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== Glaciers ==
== Glaciers ==
The first inventory was compiled in 1996 by the GSB, and published (after revision) in 1999.<ref name="USGS" /> The same year, another inventory was published by [[China Science Publishing & Media]] on the basis of near-infrared [[Landsat 2|Landsat 7]] imagery (1975–1978) and some aerial snapshots — 649 glaciers were located, covering an area of 1,304 sq. km. and a volume of 150 cubic kilometer.<ref name="USGS" /> A more accurate inventory, prepared from 1993 [[SPOT (satellite)|SPOT Imagery]] and GSI aerial surveys of 1960s, was published in 2001 by the [[International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development|International Center for Integrated Mountain Development]] (ICIMOD) — 677 glaciers were located, covering an area of 1,317 sq. km.<ref name="USGS" />
The first inventory was compiled in 1996 by Phuntso Norbu (of the Division of Geology and Mines) using satellite data from 1989-90 and [[topographic map]] of 1962/63.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=国立国会図書館デジタルコレクション - エラー|url=https://dl.ndl.go.jp/view/download/digidepo_8958429_po_BGR20P29.pdf?contentNo=1&alternativeNo=|access-date=2021-06-11|website=dl.ndl.go.jp|language=ja}}</ref> A revised edition was published in 1999 by GSB.<ref name="USGS" /><ref name=":0" /> The same year, another inventory was published by [[China Science Publishing & Media]] on the basis of near-infrared [[Landsat 2|Landsat 7]] imagery (1975–1978) and some aerial snapshots — 649 glaciers were located, covering an area of 1,304 sq. km. and a volume of 150 cubic kilometer.<ref name="USGS" /> A more accurate inventory, prepared from 1993 [[SPOT (satellite)|SPOT Imagery]] and GSI aerial surveys of 1960s, was published in 2001 by the [[International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development|International Center for Integrated Mountain Development]] (ICIMOD) — 677 glaciers were located, covering an area of 1,317 sq. km.<ref name="USGS" />


In order of area (or volume), the vast majority are classifiable as "mountain glaciers and "valley glacier".<ref name="USGS" /> "Ice apron", and "niche glacier" types exist in significant numbers but occupy far less area (or volume).<ref name="USGS" /> Far rarer are "cirque glaciers", and "ice caps".<ref name="USGS" /> The "valley glaciers" are located along the southern flanks of the main topographic divide of the Bhutan Himalaya, and are characterized by debris-mantled snouts.<ref name="USGS" /> They are primarily concentrated in the upper part of the Pho Chhu basin and Northern Basin.<ref name="USGS" /> "Mountain glaciers" are common on peaks, and back walls of valley glaciers.<ref name="USGS" /> "Cirque glaciers", "ice caps", "ice aprons", and "niche glaciers" are common on plateaus and ridges that stretch to the south from the main Himalayan divide; they are virtually debris-free.<ref name="USGS" /> [[Rock glacier|Rock glaciers]] exist in many places along the Snowman Trekking Route in northwestern and northern Bhutan.<ref name="USGS" />
In order of area (or volume), the vast majority are classifiable as "valley glacier", and "mountain glacier".<ref name="USGS" /> "Ice apron", and "niche glacier" types exist in significant numbers but occupy far less area (or volume).<ref name="USGS" /> Far rarer are "cirque glaciers", and "ice caps".<ref name="USGS" /> The "valley glaciers" are located along the southern flanks of the main topographic divide of the Bhutan Himalaya, and are characterized by debris-mantled snouts.<ref name="USGS" /> They are primarily concentrated in the upper part of the Pho Chhu basin and Northern Basin.<ref name="USGS" /> "Mountain glaciers" are common on peaks, and back walls of valley glaciers.<ref name="USGS" /> "Cirque glaciers", "ice caps", "ice aprons", and "niche glaciers" are common on plateaus and ridges that stretch to the south from the main Himalayan divide; they are virtually debris-free.<ref name="USGS" /> [[Rock glacier|Rock glaciers]] exist in many places along the Snowman Trekking Route in northwestern and northern Bhutan.<ref name="USGS" />


Most of the glaciers are summer-accumulation type.<ref name="USGS" /> [[Snow line#Glacier equilibrium line|Equilibrium line altitude]] (ELA) information is scarce, rendering analysis of glacier response to local climatic conditions a difficult task.<ref name="USGS" /> The relative height difference between the ELA and the lower limit of permafrost is probably the smallest in the Asian Continent.<ref name="USGS" /> The longest glacier (as of 2001) is the Wachey Glacier in Pho Chhu river-basin, measuring about 20.1 km.<ref name="USGS" /> The highest elevation of glacier basins is probably at about 7,500 m, near [[Gangkhar Puensum]] in the [[Mangde Chhu]] basin.<ref name="USGS" /> Lowest snout-elevations are found to be slightly above 4,000 m, for glaciers in the the [[Kuri Chhu]] basin and [[Manas River|Drangme Chhu]] basin; debris free glaciers exhibit lower snouts.<ref name="USGS" />
The longest glacier (as of 2001) is the Wachey Glacier in Pho Chhu river-basin, measuring about 20.1 km.<ref name="USGS" /> The highest elevation of glacier basins is probably at about 7,500 m, near [[Gangkhar Puensum]] in the [[Mangde Chhu]] basin.<ref name="USGS" /> Lowest snout-elevations are found to be slightly above 4,000 m, for glaciers in the the [[Kuri Chhu]] basin and [[Manas River|Drangme Chhu]] basin; debris free glaciers exhibit lower snouts.<ref name="USGS" />

=== Variation ===

=== Local Climate ===
Most of the glaciers are summer-accumulation type and heavily prone to fluctuations in summer temperature.<ref name="USGS" /> However [[Snow line#Glacier equilibrium line|equilibrium line altitude]] (ELA) information is scarce, rendering analysis of glacier response to local climatic conditions a difficult task.<ref name="USGS" /> The relative height difference between the ELA (as measured in few observations) and the lower limit of permafrost is probably the smallest in the Asian Continent.<ref name="USGS" />

=== Global climate ===
A 2003 survey of 103 debris-free glaciers (small, and of similar length) from 1963 to 1993 determined that 90 were retreating, 13 were stationary, and none was advancing.<ref name="USGS" /><ref name=":0" /> The magnitude of retreat was larger in the south and smaller in the north because of the higher sensitivity of glacier mass balance to relatively warmer temperature and greater precipitation in the south.<ref name="USGS" /><ref name=":0" /> Excluding the ones with unclear variations, an areal comparison of 66 glaciers exhibited a 8.1% shrinkage.<ref name="USGS" /><ref name=":0" />

<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Veettil|first=Bijeesh Kozhikkodan|last2=Bianchini|first2=Nilceia|last3=de Andrade|first3=André Medeiros|last4=Bremer|first4=Ulisses Franz|last5=Simões|first5=Jefferson Cardia|last6=de Souza Junior|first6=Enoil|date=2016-06-01|title=Glacier changes and related glacial lake expansion in the Bhutan Himalaya, 1990–2010|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-015-0853-7|journal=Regional Environmental Change|language=en|volume=16|issue=5|pages=1267–1278|doi=10.1007/s10113-015-0853-7|issn=1436-378X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mahagaonkar|first=Anirudha|last2=Wangchuk|first2=Sonam|last3=Ramanathan|first3=A. L.|last4=Tshering|first4=Dendup|last5=Mahanta|first5=Chandan|date=2017-01-01|title=Glacier Environment and Climate Change in Bhutan—An Overview|url=https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-climate-change/jcc170010|journal=Journal of Climate Change|language=en|volume=3|issue=2|pages=1–10|doi=10.3233/JCC-170010|issn=2395-7611}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoy|first=Andreas|last2=Katel|first2=Om|last3=Thapa|first3=Pankaj|last4=Dendup|first4=Ngawang|last5=Matschullat|first5=Jörg|date=2016-06-01|title=Climatic changes and their impact on socio-economic sectors in the Bhutan Himalayas: an implementation strategy|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-015-0868-0|journal=Regional Environmental Change|language=en|volume=16|issue=5|pages=1401–1415|doi=10.1007/s10113-015-0868-0|issn=1436-378X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tshering|first=Phuntsho|last2=Fujita|first2=Koji|date=2016/03|title=First in situ record of decadal glacier mass balance (2003–2014) from the Bhutan Himalaya|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/first-in-situ-record-of-decadal-glacier-mass-balance-20032014-from-the-bhutan-himalaya/60CA9F7434385B199D1439689C167B9C|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=57|issue=71|pages=289–294|doi=10.3189/2016AoG71A036|issn=0260-3055}}</ref>

A 2008 [[United Nations]] report suggested that due to rising temperatures, glaciers in Bhutan were retreating at a rate of 30–40 meters per year and would melt within next 25 years.<ref name="BO2">{{cite web|last=Tshering|first=Namgay|date=2011-01-29|title=Himalayan glaciers not retreating, says new report|url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/himalayan-glaciers-not-retreating-says-new-report/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110207213137/http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/himalayan-glaciers-not-retreating-says-new-report/|archive-date=2011-02-07|access-date=2011-03-27|publisher=Bhutan Observer online}}</ref>


== Glacial lakes ==
== Glacial lakes ==
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==Glacial retreat and controversy==
==Glacial retreat and controversy==
Because the state of glaciers in Bhutan involves questions of [[climate change]], the topic is somewhat controversial. A 2008 [[United Nations]] report suggested that due to rising temperatures, glaciers in Bhutan were retreating at a rate of 30–40 meters per year, poised to make many lakes burst their banks and send millions of litres of floodwater downstream. This among many other [[environmental issues in Bhutan|climate-related issues]] identified in the report prompted the regional association of government ministers to establish the Southeast Asia Regional Health Emergency Fund in [[Thimphu]] in September 2007.<ref name="BO1">{{cite web|last=Tirwa|first=Badan|date=2008-01-19|title=Managing health disaster|url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/managing-health-disaster/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120120112/http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/managing-health-disaster/|archive-date=2011-01-20|access-date=2011-03-27|publisher=Bhutan Observer online|location=[[Thimphu]]}}</ref> Similarly, the member nations of [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC) adopted bilateral agreements including measures on climate change and glaciers at its summit in April 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/summit-declaration-ready-for-adoption/ |title=Summit declaration ready for adoption |first=Sonam |last=Pelden |date=2010-04-10 |publisher=Bhutan Observer online |access-date=2011-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120041637/http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/summit-declaration-ready-for-adoption/ |archive-date=2011-01-20 }}</ref>
The 2008 UN report also indicated Himalayan glaciers would melt within 25 years, however [[Prime Minister of Bhutan|Prime Minister]] [[Jigme Thinley]] expressed a more dim outlook in a press conference in late March 2010, stating, "Our glaciers are withdrawing very fast and we have reasons to worry that they may in fact disappear not in 2035, but even earlier."<ref name="BO4">{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/looking-beyond-hydropower/ |title=Looking beyond hydropower |date=2010-04-02 |first=Sonam |last=Pelden |publisher=Bhutan Observer online |access-date=2011-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003050052/http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/looking-beyond-hydropower/ |archive-date=2011-10-03 }}</ref> Further studies in 2009 indicated the rate of glacial melt in Bhutan was three times the world average, and that over the previous three decades regional temperatures had risen by 2.7&nbsp;°C (4.86&nbsp;°F). Satellite imaging also confirmed changes in glaciers and snow peaks, indicating increased runoff and decreased coverage. However, opinions varied on the effect of global warming in the Himalaya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/cancun-climate-talks/ |title=Cancun climate talks |first=Achut |last=Bhandari |publisher=Bhutan Observer online |date=2010-12-05 |access-date=2011-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119182814/http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/cancun-climate-talks/ |archive-date=2011-01-19 }}</ref> According to US geological survey report, 66 glaciers in Bhutan have decreased by 8.1 percent in the last 30 years.<ref name="Thorthormi">{{cite web|last=Pelden|first=Sonam|date=2010-09-03|title=Thorthormi water level brought down 43 cm|url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/thorthormi-water-level-brought-down-43-cm/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119113517/http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/thorthormi-water-level-brought-down-43-cm/|archive-date=2011-01-19|access-date=2011-03-27|publisher=Bhutan Observer online}}</ref>

{{multiple image |direction=vertical |width=300 |image1=Satellite image of Bhutan in April 2002.jpg |alt1=Satellite image of [[Bhutan]] (April 2002) |caption1=Satellite image of Bhutan (April 2002) |image2=Bhutan topo en.jpg |alt2=Topographical map of Bhutan (2006) |caption2=Topographical map of [[Bhutan]] (2006) |footer=Glaciers in Bhutan cover a substantial portion of its northern regions.}}

The 2008 UN report also indicated Himalayan glaciers would melt within 25 years,<ref name="BO2">{{cite web|last=Tshering|first=Namgay|date=2011-01-29|title=Himalayan glaciers not retreating, says new report|url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/himalayan-glaciers-not-retreating-says-new-report/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110207213137/http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/himalayan-glaciers-not-retreating-says-new-report/|archive-date=2011-02-07|access-date=2011-03-27|publisher=Bhutan Observer online}}</ref> however [[Prime Minister of Bhutan|Prime Minister]] [[Jigme Thinley]] expressed a more dim outlook in a press conference in late March 2010, stating, "Our glaciers are withdrawing very fast and we have reasons to worry that they may in fact disappear not in 2035, but even earlier."<ref name=BO4>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/looking-beyond-hydropower/ |title=Looking beyond hydropower |date=2010-04-02 |first=Sonam |last=Pelden |publisher=Bhutan Observer online |access-date=2011-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003050052/http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/looking-beyond-hydropower/ |archive-date=2011-10-03 }}</ref> Further studies in 2009 indicated the rate of glacial melt in Bhutan was three times the world average, and that over the previous three decades regional temperatures had risen by 2.7&nbsp;°C (4.86&nbsp;°F). Satellite imaging also confirmed changes in glaciers and snow peaks, indicating increased runoff and decreased coverage. However, opinions varied on the effect of global warming in the Himalaya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/cancun-climate-talks/ |title=Cancun climate talks |first=Achut |last=Bhandari |publisher=Bhutan Observer online |date=2010-12-05 |access-date=2011-03-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119182814/http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/cancun-climate-talks/ |archive-date=2011-01-19 }}</ref> According to US geological survey report, 66 glaciers in Bhutan have decreased by 8.1 percent in the last 30 years.<ref name="Thorthormi">{{cite web|last=Pelden|first=Sonam|date=2010-09-03|title=Thorthormi water level brought down 43 cm|url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/thorthormi-water-level-brought-down-43-cm/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119113517/http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/thorthormi-water-level-brought-down-43-cm/|archive-date=2011-01-19|access-date=2011-03-27|publisher=Bhutan Observer online}}</ref>


==List of glaciers and glacier lakes in Bhutan==
==List of glaciers and glacier lakes in Bhutan==
[[Image:Glacial lakes, Bhutan.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Glacial lakes]] in [[Bhutan]] (2002)]]
[[Image:Glacial lakes, Bhutan.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Glacial lakes]] in [[Bhutan]] (2002)]]{{Expand list|date=March 2011}}
[[Image:Mount Jomolhari 2009-10-11 a.jpg|thumb|300px|Snow-capped [[Mount Jomolhari]] in 2009 (photo by Cristopher Fynn)]]{{Expand list|date=March 2011}}
* Lunana glacier group, [[Laya Gewog|Laya]] and [[Lunana Gewog]]s, [[Gasa District]] ([[Jigme Dorji National Park]])
* Lunana glacier group, [[Laya Gewog|Laya]] and [[Lunana Gewog]]s, [[Gasa District]] ([[Jigme Dorji National Park]])
** Thorthormi Glacier and Lake. Thorthormi Lake, which appeared sometime after 1967, is the largest lake in Lunana, with a width of {{convert|30|m|ft}}.
** Thorthormi Glacier and Lake. Thorthormi Lake, which appeared sometime after 1967, is the largest lake in Lunana, with a width of {{convert|30|m|ft}}.

Revision as of 19:06, 11 June 2021

The glaciers of Bhutan, which covers about 3 percent of the total surface area, are an important renewable source of water for Bhutan's rivers.[1]

Not much historical information is available on these glacial systems; the first modern survey was conducted by Augusto Gansser-Biaggi in the 1970s, who developed a chronology of past glaciations, and warned of imminent glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF) in Lunana.[1] This prompted the Geological Survey of India (GSI) and Geological Survey of Bhutan (GSB) to carry out joint surveys in the mid-80s, and their report rejected Biaggi's threat-assessment.[1] On 7 October 1994, a GLOF from Luggye lake (part of Lunana glacial system) led to over 20 fatalities in Punakha.[1]

This disaster, the first of its kind in Modern Bhutan, increased the frequency of glacial-system-surveys by manifold.[1] Evaluation of GLOF hazard has since formed a significant component of glacial expeditions.[1] Multiple inventory-lists of glaciers and glacial lakes in Bhutan exist.[1][2] The precise figures vary to some extent, based on the methodology used.[1]

Glaciers

The first inventory was compiled in 1996 by Phuntso Norbu (of the Division of Geology and Mines) using satellite data from 1989-90 and topographic map of 1962/63.[3] A revised edition was published in 1999 by GSB.[1][3] The same year, another inventory was published by China Science Publishing & Media on the basis of near-infrared Landsat 7 imagery (1975–1978) and some aerial snapshots — 649 glaciers were located, covering an area of 1,304 sq. km. and a volume of 150 cubic kilometer.[1] A more accurate inventory, prepared from 1993 SPOT Imagery and GSI aerial surveys of 1960s, was published in 2001 by the International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) — 677 glaciers were located, covering an area of 1,317 sq. km.[1]

In order of area (or volume), the vast majority are classifiable as "valley glacier", and "mountain glacier".[1] "Ice apron", and "niche glacier" types exist in significant numbers but occupy far less area (or volume).[1] Far rarer are "cirque glaciers", and "ice caps".[1] The "valley glaciers" are located along the southern flanks of the main topographic divide of the Bhutan Himalaya, and are characterized by debris-mantled snouts.[1] They are primarily concentrated in the upper part of the Pho Chhu basin and Northern Basin.[1] "Mountain glaciers" are common on peaks, and back walls of valley glaciers.[1] "Cirque glaciers", "ice caps", "ice aprons", and "niche glaciers" are common on plateaus and ridges that stretch to the south from the main Himalayan divide; they are virtually debris-free.[1] Rock glaciers exist in many places along the Snowman Trekking Route in northwestern and northern Bhutan.[1]

The longest glacier (as of 2001) is the Wachey Glacier in Pho Chhu river-basin, measuring about 20.1 km.[1] The highest elevation of glacier basins is probably at about 7,500 m, near Gangkhar Puensum in the Mangde Chhu basin.[1] Lowest snout-elevations are found to be slightly above 4,000 m, for glaciers in the the Kuri Chhu basin and Drangme Chhu basin; debris free glaciers exhibit lower snouts.[1]

Variation

Local Climate

Most of the glaciers are summer-accumulation type and heavily prone to fluctuations in summer temperature.[1] However equilibrium line altitude (ELA) information is scarce, rendering analysis of glacier response to local climatic conditions a difficult task.[1] The relative height difference between the ELA (as measured in few observations) and the lower limit of permafrost is probably the smallest in the Asian Continent.[1]

Global climate

A 2003 survey of 103 debris-free glaciers (small, and of similar length) from 1963 to 1993 determined that 90 were retreating, 13 were stationary, and none was advancing.[1][3] The magnitude of retreat was larger in the south and smaller in the north because of the higher sensitivity of glacier mass balance to relatively warmer temperature and greater precipitation in the south.[1][3] Excluding the ones with unclear variations, an areal comparison of 66 glaciers exhibited a 8.1% shrinkage.[1][3]

[4][5][6][7]

A 2008 United Nations report suggested that due to rising temperatures, glaciers in Bhutan were retreating at a rate of 30–40 meters per year and would melt within next 25 years.[8]

Glacial lakes

Some glacial lakes, such as Thorthormi Lake in Lunana Gewog, are not a single bodies of water but collections supraglacial ponds.[9] Most glacial lakes identified as potentially dangerous feed into the Manas River and Puna Tsang (Sankosh) River water systems of north-central Bhutan.[10] During a GLOF, residents of nearby downstream villages may have as little as twenty minutes to evacuate; floodwaters from one 1994 GLOF at Luggye lake took about seven hours to reach Punakha, some 90 kilometres (56 mi) downstream.[11]

For public safety, these glaciers and glacial lakes are maintained by the Ministry of Economic Affairs' Department of Geology and Mines, an executive (cabinet) agency of the government of Bhutan.[12] The Department, as part of its environmental "mitigation projects," aims to lower the levels of glacial lakes and thereby avert GLOF-related disaster. In 2001, for example, scientists identified Lake Thorthormi as one that threatened imminent and catastrophic collapse. The situation was eventually relieved by carving a water channel from the lip of the lake to relieve water pressure.[13] The Department uses silent explosives and other means it considers environmentally friendly in order to minimize the ecological impact of its mitigation projects. These projects, however, remain difficult to conduct because of the weather, terrain, and relative lack of oxygen at the glacial lakes' altitudes. As of September 2010, GLOF early warning systems were slated for installation by mid-2011 in Punakha and Wangdue Phodrang Districts at a cost of USD4.2 million.[14]

Glacial retreat and controversy

The 2008 UN report also indicated Himalayan glaciers would melt within 25 years, however Prime Minister Jigme Thinley expressed a more dim outlook in a press conference in late March 2010, stating, "Our glaciers are withdrawing very fast and we have reasons to worry that they may in fact disappear not in 2035, but even earlier."[15] Further studies in 2009 indicated the rate of glacial melt in Bhutan was three times the world average, and that over the previous three decades regional temperatures had risen by 2.7 °C (4.86 °F). Satellite imaging also confirmed changes in glaciers and snow peaks, indicating increased runoff and decreased coverage. However, opinions varied on the effect of global warming in the Himalaya.[16] According to US geological survey report, 66 glaciers in Bhutan have decreased by 8.1 percent in the last 30 years.[17]

List of glaciers and glacier lakes in Bhutan

Glacial lakes in Bhutan (2002)
  • Lunana glacier group, Laya and Lunana Gewogs, Gasa District (Jigme Dorji National Park)
    • Thorthormi Glacier and Lake. Thorthormi Lake, which appeared sometime after 1967, is the largest lake in Lunana, with a width of 30 metres (98 ft).
    • Raphstreng (Rapstreng) Glacier and Lake. Raphstreng Lake appeared in 1958. It is just over 2 square kilometres (0.77 sq mi) and 107 metres (351 ft) deep.
    • Luggye (Lugge) Glaciers 1, 2, and Lake. Luggye Lake first appeared in 1967, has a depth of 142 metres (466 ft), and a width of 30 metres (98 ft). It produced a significant GLOF in 1994.[18]
    • Bechung Glacier and Lake.
    • Roduphu Glacial Lake, Laya Gewog (Mo Chhu (River) basin).
    • Sinchhe Glacial Lake, Laya Gewog (Mo Chhu (River) basin).
    • Gangchentag Lake at the base of Gangchentag Mountain, Laya Gewog, Gasa District.[19][20]
    • Wochey (Wachey) Glacier and Lake (Pho Chhu (River) basin). It is the single longest glacier in Bhutan at 20.1 kilometres (12.5 mi).
  • Northern Basin glacier group, disputed area along the Gasa District-China border (northeast of Jigme Dorji National Park). Runoff from these glaciers flows north into Tibet.[1][10]
  • Kuri Chhu (River) basin glacier group, Lhuntse and Trashiyangtse Districts in eastern Bhutan. These small glaciers have very low maximum and minimum elevations, between 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) and 4,000 metres (13,000 ft).[1]
  • Teri Kang Glacier and Lake, Laya Gewog (Jigme Dorji National Park). This dam-reinforced lake produced a devastating GLOF in the 1960s, partially destroying Punakha Dzong.[21]
  • Gankerphuensum Glacier, near Gankerphuensum (Mangde River basin). At an elevation of approximately 7,500 metres (24,600 ft), it is the highest glacier in Bhutan.[1]
  • Jomolhari Glacier, Jomolhari (Chomo Lhāri), Paro District (Pa River basin). At an elevation of 7,300 metres (24,000 ft), it is the second-highest glacier in Bhutan.[1]
  • Chubda Glacier and Lake, Bumthang District in north-central Bhutan (upper Chamkhar Chhu basin). Its large supraglacial lake was identified as a potential danger in 2001.[1]
  • Tsokar Glacier and Lake, Bumthang District (Chamkhar Chu basin).

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Iwata, Shuji (2010). Richard S. Williams, Jr & Jane G. Ferrigno (ed.). "Glaciers of Bhutan — An Overview" (PDF). Glaciers of Asia: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1386–F. USGS.
  2. ^ Mool, Pradeep K. (2001). Inventory of glaciers, glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods: monitoring and early warning systems in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region, Bhutan (PDF). Kathmandu: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD).
  3. ^ a b c d e "国立国会図書館デジタルコレクション - エラー" (PDF). dl.ndl.go.jp (in Japanese). Retrieved 2021-06-11.
  4. ^ Veettil, Bijeesh Kozhikkodan; Bianchini, Nilceia; de Andrade, André Medeiros; Bremer, Ulisses Franz; Simões, Jefferson Cardia; de Souza Junior, Enoil (2016-06-01). "Glacier changes and related glacial lake expansion in the Bhutan Himalaya, 1990–2010". Regional Environmental Change. 16 (5): 1267–1278. doi:10.1007/s10113-015-0853-7. ISSN 1436-378X.
  5. ^ Mahagaonkar, Anirudha; Wangchuk, Sonam; Ramanathan, A. L.; Tshering, Dendup; Mahanta, Chandan (2017-01-01). "Glacier Environment and Climate Change in Bhutan—An Overview". Journal of Climate Change. 3 (2): 1–10. doi:10.3233/JCC-170010. ISSN 2395-7611.
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  7. ^ Tshering, Phuntsho; Fujita, Koji (2016/03). "First in situ record of decadal glacier mass balance (2003–2014) from the Bhutan Himalaya". Annals of Glaciology. 57 (71): 289–294. doi:10.3189/2016AoG71A036. ISSN 0260-3055. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
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External links

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