was a possibility of the armed force intervention in politics and govt. in case of exceptional circumstances as it happened in 19th century France and Germany and other countries. The armed forces size was kept small, refusing to permit the expansion even after the large scale US military aid to Pakistan in 1954. Expenditure on defence forces was kept low, 2% of national income, Armed forces were given a heterogeneous character, almost every religion and section of society being represented in them. India was thus protected from the danger of militarism in its formative years.
Pg.138	1. The administrative structure ICS - Immediately after the independence, it was to be decided whether the govt. of independent India should carry on the administrative structure and machinery of colonial times or to start afresh. There were supporters of both the sides, Nehru wanted to dismantle the colonial structure and Patel showed the importance of the current administrative machinery in the troubled times. Sudden discontinuance of the administrative machinery would have caused chaos. ICS provided the trained personnel that was needed to run such a large country. Many thought, the colonial administrative structure should have been dismantled in the starting years after independence. But in the light of India`s and other countries historical experience there is little doubt that having well-trained and experienced civil services at the time when the nation is going through a turmoil was a distinct asset to India. However, while retention of the existing bureaucracy and administrative structure was inevitable and perhaps even a sound decision at the time of independence. But the failure to rebuild and transform the colonial style administrative structure that was made to maintain law and order and to collect land revenue was a liability. It had to be gradually overhauled to suit the needs of a democratic and developing society. It should have been made more capable of executing the new economic and social welfarist policies.
Pg.140	1. Development of science and technology The problems of poverty, hunger, illiteracy and of superstition could be solved by science only. In Jan 1947, National Physical Laboratory was established, CSIR was established which guided and financed the national and other laboratories and scientific institutes IIT`s were started. Expenditure on research were increased But, the scientific institutes suffered highly from bureaucratic and hierarchical structure, which frustrated the personnel and started the brain drain of scientists, engineers and other technical personnel. In 1948, AEC (Atomic energy commission) was formed to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. In Aug 1956, India`s first nuclear reactor in Trombay, Bombay became critical. It was also the Asia`s first. In 1962, INCOSPAR (Indian national committee for space reasearch) was established to take up space reasearch.
Pg.141	1. Social Change The vision of the founding fathers of the republic went beyond national integration and political stability. Indian society had to move towards social change. DPSP`s in the constitution directs the state towards a social welfare state. Land reforms, rapid expansion of PSU`s, Labour reforms, right to form trade unions, equitable distribution of wealth through progressive income tax and excise taxes, Expansion of education and health services, India at that time was striving not only for a political revolution and economic revolution but also a social revolution and with the integration of these the India was to progress. Govt. passed the Anti-untouchability law in 1955, A commissioner for SC`s and ST`s was appointed to look into the implementation of the policies related to these sections Introduction of Hindu code bill - though it saw opposition from a number of sections, but ultimately it was passed in 4 separate acts introducing monogamy, right of divorce to both the men and women, raised the age of consent and marriage, and gave women the right to maintenance and to inherit family property. But there was an important lacuna in these acts these were not applicable to Muslims, A uniform civil code was not enacted. At that time, it was thought that it was not the right time since after the independence there was instances of communal riots, muslim minorities will feel threatened if any action is taken to change their social structure. Muslim community were given confidence that any change in the Muslim personal law will be done only when Muslims are ready for it.
Pg.143	1. Education To achieve economic and social progress, education was the most important tool. The need for wider and better education facilities were identified. In 1951, only 16.6% of the population was literate, the situation was worse in the rural areas. Thus it was made mandatory through the constitution to provide free and compulsory education to every child upto the age of fourteen. Improvement was seen in the literacy rates, the enrollment of girl children, the access to schools in rural areas, but still a large number of children were not going to school. There was lack of basic amenities in rural schools, education standard was declining
Pg.144	1. Community development programme Two important programs for rural upliftment, the community development programme and the Panchayati Raj were introduced in 1952 and 1959. These were the foundation of welfare state in the villages. The community development programme covered all aspects of rural life from improvement in agricultural methods to improvement in communication, health and education. 1 - The emphasis of the programme was on self-reliance and self-help 2 - Another objective was to develop backward sections 3 - The programme achieved considerable results in extension work - better seeds, fertilizers this resulted in agricultural development in general and greater food production, construction of roads, tanks, wells, schools, etc. 4 - The programme had failed in one of its basic objectives - that of involving people as full participants in the development activity. a. It increased expectations from the govt., it gradually acquired official orientation, became part of the bureaucratic structure. It came to be administered from above. b. Balwantrai mehta committee - criticized its bureaucratization and its lack of popular involvement. Thus, it was integrated with a three-tiered Panchayati Raj system. The countryside was covered by a number of cooperative institutes such as cooperative banks, market cooperatives which were also autonomous and managed by elected bodies. Panchayati Raj and cooperative societies transferred the responsibility for development and rural administration to the people and accelerate the rural development. Panchayati Raj system could not realise its true potential - Most of the time the state govt.s did not devolve any true power on to the Panchayati Samitis, curbed their powers, functions, starved them of funds. Panchayats were also politicised by political parties to gather support for elections. The major benefits of community development, Panchayati Raj was taken by the rich peasants and capitalist farmers who also dominated the Panchayati Raj institutions. The major weakness of the Community development programme and the Panchayati Raj institutions was that they ignored the class division of the rural society, where more than half the populaton was landless or had marginal holdings and was thus quite powerless. The village was dominated by rich peasants, capitalist farmers.

WorldHistory-CL10

C9-Imperialism and Colonialism

Pg-7	Imperialism: 1. It is the practice of exercise of control economy and polity by a country over other regions or countries outside its own boundaries. This may be done by military means or by any other means. 2. The essential feature of imperialism is the exploitation of the subordinate country with or without direct political control. Colonialism: 1. The practice of acquiring territories by military or other means and making them dependent. Neo-colonialism: 1. The exploitation particularly economic exploitation of an independent but less developed country Phases of colonialism/imperialism 1. The first phase of imperialism started in the 16th century. From 16th to 18th century, major areas of Asia, Africa and Americas were colonialized. 2. Slave trade - Europeans occupied many coastal areas in the Africa and made the habitants slave and also transported them as slave to Americas. 3. Europeans mainly came to Asia for trade and tried to establish monopoly by restricting others from entering that market by way of war or political control over the region.
Pg-8	Conditions that helped the growth of Imperialism in the 19th century 1. Demands created by the industrial revolution: a.) Industrial revolution resulted in great increase in the production of goods. And simultaneously it resulted in capitalist system of production. In capitalist system, the main aim of the industries is to maximise profit. Profit is maximised by producing as much as possible and keeping the wages low. b.) The production was very high and the local economy couldn`t absorb all the production goods. And the wages were low, so their capacity to absorb the excess production was limited. And the possibility to find market for their products in other industrial nations was also less, as all the industrial nations were protecting their own manufacturers. Thus new markets had to be found. c.) These industrial nations could sell their produce in the markets like Africa and Asia which were behind in industrial development. These industrial nations began increasing political domination in these areas and also protected their own interests by eliminating other industrial nations and also by killing the local industries. d.) In addition to new markets, these industrialists nations needed raw material. And Asia and Africa were a great source of raw materials like cotton, rubber and metals like gold, silver, Iron, coal and other raw materials. And they also found very cheap labour in these regions. e.) By the end of 19th century, the western countries started to see Asia and Africa as the preferred destination for capital investment. As capital investment was not giving much returns in the European continent thus financial institutions started to giving credits to industries to invest in the Asia and Africa but not for the development of these colonies but for the development of industries which would export raw materials to the parent nation. d.) Thus, political control was also required to safeguard their interest in the colonies. As local governments would not have been able to protect industrialists from uprisings or any change in govt. could harm their industries also. Ex- Morocco in North Africa became French Morocco after the appeal from French investors to annex it. 2. Improvement in transportation and communication: a.) Steamships made transportation of raw materials and finished goods between the mother country and the colonies much faster than the old sailing vessels. b.) cheap labour helped in laying rail roads in colonies, inland waterways were made. And these helped in reaching the inner lands of the colonies. Raw materials good easily be transported from the inner lands to the ports and then to the mother nations. 3. Extreme nationalism : Pride and Power a.) In the latter part of 19th century, many European nations started seeing itself as superior than the other nations. The number of acquired represented their status in the world. Nations started to acquire more territories just to safeguard their other colonies from other imperialists nations. Regions like Port Said, Aden, Singapore, Hongkong etc. were acquired not to protect England but to protect their interests in their colonies, especially India. b.) Manpower from these colonies were used in the army mostly forced into wars to acquire new colonies. Also employed in for work in mining, plantations. 4. The "Civilising mission" - Men and Ideas : a.) The Europeans considered themselves to be of superior race and thought of imperialism as a noble cause to civilize the inferior races. Christian missionaries propagated Christianism and also imperialism to educate and civilize the local population. b.) The explores and adventurers also played role in spreading imperialism. They went into unknown or little known territories and brought back reports of areas where their trade could benefit. And after that their home country would acquire that region. 5. Conditions that favoured imperialism in Asia and Africa: a.) The most important factor was that industrial revolution hasn`t reached these places. The local handicrafts men were using old hand tools which resulted in low production. There goods were admired by westerners. Lack of industrial revolution also meant that these regions couldn`t match the westerners militarily. b.) Though once, these regions had very powerful empires but by the 19th century there methods of administration had outlived their purpose. Most of these regions lacked the sense of nationhood, their loyalties were mostly to the local princes and chiefs. They often neglected the welfare of their subjects. Thus this explains why only a bunch of westerners were able to acquire such vast territories. And with the help of their govt.`s they were able to acquire countries.
Pg-11	Conquest in Asia 1. British in India: a.) The East India company came in 1600. And with the decline of the Mughal empire - it gave the British to increase the control over the India. And with the revolt of 1857, British govt. got full control of India. b.) India came to be known as the brightest jewel in the crown of British empire. With Industrial revolution, British goods were poured into the India which ruined the local handicrafts industry. c.) British brought social and economic changes in the society. Local people were used as cheap labour to expand railways and were not given important positions in the governance. Tea, coffee, Indigo plantations were promoted and exported to Britain. 2. Imperialism in China: a.) Imperialism in China started with what is known as the Opium wars. China gave very limited access to foreign traders, they gave only two ports to foreign traders. British govt. bought Chinese tea, silk from China but couldn`t sell their products into China. b.) British merchant started illegal opium trade in China. China destroyed on of the cargo to which British declared war which China lost. China had to open 5 ports to British and couldn`t demand duties on imports. Hongkong was handed over to Britain. c.) France also fought with China and got similar privileges. d.) Japan also started to exercise control over korea of which China had overlordship. China and Japan went into war which Japan won. China gave Korea her independence and ceded Formosa and other islands to China. And also payed Japan for war damages. e.) France, China, Germany and Britain gave China loan to pay for the damages and in return got certain regions in China where they could trade freely, start mining operations, made railway lines, acquired ports. f.) With growing influence of European powers in various regions of China, USA feared that it would hamper their trade with China. Thus, USA suggested for a "Open Door" policy which can be described as "Me too" policy. In this, everyone will be allowed free access to trade in China with equal rights. Britain also supported this idea since it will discourage any annexation ideas of Russia and Japan which could very easily send in their armies. g.) The scramble for privileges in China stopped after the Boxer rebellion by local people which was suppressed by the European powers. For which China had to pay damages and was reduced to an international colony. h.) The division of China into spheres of influence is described as the cutting of the Chinese melon.