View source for Waist–hip ratio

{{Short description|Waist measurement divided by hip measurement}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}}
[[File:Venus de Milo Louvre Ma399 n4.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|The [[Venus de Milo]] has a WHR value of 0.76.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bovet J, Raymond M | title = Preferred women's waist-to-hip ratio variation over the last 2,500 years | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = e0123284 | date = 17 April 2015 | pmid = 25886537 | pmc = 4401783 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0123284 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2015PLoSO..1023284B }} cited in {{cite news| url= https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/28/arts/international/gleaning-new-perspectives-by-measuring-body-proportions-in-art.html | title= Gleaning New Perspectives by Measuring Body Proportions in Art | work = The New York Times | vauthors = Heyman S | date = May 27, 2015 | access-date= 10 September 2020}}</ref>]]
{{Human body weight}}

The '''waist–hip ratio''' or '''waist-to-hip ratio''' ('''WHR''') is the [[dimensionless]] [[ratio]] of the circumference of the [[waist]] to that of the [[hip]]s.
This is calculated as waist measurement divided by hip measurement ({{frac|W|H}}). For example, a person with a 75 cm waist and 95 cm hips (or a 30-inch waist and 38-inch hips) has WHR of about 0.79.<!-- Please don't use {{convert}} because rounding causes a 0.78/0.79 difference between the results -->

The WHR has been used as an [[Health indicator|indicator]] or measure of health, [[fertility]], and the risk of developing serious health conditions. WHR correlates with perceptions of [[physical attractiveness]].

==Measurement==
[[File:Waist_to_hip_ratio-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Example of a 0.7 WHR (left) compared to a ratio of 0.9 (right). In a lean person, the waist can be measured at its narrowest point, while for an obese person, it may be measured at about 3 cm above the navel.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown JE, Potter JD, Jacobs DR, Kopher RA, Rourke MJ, Barosso GM, Hannan PJ, Schmid LA | title = Maternal waist-to-hip ratio as a predictor of newborn size: Results of the Diana Project | journal = Epidemiology | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 62–66 | date = January 1996 | pmid = 8664403 | doi = 10.1097/00001648-199601000-00011 | s2cid = 24471765 | doi-access = free | jstor = 3702758 }}</ref> The hip is measured at its widest portion of the buttocks at left, and at the [[greater trochanter]]s at right.]]

===WHO protocol===
According to the [[World Health Organization]]'s data gathering protocol,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/chp/steps/en/ |title=STEPwise approach to surveillance (STEPS) | publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=March 21, 2012}}</ref> the waist circumference should be measured at the midpoint between the lower margin of the last palpable ribs and the top of the [[iliac crest]], using a stretch-resistant tape that provides constant {{cvt|100|g|2}} [[Tension (physics)|tension]]. Hip circumference should be measured around the widest portion of the buttocks, with the tape parallel to the floor.<ref name=whoreport/> Other organizations use slightly different standards. The United States [[National Institutes of Health]] and the [[National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey]] used results obtained by measuring at the top of the iliac crest. Waist measurements are usually obtained by laypersons by measurings around the waist at the [[navel]], but research has shown that these measurements may underestimate the true waist circumference.<ref name=whoreport/>

For both measurements, the individual should stand with feet close together, arms at the side and body weight evenly distributed, and should wear little clothing. The subject should be relaxed, and the measurements should be taken at the end of a normal respiration. Each measurement should be repeated twice; if the measurements are within 1&nbsp;cm of one another, the average should be calculated. If the difference between the two measurements exceeds 1&nbsp;cm, the two measurements should be repeated.<ref name=whoreport>{{cite web |url=https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/44583/9789241501491_eng.pdf |title=Waist Circumference and Waist–Hip Ratio, Report of a WHO Expert Consultation |date=8–11 December 2008 | publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=2024-08-06}}</ref>

===Practical measurement===
Practically, however, the waist is more conveniently measured simply at the smallest circumference of the natural waist, usually just above the belly button, and the hip circumference may likewise be measured at its widest part of the buttocks or hip.<ref>In some places it is accepted that a woman's waist is measured 3 cm above her navel and that a man is measured one inch below his navel. [http://www.healthcalculators.org/calculators/waist_hip.asp Waist To Hip Calculator] at [[University of Maryland]] Medical System. Retrieved Dec 2010</ref> Also, in case the waist is convex rather than concave, such as with different body types, and obesity, the waist may be measured at a horizontal level 3 cm above the navel.<ref name=Brown>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown JE, Potter JD, Jacobs DR, Kopher RA, Rourke MJ, Barosso GM, Hannan PJ, Schmid LA | title = Maternal waist-to-hip ratio as a predictor of newborn size: Results of the Diana Project | journal = Epidemiology | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 62–66 | date = January 1996 | pmid = 8664403 | doi = 10.1097/00001648-199601000-00011 | s2cid = 24471765 | doi-access = free | jstor = 3702758 }}</ref>

==Indicator of health==
===Serious health conditions===
The WHR has been used as an indicator or measure of health, and as a risk factor for developing serious health conditions.

WHR is used as a measurement of [[obesity]], which in turn is a possible indicator of other more serious health conditions. The [[World Health Organization|WHO]] states that [[abdominal obesity]] is defined as a waist–hip ratio above 0.90 for males and above 0.85 for females, or a [[body mass index]] (BMI) above 30.0.<ref name=whoreport/> The [[National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases]] (NIDDK) states that "total cholesterol levels are usually higher in persons with predominant abdominal obesity, defined as a waist-to-hip circumference ratio of [[≥]]&nbsp;0.8 for women and ≥&nbsp;1.0 for men.<ref>{{cite book |title=Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults |publisher=National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute: NIH Publication No. 98-4083 |date=September 1998 |chapter= 2. Overweight and obesity: Background |page=14}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | DGSP<ref>[http://www.dgsp.de/_downloads/allgemein/S1_Leitlinie.pdf S 1- Leitlinie Vorsorgeuntersuchung im Sport. 2007] Dt. Gesellschaft für Sportmedizin und Prävention e.V. (DGSP)</ref>
! colspan=2 | WHO<ref name=whoreport/>
! colspan=2 | NIDDK<ref name="NIDDK">{{cite web|url=http://www.freedieting.com/tools/waist_to_hip_ratio.htm|title=Waist to Hip Ratio|work=freedieting.com}}</ref>
|-
! Women !! Men
! Women !! Men
! Women !! Men
|-
! under-weight
| {{dunno}} || {{dunno}}
| {{dunno}} || {{dunno}}
| {{dunno}} || {{dunno}}
|-
! normal weight
| < 0.80 || < 0.90
| {{dunno}} || {{dunno}}
| {{dunno}} || {{dunno}}
|-
! over-weight
| 0.80–0.84 || 0.90–0.99
| {{dunno}} || {{dunno}}
| {{dunno}} || {{dunno}}
|-
! [[obesity|obese]]<!--adipositas-->
| > 0.85 || > 1.00
| > 0.85 || > 0.90
| > 0.80 || > 1.00
|}

WHR has been found to be a more efficient predictor of mortality in older people (>75 years of age) than waist circumference or BMI.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Price GM, Uauy R, Breeze E, Bulpitt CJ, Fletcher AE | title = Weight, shape, and mortality risk in older persons: elevated waist-hip ratio, not high body mass index, is associated with a greater risk of death | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 449–460 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16895897 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/84.1.449 | doi-access = free }} cited in {{cite news |url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=49218 |url-status=dead |title=Waist-hip Ratio Should Replace Body Mass Index As Indicator Of Mortality Risk In Older People |date=21 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822020405/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=49218 |archive-date=22 August 2006}}</ref> If obesity is redefined using WHR instead of BMI, the proportion of people categorized as at risk of heart attack worldwide increases threefold.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Bautista L, Franzosi MG, Commerford P, Lang CC, Rumboldt Z, Onen CL, Lisheng L, Tanomsup S, Wangai P, Razak F, Sharma AM, Anand SS | title = Obesity and the risk of myocardial infarction in 27,000 participants from 52 countries: a case-control study | journal = Lancet | volume = 366 | issue = 9497 | pages = 1640–1649 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16271645 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67663-5 | s2cid = 37977130 }}</ref> WHR may be less accurate in individuals with a BMI of 35 or higher, and more complex to interpret since an increased WHR may result from increased abdominal fat or decreased lean muscle mass around the hips.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/obesity-prevention-source/obesity-definition/how-to-measure-body-fatness/ |title=Measuring Obesity |date=21 October 2012 |website=[[Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health]] |access-date=8 July 2021 |quote=[Waist-to-Hip Ratio:] * More complex to interpret than waist circumference, since increased waist-to-hip ratio can be caused by increased abdominal fat or decrease in lean muscle mass around the hips. * May be difficult to measure and less accurate in individuals with a BMI of 35 or higher.}}</ref> The [[body fat percentage]] is considered to be an even more accurate measure of relative weight. Of these three measurements, only the waist–hip ratio takes account of the differences in body structure. Hence, it is possible for two people of the same sex to have different body mass indices but the same waist–hip ratio, or to have the same body mass index but different waist–hip ratios.

WHR has been shown to be a better predictor of cardiovascular disease than simple waist circumference and body-mass index.<ref name="MørkedalRomundstad2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mørkedal B, Romundstad PR, Vatten LJ | title = Informativeness of indices of blood pressure, obesity and serum lipids in relation to ischaemic heart disease mortality: the HUNT-II study | journal = European Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 26 | issue = 6 | pages = 457–461 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21461943 | pmc = 3115050 | doi = 10.1007/s10654-011-9572-7 }}</ref> The study by American Heart Association has shown that measuring waistline and comparing it to hip size might be a better way to predict heart disease risk than a widely used body mass index.<ref>{{cite web |title=Waist size predicts heart attacks better than BMI, especially in women |url=https://www.heart.org/en/news/2019/03/19/waist-size-predicts-heart-attacks-better-than-bmi-especially-in-women |website=www.heart.org |language=en}}</ref> However, other studies have found waist circumference (particularly [[waist-to-height ratio]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Ensure waist size is less than half your height, health watchdog says |work=[[The Guardian]] | url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/apr/08/ensure-waist-size-is-less-than-half-your-height-health-watchdog-says | date=8 April 2022 | access-date=8 April 2022 | vauthors = Gregory A }}</ref>) to be a better indicator of cardiovascular risk factors than the waist&ndash;hip ratio,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dobbelsteyn CJ, Joffres MR, MacLean DR, Flowerdew G | title = A comparative evaluation of waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and body mass index as indicators of cardiovascular risk factors. The Canadian Heart Health Surveys | journal = International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders | volume = 25 | issue = 5 | pages = 652–661 | date = May 2001 | pmid = 11360147 | doi = 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801582 | s2cid = 21464957 | doi-access =  }}</ref> body fat distribution,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ketel IJ, Volman MN, Seidell JC, Stehouwer CD, Twisk JW, Lambalk CB | title = Superiority of skinfold measurements and waist over waist-to-hip ratio for determination of body fat distribution in a population-based cohort of Caucasian Dutch adults | journal = European Journal of Endocrinology | volume = 156 | issue = 6 | pages = 655–661 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17535865 | doi = 10.1530/EJE-06-0730 | doi-access =  }}</ref> and hypertension in type 2 diabetes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Picon PX, Leitão CB, Gerchman F, Azevedo MJ, Silveiro SP, Gross JL, Canani LH | title = [Waist measure and waist-to-hip ratio and identification of clinical conditions of cardiovascular risk: multicentric study in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients] | language = pt | journal = Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia e Metabologia | volume = 51 | issue = 3 | pages = 443–449 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17546244 | doi = 10.1590/S0004-27302007000300013 | hdl-access = free | doi-access = free | hdl = 10183/40046 }}</ref>

===Stress===
The stress hormone [[cortisol]] is regulated by the [[HPA axis|hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis]] and has been associated with higher levels of abdominal fat and therefore a higher WHR.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wardle J, Chida Y, Gibson EL, Whitaker KL, Steptoe A | title = Stress and adiposity: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies | journal = Obesity | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 771–778 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 20948519 | doi = 10.1038/oby.2010.241 | s2cid = 22109260 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Abdominal fat is a marker of visceral fat (stored around important internal organs such as the liver, pancreas and intestines) and has greater blood flow and more receptors for cortisol than peripheral fat. The greater the number of cortisol receptors, the more sensitive the visceral fat tissue is to cortisol. This heightened sensitivity to cortisol stimulates fat cells to further increase in size.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pedersen SB, Jønler M, Richelsen B | title = Characterization of regional and gender differences in glucocorticoid receptors and lipoprotein lipase activity in human adipose tissue | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 78 | issue = 6 | pages = 1354–1359 | date = June 1994 | pmid = 8200937 | doi = 10.1210/jcem.78.6.8200937 }}</ref>
Women who have a combination of normal [[Body mass index|BMI]] and high WHR experience elevated cortisol reactivity to acute stressors and failure to habituate to repeated stressors, compared to women with normal WHR.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Epel ES, McEwen B, Seeman T, Matthews K, Castellazzo G, Brownell KD, Bell J, Ickovics JR | title = Stress and body shape: stress-induced cortisol secretion is consistently greater among women with central fat | journal = Psychosomatic Medicine | volume = 62 | issue = 5 | pages = 623–632 | date = 2007 | pmid = 11020091 | doi = 10.1097/00006842-200009000-00005 | s2cid = 4846466 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.469.7416 }}</ref> This suggests that high WHR might also indicate HPA-axis dysregulation and over-exposure to cortisol.

Evidence for the relationship between cortisol and central fat distribution has primarily been studied in individuals with [[Cushing's syndrome]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Samaras K, Campbell LV | title = The non-genetic determinants of central adiposity | journal = International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders | volume = 21 | issue = 10 | pages = 839–845 | date = October 1997 | pmid = 9347401 | doi = 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800502 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
This is characterized by over-exposure to cortisol due to elevated activity of the HPA axis. A primary component of Cushing's syndrome is the accumulation of fat in the abdominal region, and it is hypothesized that elevated cortisol levels contribute to this accumulation. However, this hypothesis remains contested as cortisol levels only modestly explain variation in central fat distribution. It is more likely that a complex set of biological and neuroendocrine pathways related to cortisol secretion contribute to central adiposity, such as [[leptin]], [[neuropeptide y]], [[corticotropin releasing factor]] and the sympathetic nervous system.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===Growth and development===
In general, adults with [[growth hormone]] deficiencies also have increased WHRs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Murray RD, Wieringa G, Lawrance JA, Adams JE, Shalet SM | title = Partial growth hormone deficiency is associated with an adverse cardiovascular risk profile and increased carotid intima-medial thickness | journal = Clinical Endocrinology | volume = 73 | issue = 4 | pages = 508–515 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20039899 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2009.03754.x | s2cid = 205285764 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gomes-Santos E, Salvatori R, Ferrão TO, Oliveira CR, Diniz RD, Santana JA, Pereira FA, Barbosa RA, Souza AH, Melo EV, Epitácio-Pereira CC, Oliveira-Santos AA, Oliveira IA, Machado JA, Santana-Júnior FJ, Barreto-Filho JA, Aguiar-Oliveira MH | title = Increased visceral adiposity and cortisol to cortisone ratio in adults with congenital lifetime isolated GH deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 99 | issue = 9 | pages = 3285–3289 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 24926956 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2014-2132 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Adults with untreated congenital isolated growth hormone deficiency have increased WHRs, possibly from increased cortisone&ndash;cortisol ratios and [[insulin]] sensitivities.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Since these individuals have increased visceral obesity, it has been suggested that a minimal growth hormone secretion would theoretically increase insulin resistance.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> However, because of the growth hormone deficiency, this insulin resistance point cannot be reached and these individuals are more sensitive to insulin. Increased adipose deposits are therefore more likely to form in these individuals, causing the high WHR. Growth hormone deficiencies have also been correlated with WHRs in prepubertal children; the specific baseline body statistics, such as WHRs, of pre-pubertal children with growth hormone deficiencies can predict growth response effectiveness to artificial growth hormone therapies, such as rhGH treatments.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Esen I, Demirel F, Tepe D, Kara O, Koc N | title = The association between growth response to growth hormone and baseline body composition of children with growth hormone deficiency | journal = Growth Hormone & IGF Research | volume = 23 | issue = 5 | pages = 196–199 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23890535 | doi = 10.1016/j.ghir.2013.07.001 }}</ref>

===Sex characteristics===
Males with [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]], determined by [[CYP21A2]] mutations, have increased WHRs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Falhammar H, Filipsson Nyström H, Wedell A, Thorén M | title = Cardiovascular risk, metabolic profile, and body composition in adult males with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency | journal = European Journal of Endocrinology | volume = 164 | issue = 2 | pages = 285–293 | date = February 2011 | pmid = 21098686 | doi = 10.1530/EJE-10-0877 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Fertility===
Women with high WHR (0.80 or higher) have significantly lower pregnancy rates than women with lower WHRs (0.70–0.79), independent of their BMIs.<ref name="Ratio">{{cite journal | vauthors = Singh D | title = Female mate value at a glance: relationship of waist-to-hip ratio to health, fecundity and attractiveness | journal = Neuro Endocrinology Letters | volume = 23 | issue = Suppl 4 | pages = 81–91 | date = December 2002 | pmid = 12496738 | url = http://faculty.bennington.edu/~sherman/sex/whr-singh2002.pdf | series = 23 }}</ref> Men with WHRs around 0.9, similarly, have been shown to be more healthy and fertile with less [[prostate cancer]] and [[testicular cancer]].{{cn|date=March 2023}}<!-- Marlowe, Apicella and Reed citation does not contain anything to support this assertion -->

One of the factors that affects a woman's waist-hip ratio is her [[gynoid fat distribution]], a store of energy to be expended in the nurturing of offspring, both to provide adequate energy resources during [[pregnancy]] and for the infant during the stage in which they are [[breastfeeding]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Plowman S, Smith D | date = 2007 | title = Exercise Physiology for Health, Fitness, and Performance | page = 218 | publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | isbn = 978-0-7817-8406-1 }}</ref> In an ancestral environment where food was scarce, a female with high levels of gynoid fat would be signalling to males that she in an optimal state for reproduction and nurturing of offspring. This can be seen in the fact that a female's waist–hip ratio is at its optimal minimum during times of peak fertility—late [[adolescence]] and early adulthood, before increasing later in life.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Thornhill R | date = 2008 | title = The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality | page = 117 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = USA | isbn =  978-0-19-971248-9 }}</ref>

As a female's capacity for reproduction comes to an end, the fat distribution within the female body begins a transition from the gynoid type to more of an android type distribution. This is evidenced by the percentages of android fat being far higher in post-menopausal than pre-menopausal women.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ley CJ, Lees B, Stevenson JC | title = Sex- and menopause-associated changes in body-fat distribution | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 55 | issue = 5 | pages = 950–954 | date = May 1992 | pmid = 1570802 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/55.5.950 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirchengast S, Gruber D, Sator M, Hartmann B, Knogler W, Huber J | title = Menopause-associated differences in female fat patterning estimated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry | journal = Annals of Human Biology | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 45–54 | date = 1997-01-01 | pmid = 9022905 | doi = 10.1080/03014469700004762 }}</ref>

Evidence suggests that WHR is an accurate somatic indicator of reproductive endocrinological status and long-term health risk. Among girls with identical body weights, those with lower WHRs show earlier pubertal endocrine activity, as measured by high levels of lutenizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, as well as sex steroid (estradiol) activity. A Dutch prospective study on outcome in an artificial insemination program provides evidence for the role of WHR and fecundity.<ref name="zaadstra1993">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zaadstra BM, Seidell JC, Van Noord PA, te Velde ER, Habbema JD, Vrieswijk B, Karbaat J | title = Fat and female fecundity: prospective study of effect of body fat distribution on conception rates | journal = BMJ | volume = 306 | issue = 6876 | pages = 484–487 | date = February 1993 | pmid = 8448457 | pmc = 1676805 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.306.6876.484 }}</ref> These investigators report that a 0.1 unit increase in WHR decreases the probability of conception per cycle by 30% after adjustment for age, obesity, reasons for artificial insemination, cycle length and regularity, smoking, and parity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Singh D | title = Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: role of waist-to-hip ratio | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 65 | issue = 2 | pages = 293–307 | date = August 1993 | pmid = 8366421 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.293 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.492.9539 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Singh D | title = Body shape and women's attractiveness : The critical role of waist-to-hip ratio | journal = Human Nature | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 297–321 | date = September 1993 | pmid = 24214368 | doi = 10.1007/bf02692203 | s2cid = 26659163 }}</ref>

[[Menopause]], the natural or surgical cessation of the menstrual cycle, is due to an overall decrease in ovarian production of the hormones estradiol and progesterone. These hormonal changes are also associated with an increase in WHR independent of increases in body mass.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cagnacci A, Zanin R, Cannoletta M, Generali M, Caretto S, Volpe A | title = Menopause, estrogens, progestins, or their combination on body weight and anthropometric measures | journal = Fertility and Sterility | volume = 88 | issue = 6 | pages = 1603–1608 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 17481628 | doi = 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.01.039 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Significantly, studies find that large premenopausal WHRs are associated with lower [[estradiol]] levels and variation in age of menopause onset.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Freeman EW, Sammel MD, Lin H, Gracia CR | title = Obesity and reproductive hormone levels in the transition to menopause | journal = Menopause | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 718–726 | date = July 2010 | pmid = 20216473 | pmc = 2888623 | doi = 10.1097/gme.0b013e3181cec85d }}</ref> Circulating estrogen preferentially stores lipid deposits in the gluteofemoral region, including the buttocks and thighs, and evidence suggests that menopause-associated estrogen deficiency results in an accumulation of adipose deposits around the abdomen.<ref>Cagnacci et al., 2007</ref> These menopause-induced changes in body fat distribution can be counteracted with [[hormone replacement therapy]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Genazzani AR, Gambacciani M | title = Effect of climacteric transition and hormone replacement therapy on body weight and body fat distribution | journal = Gynecological Endocrinology | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | pages = 145–150 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16835076 | doi = 10.1080/09513590600629092 | s2cid = 32187013 }}</ref> In contrast, aging males gradually accumulate abdominal fat, and hence increased WHR, in parallel with declining [[androgen]] levels.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===Cognitive ability===
Using data from the [[National Center for Health Statistics|U.S. National Center for Health Statistics]], William Lassek at the [[University of Pittsburgh|University of Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania]] and Steven Gaulin of the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] found a child's performance in cognitive tests correlated to their mother's waist–hip ratio, a proxy for how much fat she stores on her hips.<ref name=Lassek>{{cite journal|journal=Evolution and Human Behavior|date=January 2008|title=Waist–hip ratio and cognitive ability: is gluteofemoral fat a privileged store of neurodevelopmental resources?| vauthors = Lassek W, Gaulin S |doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.07.005 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=26–34}}</ref>

Children whose mothers had wide hips and a low waist–hip ratio scored highest, leading Lassek and Gaulin to suggest that fetuses benefit from hip fat, which contains long chain [[polyunsaturated fat|polyunsaturated fatty acids]], critical for the development of the fetus's brain.<ref name=Lassek/> In addition, evidence suggests that children of low-WHR teens were protected from the cognitive deficits often associated with teen birth.

==Human genetics==
Studies in twins have suggested that between 22% and 61% of variability in waist-to-hip ratio may be accounted for by genetic factors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhs.uk/news/2010/10October/Pages/pear-shaped-genes-found.aspx|title='Pear shaped' genes found – NHS Choices – Health News|work=www.nhs.uk}}</ref>

==As an indicator of attractiveness==
{{Main|Physical attractiveness}}

===Female===
[[File:Venus von Willendorf 01.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Venus of Willendorf]]. 

The earliest known representations of female figures date from 23,000 to 25,000 years ago<ref name="Dixson">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dixson AF, Dixson BJ |year=2011 |title=Venus Figurines of the European Paleolithic: Symbols of Fertility or Attractiveness? |journal=Journal of Anthropology |volume=2011 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1155/2011/569120 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and had bodies with vestigial head and limbs, noted for their very high waist&ndash;hip ratio of 1:1 or more.<ref name="Dixson"/> It may be that the artists' "depictions of corpulent, middle-aged females were not 'Venuses' in any conventional sense. They may, instead, have symbolized the hope for survival and longevity, within well-nourished and reproductively successful communities."<ref name="Dixson"/> ]]WHR is considered as one of the three determinants of female attractiveness, the other two being body mass index (BMI), and [[wikt:curviness|curviness]].<ref name="Fisher2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fisher ML, Voracek M | title = The shape of beauty: determinants of female physical attractiveness | journal = Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 190–194 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 17173598 | doi = 10.1111/j.1473-2165.2006.00249.x | s2cid = 25660426 }}</ref> The concept and significance of WHR as an indicator of attractiveness was first theorized by [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologist]] [[Devendra Singh]] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] in 1993.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Singh D | title = Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: role of waist-to-hip ratio | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 65 | issue = 2 | pages = 293–307 | date = August 1993 | pmid = 8366421 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.293 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.492.9539 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Buss DM |title=The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating |url= http://www.human-nature.com/nibbs/04/buss.html |format=hardcover |edition=second|publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |page=56}}</ref> Singh argued that the WHR was a more consistent estrogen marker than the [[BWH|bust–waist ratio]] (BWR) studied at [[King's College, London]] by [[Glenn Wilson (psychologist)|Glenn Wilson]] in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite journal |pages=30–4 |doi=10.2224/sbp.1974.2.1.30 |title=Psychological correlates of sexual attractiveness: An empirical demonstration of denial and fantasy gratification phenomena? |date=1974 | vauthors = Wilson GD, Brazendale AH|journal=Social Behavior and Personality |volume=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pages=201–5 |doi=10.1080/00224545.1975.9918705 |title=Vital Statistics, Perceived Sexual Attractiveness, and Response to Risque Humor |date=1975 | vauthors = Wilson GD, Nias D, Brazendale A |journal=Journal of Social Psychology |volume=95 |issue=2}}</ref>

Some researchers have found that the waist–hip ratio is a significant measure of [[Physical attractiveness#Determinants of female physical attractiveness|female attractiveness]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/relationships/man-woman/Perfect-waist-to-hip-ratio-is-07/articleshow/6438017.cms |title=Perfect waist-to-hip ratio is 0.7 |work=Times of India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100829163817/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/relationships/man-woman/Perfect-waist-to-hip-ratio-is-07/articleshow/6438017.cms |archive-date=29 August 2010}}</ref> Women with a 0.7 WHR are usually rated as more attractive by men from various cultures.<ref name = "Singh_2001">{{cite journal |journal=Ethology and Sociobiology | vauthors = Singh D, Young RK |date=27 June 2001 |title=Body Weight, Waist-to-Hip Ratio, Breasts, and Hips: Role in Judgments of Female Attractiveness and Desirability for Relationships |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=483–507 |url= http://web.missouri.edu/~rouderj/3010/readings/Singh.pdf |doi=10.1016/0162-3095(95)00074-7 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209135606/http://web.missouri.edu/~rouderj/3010/readings/Singh.pdf |archive-date=9 December 2008}}</ref> Preferences may vary, according to some studies,<ref name="Fisher2006"/> ranging from 0.6 in China, South America, and some of Africa<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dixson BJ, Dixson AF, Li B, Anderson MJ | title = Studies of human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in China | journal = American Journal of Human Biology | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 88–95 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17160976 | doi = 10.1002/ajhb.20584 | s2cid = 8868828 | doi-access = free }}</ref> to 0.8 in Cameroon and among the Hadza tribe of Tanzania,<ref name="MarloweApicellaReed2005">{{cite journal |pages=458–68 |url= http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hbe-lab/acrobatfiles/profilewhr.pdf |doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.07.005 |title=Men's preferences for women's profile waist-to-hip ratio in two societies |date=2005 | vauthors = Marlowe F, Apicella C, Reed D |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=26 |issue=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Marlowe F, Wetsman A |date=2001 |title=Preferred waist-to-hip ratio and ecology |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=481–489 |url= http://www.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ehbe-lab/acrobatfiles/preferred%20waist.pdf |doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00039-8 |citeseerx=10.1.1.489.4169}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dixson BJ, Dixson AF, Morgan B, Anderson MJ | title = Human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in Bakossiland, Cameroon | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 369–375 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17136587 | doi = 10.1007/s10508-006-9093-8 | s2cid = 40115821 }}</ref> with divergent preferences according to the ethnicity of the observed being noted.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Freedman RE, Carter MM, Sbrocco T, Gray JJ | title = Do men hold African-American and Caucasian women to different standards of beauty? | journal = Eating Behaviors | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 319–333 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17606230 | pmc = 3033406 | doi = 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.11.008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Freedman RE, Carter MM, Sbrocco T, Gray JJ | title = Ethnic differences in preferences for female weight and waist-to-hip ratio: a comparison of African-American and White American college and community samples | journal = Eating Behaviors | volume = 5 | issue = 3 | pages = 191–198 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15135331 | doi = 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.01.002 | url = https://figshare.com/articles/thesis/Ethnic_differences_in_preferences_for_female_weight_and_waist-to-hip_ratio_A_comparison_of_African_American_and_White_American_college_and_community_samples/23879001 }}</ref> In ancient Greek and Egyptian sculptures, idealized female representations typically displayed ratios of 0.7, while in Indian and African artwork, the WHRs for female statues are even smaller, at 0.6 and 0.5 respectively.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sorokowski P, Kościński K, Sorokowska A, Huanca T | title = Preference for women's body mass and waist-to-hip ratio in Tsimane' men of the Bolivian Amazon: biological and cultural determinants | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 8 | pages = e105468 | date = 2016-06-01 | pmc = 10481102 | doi = 10.1177/1474704916643459 | pmid = 25148034 | quote = In the Greek and Egyptian samples, the modal female WHR was 0.7, but in the Indian and African samples, it was 0.5 and 0.6, respectively. In all cases, half or more of the WHRs were below 0.7. }}</ref>

It appears that men in westernized societies are more influenced by female [[waist]] size than [[hip]] size: "Hip size indicates pelvic size and the amount of additional fat storage that can be used as a source of energy. Waist size conveys information such as current reproductive status or health status ... in westernized societies with no risk of seasonal lack of food, the waist, conveying information about [[fecundity]] and health status, will be more important than hip size for assessing a female's attractiveness".<ref name="Rozmus-Wrzesinska">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rozmus-Wrzesinska M, Pawlowski B | title = Men's ratings of female attractiveness are influenced more by changes in female waist size compared with changes in hip size | journal = Biological Psychology | volume = 68 | issue = 3 | pages = 299–308 | date = March 2005 | pmid = 15620796 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.04.007 | s2cid = 46635553 }}</ref>

By western standards, women in foraging populations have high numbers of pregnancies, high parasite loads, and high caloric dependence on fibrous foods. These variables change across cultures, suggesting that:
# the normal range of female WHR was often higher than in western cultures,
# what constituted locally "WHR" varied, and
# average WHR of [[nubile]] females and of females of peak fertility varied.
Thus, a WHR that indicates pubertal onset, sex, fertility, hormonal irregularities, and/or differentiates male from female in one population may not do so in another.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=esDW3xTKoLIC |title=The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology | vauthors = Buss DM |date=2005 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9780471727224}}</ref>

In a series of 1993 studies done by Singh, men used WHR and overall body fat to determine a woman's attractiveness. In his first study, men were shown a series of 12 drawings of women with various WHRs and body fat. Drawings with normal weight and a low WHR were associated with the most positive traits (i.e. attractive, sexy, intelligent and healthy). The drawings of thin female figures were not associated with any positive traits except youthfulness.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Singh D |date=1 January 1994 |title=Is thin really beautiful and good? Relationship between waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and female attractiveness |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=123–132 |doi=10.1016/0191-8869(94)90116-3}}</ref>

Through this study, Singh suggests that males and females may have developed innate mechanisms which detect and make use of the WHR to assess how healthy an individual is and (particularly for men), infer possible mate value. Having a healthy mate improves the chances of producing offspring with inherited genetic protection from various diseases and a healthy mate is more likely to be a good parent (Hamilton & Zuk, 1982; Thornhill, 1993).<ref name = "Singh_2001" />

Other studies discovered WHR as a signal of attractiveness as well, beyond just examining body fat and fertility. Barnaby Dixson, Gina Grimshaw, Wayne Linklater, and Alan Dixson conducted a study using eye-tracking techniques to evaluate men's fixation on digitally altered photographs of the same woman, as well as asking the men to evaluate the images based on attractiveness. What they found was while men fixated on the woman's breasts in each photo, they selected the images where the woman had a 0.7 WHR as most attractive, regardless of breast size.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dixson BJ, Grimshaw GM, Linklater WL, Dixson AF | title = Eye-tracking of men's preferences for waist-to-hip ratio and breast size of women | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 40 | issue = 1 | pages = 43–50 | date = February 2011 | pmid = 19688590 | doi = 10.1007/s10508-009-9523-5 | s2cid = 4997497 }}</ref> Pazhoohi et al. (2019) using eye tracking confirmed that lower than optimal WHRs when posing in ''[[contrapposto]]'', which causes one side of the body to have a lower than optimal view-dependent WHR, are perceived more attractive and are [[supernormal stimuli]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pazhoohi F, Macedo AF, Doyle JF, Arantes J | title = Waist-to-Hip Ratio as Supernormal Stimuli: Effect of Contrapposto Pose and Viewing Angle | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 49 | issue = 3 | pages = 837–847 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 31214904 | doi = 10.1007/s10508-019-01486-z | s2cid = 195066235 }}</ref>

Furthermore, referencing a 2005 study conducted by Johnson and Tassinary looking at animated human walking stimuli, Farid Pazhoohi and James R. Liddle proposed that men do not solely use WHR to evaluate attractiveness, but also a means of sex-differentiation, with higher WHR perceived as more masculine and lower WHR as an indicator of femininity. Pazhoohi and Liddle used this idea as a possible additional explanation as to why men perceive a lower WHR as more attractive – because it relates to an expression of femininity, as opposed to masculinity and a higher WHR.<ref name = "Pazhoohi_2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pazhoohi F, Liddle JR |title=Identifying feminine and masculine ranges for waist-to-hip ratio |date=2012 |journal=Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=227–232 |doi=10.1037/h0099212}}</ref> On this basis, it was shown that men with lower, more feminine, WHRs feel less comfortable and self-report lower body esteem and [[self-efficacy]] than men with higher, more masculine, WHRs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pazhoohi F, Hosseinchari M, Doyle JF |date=2012 |title=Iranian men's waist-to-hip ratios, shoulder-to-hip ratios, body esteem and self-efficacy |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Psychology |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=61–67 |doi=10.1556/jep.10.2012.2.2}}</ref>
[[File:Vintage_photo_nude_woman_2.jpg|left|thumb|Women with a relatively low waist-hip ratio (the [[hourglass figure]]) is commonly considered attractive.]]
To enhance their perceived attractiveness, some women may artificially alter their apparent WHR. The methods include the use of a [[corset]] to reduce the waist size and [[hip and buttock padding]] to increase the apparent size of the hips and buttocks. In an earlier attempt to quantify attractiveness, [[corset]] and [[girdle]] manufacturers of the 20th century used a calculation called ''hip spring''<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.corsetiere.net/Spirella/Corsetiere/Older.htm#hipspring |title=Bald |work=Corsetiere.net}}</ref> (or ''hip-spring'' or ''hipspring''), calculated by subtracting the waist measurement from the hip measurement. However this calculation fell into disuse because it is a poor indicator of attractiveness; for example, a hip spring of 250 mm would likely be considered quite attractive for an average-sized adult woman, but a child or petite woman with the same number would more likely be seen as malnourished.

WHR versus BMI attractiveness is related to fertility, not fat content. A study performed by Holliday used computer generated female body shapes to construct images which covary with real female body mass (indexed with BMI) and not with body shape (indexed with WHR), and vice versa. Twelve observers (6 male and 6 female) rated these images for attractiveness during an fMRI study. The attractiveness ratings were correlated with changes in BMI and not WHR. The results demonstrated that in addition to activation in higher visual areas, changes to BMI had a direct impact on activity within the brain's reward system. This shows that BMI, not WHR, modulates reward mechanisms in the brain and that this may have important implications for judgements of ideal body size in [[Eating disorder|eating-disordered]] individuals.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Holliday IE, Longe OA, Thai NJ, Hancock PJ, Tovée MJ | title = BMI not WHR modulates BOLD fMRI responses in a sub-cortical reward network when participants judge the attractiveness of human female bodies | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 6 | issue = 11 | pages = e27255 | date = 2011 | pmid = 22102883 | pmc = 3216937 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0027255 | bibcode = 2011PLoSO...627255H | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Another study, conducted by Adrian Furnham, was used as an extension of Singh and Young's 1995 investigation. A total of 137 participants were in the study. There were 98 female participants. The age range was between 16 and 67. The majority of participants were undergraduates, and 90% were white British, the remainder being Asian (East Indian) and African. Their educational and socio-economic backgrounds (nearly all middle class) were fairly homogenous, and none had previously participated in any studies involving female body shape or attractiveness. It was predicted that the effect of breast size on judgment of attractiveness and age estimation would be dependent on overall body fat and the size of the waist-to-hip ratio.<ref name="Furnham">{{cite journal | vauthors = Furnham A, Dias M, McClelland A |title=The Role of Body Weight, Waist-to-Hip Ratio, and Breast Size in Judgments of Female Attractiveness |publisher=Springer |journal=Sex Roles |volume=39 |issue=3–4 |date=1998 |pages=311–326|doi=10.1023/A:1018810723493 |s2cid=148208789}}</ref>

All the participants were given a booklet with eight pictures in total. Each figure was identified as heavy or slender, feminine WHR or masculine WHR, and large-breasted or small-breasted. The participants rated the figures for four personal attributes (attractiveness, healthiness, femininity, and kindness/understanding).<ref name="Furnham"/>

When ratings of the figures' attractiveness were made, generally it appeared that bust size, WHR, and their weight were all important contributory elements. The female participants rated the figures with a low WHR as more attractive, healthy, feminine-looking, and in the case of the heavy figure, more kind and understanding than did male participants. This is a particularly interesting finding, as most previous studies report that young women idealize female bodies solely on the basis of thinness. As far as the breast sizes of the slender figures is concerned, whether they had large or small breasts did not appear to have any effect on the ratings of attractiveness or kindness or understanding, and having larger breasts only increased the mean ratings of health and femininity very slightly. However, a heavy figure with a high WHR and a large bust was rated as the least attractive and healthy by all participants.<ref name="Furnham"/>

Waist–hip ratio is also a reliable cue to one's sex and it is hypothesised that the "individuals who represent a mismatch based on the cue provided by WHR (e.g., women with high WHR values or men with low WHR values) would likely be viewed as unattractive by the opposite sex."<ref name = "Pazhoohi_2012" />

A 2017 [[University of Wroclaw]] study of around one thousand women across different cultures{{mdash}}designed to address the conflicting theories{{mdash}}concluded that an attractive WHR is not a predictor of peak fertility, but actually a predictor of the onset of fertility and therefore a predictor of maximal long term reproductive potential and minimal chance of raising a competing male's children.<ref name="Wrocklaw">{{cite journal | vauthors = Butovskaya M, Sorokowska A, Karwowski M, Sabiniewicz A, Fedenok J, Dronova D, Negasheva M, Selivanova E, Sorokowski P | title = Waist-to-hip ratio, body-mass index, age and number of children in seven traditional societies | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 1622 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28487573 | pmc = 5431669 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-017-01916-9 | bibcode = 2017NatSR...7.1622B }} cited in {{cite magazine | url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/beastly-behavior/201706/the-relationship-between-waist-hip-ratio-and-fertility | title=The Relationship Between Waist–Hip Ratio and Fertility: Research from traditional societies provides dramatic new evidence.| magazine=Psychology Today | vauthors = Lents LH |date= June 19, 2017 | access-date= June 17, 2021}}</ref> The study authors concluded "Hence, it can be predicted that the preference for a low WHR results from male preference for women at peak residual reproductive value, just prior to first probably fertile ovulatory cycle (and with no previous children).<ref name="Wrocklaw"/>

===Male===
Research has found [[Physical attractiveness#Waist-to-chest ratio|waist-to-chest ratio]] to be the largest determinant of male attractiveness, with body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio not as significant.<ref name="Fan">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fan J, Dai W, Liu F, Wu J | title = Visual perception of male body attractiveness | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 272 | issue = 1560 | pages = 219–226 | date = February 2005 | pmid = 15705545 | pmc = 1634963 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2004.2922 }}</ref>

==Food==
A number of studies have been carried out with focus on food composition of diets in relation to changes in waist circumference adjusted for body mass index.

Whole-grain, ready-to-eat, oat cereal diets reduce [[low-density lipoprotein cholesterol]] and waist circumference in overweight or obese adults more than low-fibre control food diets. Weight loss did not vary between groups.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Maki KC, Beiseigel JM, Jonnalagadda SS, Gugger CK, Reeves MS, Farmer MV, Kaden VN, Rains TM | title = Whole-grain ready-to-eat oat cereal, as part of a dietary program for weight loss, reduces low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in adults with overweight and obesity more than a dietary program including low-fiber control foods | journal = Journal of the American Dietetic Association | volume = 110 | issue = 2 | pages = 205–214 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20102847 | doi = 10.1016/j.jada.2009.10.037 }}</ref>

In an American sample of 459 healthy men and women participating in the ongoing 'Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging', the mean annual increase [with age] in waist circumference was more than 3 times as great for the participants in the white-bread cluster compared with the participants using a diet that is high in fruit, vegetables, reduced-fat dairy and whole grains and is low in red or processed meat, [[fast food]] and [[soft drink]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Newby PK, Muller D, Hallfrisch J, Qiao N, Andres R, Tucker KL | title = Dietary patterns and changes in body mass index and waist circumference in adults | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 77 | issue = 6 | pages = 1417–1425 | date = June 2003 | pmid = 12791618 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/77.6.1417 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

A 2011 study suggests that a dietary pattern high in fruit and dairy and low in white bread, processed meat, margarine, and soft drinks may help to prevent abdominal fat accumulation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Romaguera D, Ängquist L, Du H, Jakobsen MU, Forouhi NG, Halkjær J, Feskens EJ, van der A DL, Masala G, Steffen A, Palli D, Wareham NJ, Overvad K, Tjønneland A, Boeing H, Riboli E, Sørensen TI | title = Food composition of the diet in relation to changes in waist circumference adjusted for body mass index | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 6 | issue = 8 | pages = e23384 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21858094 | pmc = 3157378 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0023384 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2011PLoSO...623384R }}</ref>

== See also ==
* {{Annotated link |Body proportions}}
** {{Annotated link |Artistic canons of body proportions}}
* {{Annotated link |Digit ratio}}
* [[Leg-to-body ratio]]{{snd}}Numerical index of body proportion
* {{Annotated link |Physical attractiveness}}
* {{Annotated link |Sexual attraction}}
* {{Annotated link |Bust/waist/hip measurements}}
* {{Annotated link |Wasp waist}}
* {{Annotated link |Waist-to-height ratio}} (better indicator of health)

== References ==
{{reflist|33em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Karremans JC, Frankenhuis WE, Arons S | year = 2010 | title = Blind men prefer a low waist-to-hip ratio | journal = [[Evolution and Human Behavior]] | volume = 31 | issue = 3| pages = 182–186 | doi = 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.10.001| hdl = 2066/90029 | hdl-access = free }}

== External links ==
* [http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-08/lsoh-wrs080706.php "Waist–hip ratio should replace body mass index as indicator of mortality risk in older people"] – EurekAlert August 8, 2006
* {{cite web| url= https://bodyvisualizer.com/ | title= Body visualizer | publisher = MPI IS Perceiving Systems Department, [[Max Planck Institute]] | year=2011 | access-date= 23 September 2020}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Waist-Hip Ratio}}
[[Category:Anthropometry]]
[[Category:Body shape]]
[[Category:Classification of obesity]]
[[Category:Medical signs]]
[[Category:Physical attractiveness]]
[[Category:Social science indices]]
[[Category:Hip]]
[[Category:Waist]]