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Soon after, Herodotus reports that Peisistratos, who had been previously married and had two grown sons, did not want to have any children with his new wife, the daughter of Megakles, and would not have intercourse with her in the traditional manner. Apparently, Peisistratos was unwilling to compromise the political futures of his children (Hipparchos and Hippias). Furious, Megakles broke off this short-lived alliance with Peisistratos, and drove Peisistratos into exile for a second time, with the help of Peisistratos' enemies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Herodotus|first=|title=The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories|publisher=Anchor Books|others=trans. Andrea L. Purvis|year=2007|editor-last=Strassler|editor-first=Robert B.|location=New York|pages=|at=1.61}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Pomeroy|first=Sarah B.|title=Ancient Greece: A political, social, and cultural history|last2=Burstein|first2=Stanley M.|last3=Donlan|first3=Walter|last4=Roberts|first4=Jennifer Tolbert|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1999|location=New York, Oxford|pages=170-171}}</ref> During the length of his exile lasting approximately ten years, Peisistratos relocated to [[Rhaecelus|Rhaicelus]] or Rhaecelus, notable for its good agricultural base, in the [[Struma (river)|Strymon river]] region of northern Greece, and eventually settled in the vicinity of [[Pangaion Hills|Mount Pangaeus]] or Pangaion, accumulating wealth from the gold and silver mines located nearby.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cole|first=J. W.|date=1975|title=Peisistratus on the Strymon|journal=Greece & Rome|volume=22|issue=1|pages=42–44|doi=10.1017/S0017383500020052|issn=0017-3835|jstor=642830}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lavelle|first=B.M.|url=|title=Fame, Money, and Power : The Rise of Peisistratos and Democratic Tyranny at Athens|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=January 18, 2005|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|pages=127-128}}</ref> Financed by the mining money, he hired mercenary soldiers and bolstered with the support of allies such as the [[Thebans]] and the affluent [[Lygdamis of Naxos|Lygdamis]] of the island [[Naxos]], he looked southward for a return to power. In 546 BC, using [[Eretria]] as a base and supported by Eretrian cavalry, Peisistratos landed at [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]] on the northern side of Attica and advanced towards Athens, joined by some local sympathizers from Athens and the surrounding demes. The remaining Athenians mustered a force in opposition and met Peisistratos' forces at [[Pallene (Attica)|Pallene]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=Pomeroy|first=Sarah B.|title=Ancient Greece: a political, social, and cultural history|last2=Burstein|first2=Stanley|last3=Donlan|first3=Walter|last4=Roberts|first4=Jennifer Tolbert|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1999|location=New York, Oxford|pages=171}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Aristotle|title=Aristotle on the Athenian Constitution|publisher=G. Bell And Sons, LTD|others=Translated by F.G. Kenyon|year=1914|location=London|pages=25-26}}</ref> Providing some background details, Herodotus comments that just before the battle commences a seer gave Peisistratos a prophecy that the net has been cast and the tuna will swarm through. With the prophecy both welcomed and understood by Peisistratos, his troops advanced and attacked the Athenian forces who were resting after lunch, easily routing them. While the Athenians retreated and in order to prevent them from reforming their forces, Peisistratos directed his sons to ride after the routed Athenians and announce that they should return home, retaining no anxiety or fear from the situation at hand. With those instructions, the Athenians complied and Peisistratos was able to return to rule Athens for a third time as tyrant, with his reign lasting from 546 BC till his death in 528/527 BC.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Herodotus|title=The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories|publisher=Anchor Books|others=trans. Andrea L. Purvis|year=2009|editor-last=Strassler|editor-first=Robert B.|location=New York|at=1.62-1.64}}</ref>
Soon after, Herodotus reports that Peisistratos, who had been previously married and had two grown sons, did not want to have any children with his new wife, the daughter of Megakles, and would not have intercourse with her in the traditional manner. Apparently, Peisistratos was unwilling to compromise the political futures of his children (Hipparchos and Hippias). Furious, Megakles broke off this short-lived alliance with Peisistratos, and drove Peisistratos into exile for a second time, with the help of Peisistratos' enemies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Herodotus|first=|title=The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories|publisher=Anchor Books|others=trans. Andrea L. Purvis|year=2007|editor-last=Strassler|editor-first=Robert B.|location=New York|pages=|at=1.61}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Pomeroy|first=Sarah B.|title=Ancient Greece: A political, social, and cultural history|last2=Burstein|first2=Stanley M.|last3=Donlan|first3=Walter|last4=Roberts|first4=Jennifer Tolbert|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1999|location=New York, Oxford|pages=170-171}}</ref> During the length of his exile lasting approximately ten years, Peisistratos relocated to [[Rhaecelus|Rhaicelus]] or Rhaecelus, notable for its good agricultural base, in the [[Struma (river)|Strymon river]] region of northern Greece, and eventually settled in the vicinity of [[Pangaion Hills|Mount Pangaeus]] or Pangaion, accumulating wealth from the gold and silver mines located nearby.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cole|first=J. W.|date=1975|title=Peisistratus on the Strymon|journal=Greece & Rome|volume=22|issue=1|pages=42–44|doi=10.1017/S0017383500020052|issn=0017-3835|jstor=642830}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lavelle|first=B.M.|url=|title=Fame, Money, and Power : The Rise of Peisistratos and Democratic Tyranny at Athens|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=January 18, 2005|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|pages=127-128}}</ref> Financed by the mining money, he hired mercenary soldiers and bolstered with the support of allies such as the [[Thebans]] and the affluent [[Lygdamis of Naxos|Lygdamis]] of the island [[Naxos]], he looked southward for a return to power. In 546 BC, using [[Eretria]] as a base and supported by Eretrian cavalry, Peisistratos landed at [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]] on the northern side of Attica and advanced towards Athens, joined by some local sympathizers from Athens and the surrounding demes. The remaining Athenians mustered a force in opposition and met Peisistratos' forces at [[Pallene (Attica)|Pallene]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=Pomeroy|first=Sarah B.|title=Ancient Greece: a political, social, and cultural history|last2=Burstein|first2=Stanley|last3=Donlan|first3=Walter|last4=Roberts|first4=Jennifer Tolbert|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1999|location=New York, Oxford|pages=171}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Aristotle|title=Aristotle on the Athenian Constitution|publisher=G. Bell And Sons, LTD|others=Translated by F.G. Kenyon|year=1914|location=London|pages=25-26}}</ref> Providing some background details, Herodotus comments that just before the battle commences a seer gave Peisistratos a prophecy that the net has been cast and the tuna will swarm through. With the prophecy both welcomed and understood by Peisistratos, his troops advanced and attacked the Athenian forces who were resting after lunch, easily routing them. While the Athenians retreated and in order to prevent them from reforming their forces, Peisistratos directed his sons to ride after the routed Athenians and announce that they should return home, retaining no anxiety or fear from the situation at hand. With those instructions, the Athenians complied and Peisistratos was able to return to rule Athens for a third time as tyrant, with his reign lasting from 546 BC till his death in 528/527 BC.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Herodotus|title=The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories|publisher=Anchor Books|others=trans. Andrea L. Purvis|year=2009|editor-last=Strassler|editor-first=Robert B.|location=New York|at=1.62-1.64}}</ref>


== Construction and contribution in Athens ==
== Achievements and contributions to Athens during third and final tyranny ==
Analysis of secondary sources regarding both the length, as mentioned previously, and the accomplishments of Peisistratos' first two tyrannies are conflicting and very sparse in details, respectively. For instance, Lavelle hypothesizes that Megakles and the Alkmeonids still
During his rule in Athens, Peisistratos headed the construction of many great projects. Peisistratos was one of the first tyrants to heavily focus on the infrastructure of Athens: his building of wells specifically was greatly appreciated by the masses. Additionally he constructed great monuments like the one believed to be his home at the temple of Apollo. This idea of using the states collective money to fund such projects was one which would be used by nearly all future leaders due to the effectiveness and impact it made on the citizens of Athens.
[[File:Grecia_omerica-it.svg|thumb|Location of cities of ancient Greece and neighbors; Mt. Pangaeus]]
held the majority of the political offices in the Athens government as part of the price and negotiation process that Peisistratos had to pay in order to become tyrant, and consequently, Peisistratos perhaps only functioned as a figurehead during his first two times in power.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lavelle|first=B. M.|url=|title=Fame, Money, and Power: The Rise of Peisistratos and Democratic Tyranny at Athens|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=2005|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|pages=114|type=ProQuest Ebook Central}}</ref>


During the period of 561–527 BC, "[[Athens]] itself was becoming more of a city, rather than an agglomeration of villages" <ref name=":2" /> Athens had always struggled with its water supply. This was greatly improved during the rule of Peisistratos through the construction of an [[Aqueduct (water supply)|aqueduct]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Rivers of Greece: Evolution, Current Status and Perspectives|last=Dimitriou|first=Elias|publisher=Springer|year=2018|isbn=978-3-662-55369-5}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> The market in Athens prior to Peisistratos was disorderly and inefficient. He improved this by reconstructing the market to be laid out systematically to improve the effectiveness and use of space.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Peisistratus|title=Peisistratus: TYRANT OF ATHENS|last=Starr|first=Chester|date=April 2019|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Peisistratos also began the construction of a Temple to Zeus. Despite his efforts he was unable to complete the construction, and the temple was finally completed during the Roman era by Roman emperor [[Hadrian]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/815/temple-of-olympian-zeus-athens/|title=Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens|last=Cartwright|first=Mark|date=August 2015|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]}}</ref><ref name=":2" />
During the three reigns of Peisistratos in the mid to latter part of the 6th century BC, Athens was beginning its transition to becoming the largest and most dominant of the cities on the Attica peninsula, which is about the size of [[Rhode Island]] in the [[United States]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Boegehold|first=Alan L.|title=The Landmark Thucydides, A Comprehensive Guide to The Peloponnesian War, Appendix A|publisher=Free Press|year=1996|editor-last=Strassler|editor-first=Robert B.|location=New York|pages=577}}</ref> Starr states that Athens was coalescing into the framework of a city, rather than a loose affiliation of neighboring villages.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|last=Starr|first=Chester|date=April 2019|title=Peisistratus: TYRANT OF ATHENS|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Peisistratus|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Perhaps next in importance was [[Piraeus]], the main port city of Attica, just 5 miles southwest of Athens, and this port location was key to granting Athens easy access to maritime trade opportunities and the ocean waterways.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cartwright|first=Mark|date=June 2, 2013|title=Piraeus|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Piraeus/#:~:text=Piraeus%20(or%20Peiraieus)%20was%20the,Kantharos%2C%20Zea%2C%20and%20Munichia.|url-status=live|access-date=May 15, 2021|website=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref> Other notable cities in Attica include Marathon and [[Eleusis]].


=== Culture, religion, and arts ===
One of the largest changes was the shift in agriculture implemented by Solon to encourage the growth of more profitable crops such as olives, over less profitable crops that did not perform as well in the local climate. Peisistratos promoted these endeavours by creating financing options for farmers to access tools needed to maximize their production. <ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Violence, Civil Strife and Revolution in the Classical City 750–330 BC|last=Lintott|first=Andrew|publisher=Croom Helm Ltd|year=2015|isbn=9781138019751|location=New York|pages=78}}</ref> With many exiled aristocrats still attempting to maintain control over large sections of land, which was supposed to be broken up.<ref name=":2" /> However, Peisistratos took additional measures to ensure the equal distribution. He achieved this by bringing legal action out of Athens, having travelling judges handle the inspection and legal cases regarding farm land in rural areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hopper|first=R. J.|date=1952|title=History of the Athenian Constitution to the End of the Fifth Century B.C.|journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies|volume=76|pages=141–142|doi=10.2307/629610|jstor=629610}}</ref>
With an emphasis on promoting the city of Athens as a cultural center and enhancing his prestige, Peisistratos instituted a number of actions to show his support for the gods and patronage of the arts. A permanent copying of Homer's [[Iliad]] and [[Odyssey]] was commissioned by Peisistratos and he also increased the visibility of the [[Panathenaic Games|Panathenaic]] festival, whose origins date from earlier in the 6th century and was celebrated to a large degree every four years, with scaled-down versions of the festival every year. Due to the expansion of the Panathenaic festival, Athena became the most revered god (goddess) of Athens, in essence the patron god of the city-state, and the end of the festival would see a parade traveling to Athena's temple at the Acropolis, featuring a robe for the deity made by young Athenian women. Recitations of Homeric poems and athletic competitions became part of the festivities and prizes were given to the winners. New festivals were inaugurated such as the greater and lesser [[Dionysia]] which honored [[Dionysus]], the god of wine and pleasure, and vase paintings of that time frame highlighted drinking and exuberant celebratory scenes.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pomeroy|first=Sarah B.|title=Ancient Greece: a political, social, and cultural history|last2=Burstein|first2=Stanley M.|last3=Donlan|first3=Walter|last4=Roberts|first4=Jennifer Tolbert|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1999|location=New York, Oxford|pages=172-173}}</ref><ref name=":122">{{Cite web|last=Starr|first=Chester G.|title=Peisistratos: Tyrant of Athens|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Peisistratus|url-status=live|access-date=May 15, 2021|website=Britannica}}</ref> At the Dionysia festival, prizes were granted for the singing of [[Dithyramb|dithyrambs]] and by the year 534 BC approximately, [[tragedy]] plays were an annual competition occurrence.<ref name=":122" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Pomeroy|first=Sarah B.|title=Ancient Greece: a political, social, and cultural history|last2=Burstein|first2=Stanley M.|last3=Donlan|first3=Walter|last4=Roberts|first4=Jennifer Tolbert|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1999|location=New York, Oxford|pages=172}}</ref> Control of the temple of [[Demeter]], located in [[Eleusis]] and honoring the goddesses Demeter and [[Persephone]], was also accomplished by Peisistratos and as a result, the floor plan of a great hall, the [[Telesterion]], was redesigned so a much larger building (27m by 30m) could be built onsite, with completion during the last few years of Peisistratos' reign or during the time of his sons' rule. Completely made of stone, the Telesterion had marble upper works, a Doric style portico, and tiles. The [[Eleusinian Mysteries|Greater Mysteries]] festival at Eleusis was an annual event held in the fall of each year, and was a Pan-Hellenic cult event for people both inside and outside of the Attica region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Boardman|first=John|date=1975|title=Herakles, Peisistratos and Eleusis|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/630865|journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies|volume=95|pages=5|via=JSTOR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Evans|first=Nancy A.|date=2002|title=Sanctuaries, Sacrifices, and the Eleusinian Mysteries|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3270542|journal=Numen|volume=49, No. 3|pages=230, 237|via=JSTOR}}</ref> Other minor local cults sprinkled throughout Attica were either relocated entirely or in part to the city of Athens.<ref name=":122" />

[[File:Pangaion-Hills.jpg|thumb|A collection of mountains and hills in Greece filled with silver mines.]]
Peisistratos financed a majority of the upgrades in Athens through silver mines to pay for the construction that came with the newly expanding political culture.<ref name=":2" /> "Most of the revenues were gained from the mines of [[Pangaion Hills|Mount Pangaeum]]".<ref name=":2" /> According to the ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' the [[Silver mining|silver mines]] of [[Laurium]] were state property, and all dues were exacted from the growing trade at Athenian harbours.<ref name=":2" /> Another route of financing that Peisistratos pursued was a tax which was focused on the agriculture sectors. This tax was estimated to be around 5%.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/ancient-history-greece-biographies/pisistratus|title=Pisistratus|date=December 2019}}</ref> All of the money produced through these sources was instrumental in developing the Athenian economy, setting it up for success throughout the latter 6th century.<ref name=":2" /> In addition to this his political movements to protect immigrants and improve the quality of life in Athens were very important in maintaining their strong economy.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Greek Tyrants|last=Andrewes|first=Antony|publisher=Hutchinson’s University Library|year=1956|isbn=0090295641|location=London}}</ref>


==Popular tyrant==
==Popular tyrant==

Revision as of 14:57, 6 June 2021

For other people with the same name, see Peisistratus (disambiguation).
Peisistratos
19th-century depiction
Tyrant of Athens
In office
561 BC, 559–556 BC, 545–528 BC
Personal details
BornLate 7th century
Athens, Greece
Died528/27 BC
Athens, Greece

Peisistratos (Greek: Πεισίστρατος; born late 6th century BC, died 528/27 BC), also spelled Peisistratus or Pisistratus, the son of Hippocrates (not to be confused with the Greek physician Hippocrates), was a ruler of ancient Athens during most of the period between 561 and 527 BC, and his unification of Attica, the triangular peninsula of Greece containing Athens, along with economic and cultural improvements laid the groundwork for the later preeminence of Athens in ancient Greece[1][2] His legacy lies primarily in his institution of the Panathenaic Games, historically assigned the date of 566 BC, and the consequent first attempt at producing a definitive version of the Homeric epics. Peisistratos' championing of the lower class of Athens, the Hyperakrioi (see below), is an early example of populism.[3] While in power, he did not hesitate to confront the aristocracy, and he greatly reduced their privileges, confiscated their lands and gave them to the poor and funded many religious and artistic programs.[4] He did so with the goal of improving the economy and spreading the wealth more equally among the Athenian people.

Peisistratids is the common family or clan name for the three tyrants who ruled in Athens from 546 to 510 BC, referring to Peisistratos and his two sons, Hipparchos or Hipparkhos and Hippias.

Background

Ancient Greek governments traditionally were monarchy-based, dating back to the 9th and 10th centuries BC.[5] For the 7th and 6th centuries during the Archaic Period, political power began to be wielded by aristocratic families, who had accumulated wealth, land, and religious or political offices, as the Greek city-states begin to develop into existence. The most notable families could trace their lineage back to a legendary or mythological founder/king, such as Herakles (Heracles) or an ancestor who participated in the Trojan War, for example.[6][7] In the 6th and 5th century BC, prominent aristocratic families of Athens were the Peisistratids, Philaids, and the Alkmeonids.[8] The Peisistratid clan were originally from the Mycenaean Bronze Age city of Pylos, located in the region of Messenia, Greece, and traced their ancestry to the mythological king of Pylos, Neleus, whose son, Nestor, the Homeric hero, fought in the Trojan War.[9][10] The second clan, the Alkmeonids, came to prominence in the 6th century BC during the lifetime of their namesake Alkmeon and whose son, Megakles or Megacles, both opposed and supported Peisistratos at various points in his reign.[11][6] Due to the infighting between aristocratic families and the inability to maintain order, a tyrant was well-positioned to capitalize on the discontent of the poor and disenfranchised to make a bid for power.[12][5] In the age of antiquity and especially in the Archaic Age of Greece, a tyrant was not viewed in the modern sense of the definition, but rather, a ruler who obtained power unconstitutionally, usually thru the use of force, or inherited such power.[13] In the first documented instance of Athenian tyranny, Herodotus notes the story of Kylon or Cylon, an Olympics game champion, who gathered supporters, in either 636 or 632 BC, in an attempt to seize power by occupying the Acropolis. His attempt was unsuccessful and despite assurances to the contrary, Kylon and his supporters were allegedly killed by the Alkmeonids, resulting in the Alkmeonid curse.[14]

As a relation thru the mother of Peisistratos, Solon was an Athenian statesman and lawmaker who, in the early 6th century, restructured the social class system of Athens as well as reformed the law code, originated by Draco. Among his many reforms, Solon eliminated debt slavery which primarily impacted poor Athenians, who were in the majority, and giving the demos, the common people of the city-state, collectively a concession to ease their suffering and possibly preventing a civil war.[15] Peisistratos' later rise to power would draw on support from many of the poor people comprising this constituency.

Early life and rise to power

Location of Attica region on the mainland of Greece
Illustration from 1838 by M. A. Barth depicting the return of Peisistratos to Athens, accompanied by a woman dressed as Athena, as described by the Greek historian Herodotus

Not much is known about the early years of Peisistratos' life, but his father, Hippocrates, attended the Olympic games in either 608 or 604 and during a sacrifice to the gods, the meat was boiled without a fire and was witnessed by Chilon the Lacedaemonian. As a result of this sign, Chilon recommended that Hippocrates send away his wife, if she could bear children, and if he had a son, to disown him. Hippocrates did not follow Chilon's advice, and later, he had a son named Peisistratos.[16]

Originally, Peisistratus became known as an Athenian general who captured the port of Nisaea or Nisiai in the nearby city-state of Megara in approximately 565 BC.[17][16] This victory opened up the unofficial trade blockage that had been contributing to food shortages in Athens during the previous several decades.[18]

In the subsequent years after Solon and his departure from Athens, Aristotle reports that the city of Athens was still very divided and in turmoil, with many secondary sources noting the development of three distinct political factions competing for control of Athens and its government. According to Aristotle, these groups were partitioned in both a geographic (as documented below) and economic sense. The first two factions, based on the plains and the coast, appeared to exist prior to the formation of the third faction. The third group, referred to as men of the Highlands (or Hill), had various motives to align with Peisistratos, including those men in poverty, recent immigrants who feared loss of citizenship, and lenders who were denied the ability to collect their debts.[19] Names of the competing factions differ according to the accessed source, with some references offering details on each group's composition while others do not:

  • Pedieis or Pediakoi: the population that resided on the plains, led by Lycurgus. These landowners produced grain, giving them leverage during the food shortage.[20]
  • Paralioi or Paraloi: the population living along the coast, led by Megacles, an Alcmaeonid. The Paralioi party was not as strong as the Pedieis, primarily because they could not produce grain, like the plainsmen.[20] With the Megareans patrolling the sea, much of Athens' import/export power was limited.
  • Hyperakrioi: not previously represented by the first two factions or parties listed above, dwelled primarily in the hills and were by far the poorest of the Athenian population. Their only production was barter in items like honey and wool.[20] Peisistratos organized them into a third faction, the Hyperakrioi, or hill dwellers. This party grossly outnumbered the other two parties combined.[18] R.J. Hopper provides similar names for the factions and classifies them by their region in Attica: Pedion, Paralia, and Diakria.[21]
View of the Acropolis (high city), home to several temples, including the Parthenon

Pomeroy and her fellow three authors state the three factions of Athens are as follows:

  • the Men of the Plain: the population comprised mostly of large landowners.
  • the Men of the Coast: the population likely included fishermen and craftsmen.
  • the Men of the Hill: the population containing the poorer residents of the Attic highlands, and possibly including residents of Attica cities as well.[22]

Herodotus provides the following information about the three groups:

  • Plains district: led by Lykourgos, son of Aristoleides.
  • Coastal district: led by Megakles, son of Alkmeon.
  • Hill district: formed by Peisistratos in an effort to become tyrant of Athens.[16]

His role in the Megarian conflict gained Peisistratos popularity in Athens, but he did not have the political clout to seize power. In approximately the year 561 BC, Herodotus writes how Peisistratos intentionally wounded himself and his mules, asking the Athenian people to provide bodyguards for protection and reminding them of his prior accomplishments, including the port capture of Nisiai. Peisistratos had driven his chariot into the agora or marketplace of Athens, claiming he had been wounded by his enemies outside of town, and thus, the people of Athens selected some of their men to function as a bodyguard, armed with clubs rather than spears, for him. Previously, he had assumed control of the Hyperakrioi, which was not an aristocratic group like the other two Athens factions, by promoting his democratic program and securing a mutual agreement with the members or demos of the faction. By obtaining support from this vast number of the poorer population and receiving the protection of bodyguards, he was able to overrun and seize the Acropolis as well as grasp the reins of the government.[16][23] The Athenians were open to a tyranny similar to that under Solon, who previously had been offered the tyranny of Athens but declined, and in the early part of the Archaic Age, the rivalries among the aristocratic clans was fierce, making a single-ruler tyranny an attractive option, with the promise of possible stability and internal peace, and Peisistratos' ruse won him further prominence.[24] With the Acropolis in his possession and with the support of his bodyguard, he declared himself tyrant.[25]

Periods of power/three attempts at tyranny

First period of power

Peisistratos assumed and held power for three different periods of time, ousted from political office and exiled twice during his reign, before taking command of Athens for the third, final, and longest period of time from 546-528 BC. His first foray into power started in the

City of ancient Athens and its surrounding towns. The Long Walls shown were not built until the 5th century BC.

year 561 and lasted about five years His first ouster from office was circa 556/555 BC after the other two factions, the Plains people led by Lycurgus and the Coastal people led by Megakles, normally at odds with each other, joined forces and removed him from power.[26] Different sources provide conflicting or unspecified time intervals for the periods of Peisistratos' reign. For example, Herodotus writes that Megakles' and Lykourgos' followers combined after a short time to expel Peisistratos from power.[27] Aristotle comments that Peisistratos was forced out during the year of the archonship of Hegesias, five years after he originally assumed his first tyranny in Athens.[28]

Exile and second period of power

He was exiled for three to six years during which the agreement between the Pedieis (Plains) and the Paralioi (Coastal) fell apart.[29] Soon after, in the year 556 BC or so, Megakles invited Peisistratos back for a return to power upon the condition he, Peisistratos, marry Megakles' daughter. According to Herodotus, the two men concocted a very creative method to rally the people of Athens back to Peisistratos' side. A tall, almost six foot woman, Phya, from the deme or rural village of Paiania was selected to pose as the goddess, Athena, by being dressed in full armor, riding in a chariot, and being counselled on how to portray the goddess. Heralds were sent ahead to announce that Athena herself was bringing Peisistratos back to her acropolis(Athens) and that she exalted him above all other men. Word traveled fast to the people throughout the villages and even to those in the city believing that Phya was the goddess Athena and consequently, Peisistratos was welcomed back by the awestruck Athenians.[27] How much of this story is based in facts versus an oral fabrication or exaggeration passed down to Herodotus is not entirely known.[26] Lavelle writes that this story provides a Homer-type mythological tie-in to the connection between the gods and Greek heroes where Peisistratos' prior resume as a warrior and general would be viewed as heroic and furthermore, Peisistratos would be viewed in a similar manner as the Greek hero Odysseus, who was viewed as cunning and having a special relationship with Athena.[30] It is debated to what extent this staged event impacted the return of many to his side.[31] Krentz postulates that the story should be viewed in the context of a premeditated performance of Athena returning to the temple Acropolis dedicated to her.[32] While some argue that the general public believed he had won the favor of the goddess, others instead put forward the idea that the public were aware that he was using the chariot ride as a political maneuver, drawing comparisons between himself and the ancient kings of Athens.[31][33][34]

Conflict, second exile, and return to power for third time

Soon after, Herodotus reports that Peisistratos, who had been previously married and had two grown sons, did not want to have any children with his new wife, the daughter of Megakles, and would not have intercourse with her in the traditional manner. Apparently, Peisistratos was unwilling to compromise the political futures of his children (Hipparchos and Hippias). Furious, Megakles broke off this short-lived alliance with Peisistratos, and drove Peisistratos into exile for a second time, with the help of Peisistratos' enemies.[35][36] During the length of his exile lasting approximately ten years, Peisistratos relocated to Rhaicelus or Rhaecelus, notable for its good agricultural base, in the Strymon river region of northern Greece, and eventually settled in the vicinity of Mount Pangaeus or Pangaion, accumulating wealth from the gold and silver mines located nearby.[37][38] Financed by the mining money, he hired mercenary soldiers and bolstered with the support of allies such as the Thebans and the affluent Lygdamis of the island Naxos, he looked southward for a return to power. In 546 BC, using Eretria as a base and supported by Eretrian cavalry, Peisistratos landed at Marathon on the northern side of Attica and advanced towards Athens, joined by some local sympathizers from Athens and the surrounding demes. The remaining Athenians mustered a force in opposition and met Peisistratos' forces at Pallene.[39][40] Providing some background details, Herodotus comments that just before the battle commences a seer gave Peisistratos a prophecy that the net has been cast and the tuna will swarm through. With the prophecy both welcomed and understood by Peisistratos, his troops advanced and attacked the Athenian forces who were resting after lunch, easily routing them. While the Athenians retreated and in order to prevent them from reforming their forces, Peisistratos directed his sons to ride after the routed Athenians and announce that they should return home, retaining no anxiety or fear from the situation at hand. With those instructions, the Athenians complied and Peisistratos was able to return to rule Athens for a third time as tyrant, with his reign lasting from 546 BC till his death in 528/527 BC.[41]

Achievements and contributions to Athens during third and final tyranny

Analysis of secondary sources regarding both the length, as mentioned previously, and the accomplishments of Peisistratos' first two tyrannies are conflicting and very sparse in details, respectively. For instance, Lavelle hypothesizes that Megakles and the Alkmeonids still

Location of cities of ancient Greece and neighbors; Mt. Pangaeus

held the majority of the political offices in the Athens government as part of the price and negotiation process that Peisistratos had to pay in order to become tyrant, and consequently, Peisistratos perhaps only functioned as a figurehead during his first two times in power.[42]

During the three reigns of Peisistratos in the mid to latter part of the 6th century BC, Athens was beginning its transition to becoming the largest and most dominant of the cities on the Attica peninsula, which is about the size of Rhode Island in the United States.[43] Starr states that Athens was coalescing into the framework of a city, rather than a loose affiliation of neighboring villages.[44] Perhaps next in importance was Piraeus, the main port city of Attica, just 5 miles southwest of Athens, and this port location was key to granting Athens easy access to maritime trade opportunities and the ocean waterways.[45] Other notable cities in Attica include Marathon and Eleusis.

Culture, religion, and arts

With an emphasis on promoting the city of Athens as a cultural center and enhancing his prestige, Peisistratos instituted a number of actions to show his support for the gods and patronage of the arts. A permanent copying of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey was commissioned by Peisistratos and he also increased the visibility of the Panathenaic festival, whose origins date from earlier in the 6th century and was celebrated to a large degree every four years, with scaled-down versions of the festival every year. Due to the expansion of the Panathenaic festival, Athena became the most revered god (goddess) of Athens, in essence the patron god of the city-state, and the end of the festival would see a parade traveling to Athena's temple at the Acropolis, featuring a robe for the deity made by young Athenian women. Recitations of Homeric poems and athletic competitions became part of the festivities and prizes were given to the winners. New festivals were inaugurated such as the greater and lesser Dionysia which honored Dionysus, the god of wine and pleasure, and vase paintings of that time frame highlighted drinking and exuberant celebratory scenes.[46][47] At the Dionysia festival, prizes were granted for the singing of dithyrambs and by the year 534 BC approximately, tragedy plays were an annual competition occurrence.[47][48] Control of the temple of Demeter, located in Eleusis and honoring the goddesses Demeter and Persephone, was also accomplished by Peisistratos and as a result, the floor plan of a great hall, the Telesterion, was redesigned so a much larger building (27m by 30m) could be built onsite, with completion during the last few years of Peisistratos' reign or during the time of his sons' rule. Completely made of stone, the Telesterion had marble upper works, a Doric style portico, and tiles. The Greater Mysteries festival at Eleusis was an annual event held in the fall of each year, and was a Pan-Hellenic cult event for people both inside and outside of the Attica region.[49][50] Other minor local cults sprinkled throughout Attica were either relocated entirely or in part to the city of Athens.[47]

Popular tyrant

Didrachm of Athens, 545–510 BC
Obv: Four-spoked wheel Rev: Incuse square, divided diagonally
Silver didrachm of Athens of heraldic type from the time of Peisistratos, 545–510 BC
Obol of Athens, 545–525 BC
Obv: An archaic Gorgoneion Rev: Square incuse
An archaic silver obol of Athens of heraldic type from the time of Peisistratos, 545–525 BC

As opposed to the modern definition of a tyrant, which is a single ruler, often violent and oppressive, Peisistratos' career was a model example of tyranny, a non-heritable position taken by purely personal ability, often in violation of tradition or constitutional norms.[citation needed] We see this in remarks by both Herodotus and Aristotle. Herodotus, in his Histories, wrote that Peisistratos, "not having disturbed the existing magistrates nor changed the ancient laws ... administered the State under that constitution of things which was already established, ordering it fairly and well",[51][non-primary source needed] while Aristotle wrote that "his administration was temperate ... and more like constitutional government than a tyranny".[52][non-primary source needed]

Peisistratos often tried to distribute power and benefits rather than hoard them, with the intent of easing stress between the economic classes. The elites who had held power in the Areopagus Council were allowed to retain their archonships. For the lower classes, he cut taxes and created a band of travelling judges to provide justice for the citizens. Peisistratos enacted a popular program to beautify Athens and promote the arts. He minted coins with Athena's symbol (the owl), although this was only one type on the so-called Wappenmünzen (heraldic coins) and not a regular device as on the later, standard silver currency. Under his rule were introduced two new forms of poetry, the dithyramb and tragic drama, and the era also saw growth in theatre, arts, and sculpture. He commissioned the permanent copying and archiving of Homer's two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, and the canon of Homeric works is said to derive from this particular archiving. Much of Athens grandeur started with Peisistratos and his push for larger and more luxurious buildings.

Three attempts at tyranny

With Peisistratos' successful invasion and capture of Nisaea, he attained great political standing in the assembly. He initially met with resistance from nobles like Megacles, the son of Alcmaeon, and Lycurgus, the son of Aristolaïdes, who had shared power between them. Megacles came over to Peisistratos' side and, with his help, Peisistratos was accepted as tyrant by the Athenian assembly in 561, and, according to Herodotus, he "administered the state constitutionally and organized the state's affairs properly and well".[51] However, he was soon thereafter ousted. Herodotus explains his exile "Not much later, however, the supporters of Megacles and those of Lycurgus came to an understanding and expelled him".

He soon had a second chance. Megacles invited him back in 556 on condition that he marry Megacles' daughter. Peisistratos returned in triumph accompanied by a tall, local woman named Phye, whom he passed off as Athena. The awestruck Athenians thus accepted his second tyranny. Peisistratus, however, refused to impregnate Megacles' daughter, not wanting to dilute his family's power, which ended their coalition. Peisistratos was forced to leave Attica entirely. During his nearly ten-year exile, he aligned himself with powerful individuals, and accumulated great wealth. With a strong personal army, he marched to Marathon and from there to Athens. His popularity soared and many locals supported him. Thus, in 546 BC, he began his third and final tyranny.[53] With this tyranny being one of the longest lasting tyrannies in classical Greece's history.

Policies

The Athenians celebrating the return of Peisistratos.

Peisistratos' main policies were aimed at strengthening the economy, and similar to Solon, he was concerned about both agriculture and commerce. He offered land and loans to the needy. He encouraged the cultivation of olives and the growth of Athenian trade, finding a way to the Black Sea and even Italy and France. Under Peisistratos, fine Attic pottery travelled to Ionia, Cyprus and Syria. In Athens, Peisistratos' public building projects provided jobs to people in need while simultaneously making the city a cultural centre. He replaced the private wells of the aristocrats with public fountain houses. Peisistratos also built the first aqueduct in Athens, opening a reliable water supply to sustain the large population.[54]

Legacy

Peisistratos died in 527 or 528 BC. His eldest son, Hippias, succeeded him as tyrant of Athens. Hippias and his brother, Hipparchus, ruled the city much as their father had. After a successful murder plot against Hipparchus conceived by Harmodius and Aristogeiton, Hippias became paranoid and oppressive. This change caused the people of Athens to hold Hippias in much lower regard. The Alcmaeonid family helped depose the tyranny by bribing the Delphic oracle to tell the Spartans to liberate Athens, which they did in 508 BC. The Peisistratids were not executed, but rather were mostly forced into exile. The surviving Peisistratid ruler, Hippias, went on to aid the Persians in their attack on Marathon (490 BC), acting as a guide.[55]

After the death of Peisistratus, Athens was much less important politically and with military status compared to Sparta. Nonetheless, the religious and patriotic unification of Athens had made great progress during Peisistratus's ruling. As Aristotle reports, it became a common saying that the tyranny of Peisistratus had been the age of Cronus, the golden age.[56]

The poet Dante in Purgatorio XV of the Comedia uses Peisistratos as an example of meekness since he was well known for being able to placate wrath with a gentle answer.

According to Suda the bodyguards of Peisistratos were called wolf-feet (Λυκόποδες), because they always had their feet covered with wolf-skins, to prevent frostbite; alternatively because they had a wolf symbol on their shields.[57]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Everdell, William R. (2000). The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 42. ISBN 978-0226224824.
  2. ^ Starr, Chester (April 2019). "Peisistratus: TYRANT OF ATHENS". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  3. ^ Holladay, James (Apr 1977). "The Followers of Peisistratus". Greece & Rome. 24, no. 1. Cambridge University Press: 40. Retrieved May 22, 2021 – via JSTOR.
  4. ^ Shanaysha M. Furlow Sauls, The Concept of Instability and the Theory of Democracy in the Federalist, (PhD diss., Duke University, 2008), p. 77
  5. ^ a b "Tyrant, ancient Greece". Britannica. Retrieved 2021-04-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  6. ^ a b Higbie, Carolyn (2009). Strassler, Robert B. (ed.). The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories, Appendix L. New York: Anchor Books. p. 786.
  7. ^ Dewald, Carolyn (2009). Strassler, Robert B. (ed.). The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories, Appendix T. New York: Anchor Books. p. 835.
  8. ^ Higbie, Carolyn (2009). Strassler, Robert B. (ed.). The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories, Appendix L. New York: Anchor Books. p. 791.
  9. ^ Macquire, Kelly (October 6, 2020). "Pylos". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved June 3, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  10. ^ Silk, M. S. (2004). Homer: The Iliad (ProQuest Ebook Central). Cambridge University Press. p. 28.
  11. ^ Herodotus (2007). Strassler, Robert B. (ed.). The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories. trans. Andrea L. Purvis. New York: Anchor Books. 1.60, 1.61.
  12. ^ "The Tyrants". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved April 30, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  13. ^ Cartwright, Mark (March 20, 2018). "Ancient Greek Government". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 7, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  14. ^ Herodotus (2007). Strassler, Robert B. (ed.). The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories. trans. Andrea L. Purvis. New York: Anchor Books. 1.59.
  15. ^ "Ancient Greek Poleis Systems of Government: Athens and Sparta" (PDF). p. 6. Retrieved May 8, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  16. ^ a b c d Herodotus (2007). Strassler, Robert B. (ed.). The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories. trans. Andrea L. Purvis. New York: Anchor Books. 1.59.
  17. ^ Chester G. Starr, ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA Peisistratus TYRANT OF ATHENS Archived 2016-07-01 at the Wayback Machine
  18. ^ a b "Ancient Greek Poleis Systems of Government: Athens and Sparta" (PDF). p. 6-7. Retrieved May 8, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  19. ^ Aristotle (1914). Aristotle on the Athenian Constitution. trans. F. G. Kenyon. London, England: G. Bell and Sons, LTD. pp. 21–23.
  20. ^ a b c French, A. (1959). "The Party of Peisistratos". Greece & Rome. 6, no. 1: 46, 49. Retrieved May 20, 2021 – via JSTOR.
  21. ^ Hopper, R. J. (1961). "'Plain', 'Shore', and 'Hill' in Early Athens". The Annual of the British School at Athens. 56: 194 – via JSTOR.
  22. ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley; Donlan, Walter; Roberts, Jennifer Tolbert (1999). Ancient Greece: a political, social, and cultural history. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 169–170.
  23. ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley; Donlan, Walter; Roberts, Jennifer Tolbert (1999). Ancient Greece: A political, social and cultural history. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 170.
  24. ^ Goušchin, Valerij (1999). "Pisistratus' Leadership in A. P. 13.4 and the Establishment of the Tyranny of 561/60 B. C.". The Classical Quarterly. New Series. 49: 18–22. doi:10.1093/cq/49.1.14. JSTOR 639486.
  25. ^ Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution, Part 13, 24; Herodotus, The Histories, 1.59; Plutarch, “Life of Solon”, in Plutarch’s Lives (London: Printed by W. M'Dowell for J. Davis, 1812), 185.
  26. ^ a b Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley; Donlan, Walter; Roberts, Jennifer Tolbert (1999). Ancient Greece: A political, social and cultural history. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 170.
  27. ^ a b Herodotus (2007). Strassler, Robert B. (ed.). The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories. trans. Andrea L. Purvis. New York: Anchor Books. 1.60.
  28. ^ Aristotle (1914). Aristotle on the Athenian Constitution. trans. F.G. Kenyon. London, England: G. Bell and Sons, LTD. p. 24.
  29. ^ "Ancient Greek Poleis Systems of Government: Athens and Sparta" (PDF). p. 6-7. Retrieved May 8, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  30. ^ Lavelle, B.M; (2005). Fame, Money, and Power : The Rise of Peisistratos and Democratic Tyranny at Athens (ProQuest Ebook Central). University of Michigan Press. p. 103.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ a b Connor, W.R. (1987). "Tribes, Festivals and Precessions; Civic Ceremonial and Political Manipulation in Archaic Greece". Journal of Hellenic Studies. 107: 40–50. doi:10.2307/630068. JSTOR 630068.
  32. ^ Krentz, Peter (2007). Strassler, Robert B. (ed.). The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories, Appendix A. New York: Anchor Books. p. 724.
  33. ^ Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution, Part 14.
  34. ^ Lavelle, B. M. (2005). Fame, Money and Power; The Rise of Peisistratos and Democratic Tyranny at Athens. University of Michigan Press. pp. 118–122.
  35. ^ Herodotus (2007). Strassler, Robert B. (ed.). The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories. trans. Andrea L. Purvis. New York: Anchor Books. 1.61.
  36. ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley M.; Donlan, Walter; Roberts, Jennifer Tolbert (1999). Ancient Greece: A political, social, and cultural history. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 170–171.
  37. ^ Cole, J. W. (1975). "Peisistratus on the Strymon". Greece & Rome. 22 (1): 42–44. doi:10.1017/S0017383500020052. ISSN 0017-3835. JSTOR 642830.
  38. ^ Lavelle, B.M. (January 18, 2005). Fame, Money, and Power : The Rise of Peisistratos and Democratic Tyranny at Athens. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. pp. 127–128.
  39. ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley; Donlan, Walter; Roberts, Jennifer Tolbert (1999). Ancient Greece: a political, social, and cultural history. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 171.
  40. ^ Aristotle (1914). Aristotle on the Athenian Constitution. Translated by F.G. Kenyon. London: G. Bell And Sons, LTD. pp. 25–26.
  41. ^ Herodotus (2009). Strassler, Robert B. (ed.). The Landmark Herodotus, The Histories. trans. Andrea L. Purvis. New York: Anchor Books. 1.62-1.64.
  42. ^ Lavelle, B. M. (2005). Fame, Money, and Power: The Rise of Peisistratos and Democratic Tyranny at Athens (ProQuest Ebook Central). Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 114.
  43. ^ Boegehold, Alan L. (1996). Strassler, Robert B. (ed.). The Landmark Thucydides, A Comprehensive Guide to The Peloponnesian War, Appendix A. New York: Free Press. p. 577.
  44. ^ Starr, Chester (April 2019). "Peisistratus: TYRANT OF ATHENS". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  45. ^ Cartwright, Mark (June 2, 2013). "Piraeus". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 15, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  46. ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley M.; Donlan, Walter; Roberts, Jennifer Tolbert (1999). Ancient Greece: a political, social, and cultural history. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 172–173.
  47. ^ a b c Starr, Chester G. "Peisistratos: Tyrant of Athens". Britannica. Retrieved May 15, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  48. ^ Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley M.; Donlan, Walter; Roberts, Jennifer Tolbert (1999). Ancient Greece: a political, social, and cultural history. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 172.
  49. ^ Boardman, John (1975). "Herakles, Peisistratos and Eleusis". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 95: 5 – via JSTOR.
  50. ^ Evans, Nancy A. (2002). "Sanctuaries, Sacrifices, and the Eleusinian Mysteries". Numen. 49, No. 3: 230, 237 – via JSTOR.
  51. ^ a b Herodotus. The Histories. 1.59.5b.
  52. ^ Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution, Part 16.2.
  53. ^ Lavelle, Brian (2010). "Pisistratos". Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome.
  54. ^ Sarah B. Pomeroy, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, Jennifer Tolbert Roberts, David Tandy (2012). Ancient Greece: a political, social, and cultural history. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 191–2025
  55. ^ Herodotus (1998). The Histories. Translated by Waterfield, Robin. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192824257.
  56. ^ Starr, Chester (April 2019). "Peisistratus: Tyrant of Athens". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  57. ^ Suda, la.812

References

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Peisistratus".
  • Berti, Monica. Fra tirannide e democrazia: Ipparco figlio di Carmo e il destino dei Pisistratidi ad Atene. Alessandria: Edizioni Dell’Orso, 2004
  • Borthwick, Edward K. “Music and Dance.” Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean World: Greece and Rome. Eds. Grant, Michael and Kitzinger, Rachel. 3 vols. New York: Scribner's, 1988. Vol. 1, 1507-8.
  • Cahill, Thomas. Sailing the Wine Dark Sea: Why the Greeks Matter. New York: Doubleday, 2003.
  • William Everdell, The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.
  • French, A. “The Party of Peisistratos.” Greece & Rome. Vol. 6, No. 1, March 1959. 45-57
  • Garland, Robert. “Greek Spectacles and Festivals.” Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean World: Greece and Rome. Eds. Grant, Michael and Kitzinger, Rachel. 3 vols. New York: Scribner's, 1988. Vol. 1, 1148.
  • Hornblower, Simon and Spawforth, Anthony eds. “Peisistratus.” The Oxford Classical Dictionary. 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 2003.
  • Lavelle, B. M. Fame, Money and Power: The Rise of Peisistratos and “Democratic” Tyranny at Athens. The University of Michigan Press, 2005.
  • Lavelle B. M. “The Compleat Angler: Observations on the Rise of Peisistratos in Herodotos (1.59-64). The Classical Quarterly. New Series, Vol. 41, No. 2, 1991. 317-324.
  • Thucydides. “Funeral Oration of Pericles.” The Peloponnesian War. Trans. Benjamin Jowett, 1881. Ed. Paul Brians. December 18, 1998. <http://katie.luther.edu/moodle/mod/resource/view.php?id=68564>
  • Roisman, Joseph, and translated by J.C Yardley, Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander (Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2011) ISBN 1-4051-2776-7
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