Effects of pornography: Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Revision as of 06:30, 24 October 2021

The effects of pornography on individuals or their intimate relationships depend on the type of pornography used and differ from person to person. Consumption of pornographic material is associated with negative and positive impacts. It has been studied particularly for associations with addiction^[1] as well as effects on the brain over time. Some literature reviews suggest that pornographic images and films can be addictive,^[2]^[3] particularly when combined with masturbation,^[4] while others maintain that data remains inconclusive.^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8] Other research has looked at pornographic material's relation to acts of sexual violence, with varying results.^[9]^[10]

Methodology and key theories

Attachment style

Current research often views relationship and sexual satisfaction through the lens of attachment theory. There are generally four styles of attachment: anxious, avoidant, fearful, and secure attachment. Individuals with anxious attachment styles report strong fears of abandonment and distrust in their partners, as well as jealousy.^[11]^[12] Attachment style may be moderated by gender identity and sexual orientation, and both anxious and avoidant attached individuals report less satisfaction in their relationships, as well as sexual satisfaction.^[13] An individual's attachment style may play a role in their acceptance of pornography, in their own pornography consumption, and in their views of a partner's pornography consumption, however more research is needed to determine this relationship. One current hypothesis popularizes the idea that anxiously attached individuals will have more negative feelings towards the consumption of pornography.^[11]

Sexual scripting

Pornography research is also greatly influenced by script theory. Originally proposed by researcher Silvan Tomkins, script theory proposes that behavior is a series of "scripts," or programs in order to achieve a goal.^[14]^[15] These scripts provide meaning for specific behaviors in relation to a goal or desire. In 1986, Simon and Gagnon applied script theory to sexuality research, asserting that sexual scripts fall under a category of cultural scripts to regulate sexual behaviors.^[15] Modern research has applied this concept to work with pornography, and specifically how pornography may influence sexual scripts and behaviors. Some studies argue that pornography functions as a sexual script, cluing people in to certain signals and behaviors and influencing their own sexual behaviors in later encounters.^[14]^[16]

Pornography may alter individuals' expectations regarding sexual activity, which then impacts their ability to form and maintain romantic, or sexual, relationships. Pornography functions as a cultural script, a media through which individuals may pick up on or learn sexual cues.^[14]^[16] These cues lead individuals to express sexual behaviors and function in sexual situations at appropriate times. One concern is that, by relying on pornography for education on sexual cues or sexual scripts, individuals may have an altered sense of what sexuality and sexual intercourse truly entail, or how to behave sexually in a real-life scenario.^[17]

Affection exchange theory

Affection Exchange Theory classifies human affection and interaction as innate acts which assist individuals in mating, reproduction, and survival, as well as in developing and maintaining healthy relationships.^[18] This theory can be extended to sexuality to consider sexual acts as significant contributions to affection behavior. Humans express affection through a myriad of actions, including verbal affirmations and physical touch. This theory takes a more modern approach to traditional evolutionary theories, and extrapolates that affection communication plays a role in sexual selection and reproduction.^[18] Furthermore, Affection Exchange Theory posits that, although often found together, affectionate expression is separate from affectionate emotion. An individual may express unauthentic affection (expression without emotion), or may feel affection that they suppress (emotion without expression). Beyond relationship findings, more affectionate people also report better overall health, including more self-esteem, less anxiety, less fear of intimacy, and greater satisfaction with their lives and their relationships.^[18] Research on Affection Exchange Theory has been connected to pornography and couples research as a potential mitigator to relationship and sexual satisfaction, as well as sexual desire.^[14]

Methodology limitations

Pornography has many different forms which are difficult to cover in blanket form. Pornographic internet videos, for example, have been found to have different effects on viewers than material such as pornographic magazines. Within the field of pornography research, there are also other challenges that arise due to strong opinions and feelings on the topic. Confirmation bias has been prevalent on both sides due to societal taboos surrounding pornography. Studies have looked into both negative effects of pornography as well as potential benefits or positive effects of pornography. A large percentage of studies suffer from methodological issues. In one meta-study by researchers at Middlesex University in England, over 40,000 papers and articles were submitted to the team for review: 276 or 0.69% were suitable for consideration due to the low quality of research within the field.^[19]

One limitation to current research about pornography’s effect on relationships is the sample. Researchers often, but not always, sample individuals who are in a relationship. They rarely sample both partners.^[20] This method limits the scope of research as pornography can affect a relationship depending on how often one or both partners watch and if they watch alone or together. For example, a Norwegian study on heterosexual partners evaluated these effects.^[21] The study found that couples experience higher levels of dysfunction when only one partner is watching alone. Partners who both watch pornography alone experienced low levels of dysfunction. Partners who did not watch at all experienced an average level of dysfunction.

Psychological effects

Men who consume pornography regularly have reported less stable mental health, specifically higher levels of depression.^[22]^[23] Pornography can be considered addictive, especially in men.^[24]

Pornography addiction

Pornography addiction is a purported behavioral addiction characterized by compulsive, repeated use of pornographic material which causes serious consequences to one's physical, mental, social, and/or financial well-being.^[25]^[26]^[27] There is no diagnosis of pornography addiction in the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5),^[25] though the DSM-5 considered the diagnosis of hypersexuality-related behavioral disorders (to which porn addiction was a subset), but rejected it because "there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders."^[25] Instead, some psychologists suggest that any maladaptive sexual symptoms represent a manifestation of an underlying disorder, such as depression or anxiety which is simply manifesting itself sexually, or, alternatively, there is no underlying disorder and the behavior simply is not maladaptive. It is argued that psychologists do not recognize the concept of addiction, only chemical dependence, and some believe the concept and diagnosis to be stigmatizing and unhelpful.^[28]^[29]

Two 2016 neurology reviews found evidence of addiction related brain changes in internet pornography users. Psychological effects of these brain changes are described as desensitization to reward, a dysfunctional anxiety response, and impulsiveness.^[6]^[7] Another 2016 review suggests that internet behaviors, including the use of pornography, be considered potentially addictive, and that problematic use of online pornography be considered an "internet-use disorder".^[8]

Introductory psychology textbook authors Coon, Mitterer and Martini, passingly mentioning NoFap (former pornography users who have since chosen to abstain from the material) speak of pornography as a "supernormal stimulus" but use the model of compulsion rather than addiction.^[30]

A number of studies have found neurological markers of addiction in Internet porn users,^[31]^[32]^[33] which is consistent with a large body of research finding similar markers in other kinds of problematic internet users.^[32] Yet other studies have found that critical biomarkers of addiction are missing,^[34] and most addiction biomarkers have never been demonstrated for pornography.^[35]

According to the American Society of Addiction Medicine, some psychological and behavioral changes characteristic of addiction brain changes include addictive cravings, impulsiveness, weakened executive function, desensitization, and dysphoria.^[36] BOLD fMRI results have shown that individuals diagnosed with compulsive sexual behavior (CSB) show enhanced cue reactivity in brain regions associated traditionally with drug-cue reactivity.^[37]^[38] These regions include the amygdala and the ventral striatum.^[37]^[38] Men without CSB who had a long history of viewing pornography exhibited a less intense response to pornographic images in the left ventral putamen, possibly suggestive of desensitization.^[37] ASAMs position is inconsistent with the American Association of Sex Educators, Counselors, and Therapists, who cite lack of strong evidence for such classification, describing ASAM as not informed by "accurate human sexuality knowledge".^[39]

Neuropsychopharmacological and psychological researches on pornography addiction conducted between 2015 and 2021 have concluded that most studies have been focused entirely or almost exclusively on men in anonymous settings, and the findings are contradicting.^[38]^[40]^[41]^[42] Some researches support the idea that pornography addiction qualifies as a form of behavioral addiction into the umbrella construct of hypersexual behavior and/or a subset of compulsive sexual behavior (CSB),^[40]^[41]^[42] and should be treated as such,^[41]^[42] whereas others have detected the increased activation of ventral striatal reactivity in men for cues predicting erotic but not monetary rewards and cues signaling erotic pictures, therefore suggesting similarities between pornography addiction and conventional addiction disorders.^[38]^[40]

Some clinicians and support organizations recommend voluntary use of Internet content-control software, internet monitoring, or both, to manage problematic online pornography use.^[43]^[44]^[45] Sex researcher Alvin Cooper and colleagues suggested several reasons for using filters as a therapeutic measure, including curbing accessibility that facilitates problematic behavior and encouraging clients to develop coping and relapse prevention strategies.^[43] Cognitive therapist Mary Anne Layden suggested that filters may be useful in maintaining environmental control.^[45] Internet behavior researcher David Delmonico stated that, despite their limitations, filters may serve as a "frontline of protection."^[44]

Despite the fact that pornography is being indicted as a public health crisis in the United States and elsewhere,^[46]^[47] with problematic Internet and online pornography use reported to constitute an increasing burden in public mental health since the 2000s, psychopathological models and diagnostic criteria have lacked consensus, and the body of evidence on the effectiveness of therapeutic approaches is still scarce.^[40] In consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic, problematic Internet pornography use and Internet addiction disorder have become difficult to cope with for individuals and have developed a dependence on these activities as an essential part of their lives, owing to elongated periods of staying at home due to self-isolation.^[40]

Body image and self esteem

Men

A study of 359 college men found that high viewership of pornography relates to increased masculinity and body dissatisfaction.^[48] Sexual performance changes a man’s view of his masculinity, and often his self-esteem. Pornography is not the only factor affecting men’s self-esteem and body image. Popular media often depicts strong but lean men. Pornography is significant to men's self-image. It connects a lean body type to sexual validation.^[49] As of 2021, few studies have evaluated how exposure to pornography relates to men’s body image. Researchers recommend that others conduct more studies on pornography's effect on men's psychology.

Heterosexual pornography reinforces a concept called the centerfold syndrome. In 1995, psychologist Gary R. Brooks wrote about men and the centerfold syndrome. This concept asserted that gender roles in media contribute to high sexual dysfunction in men.^[50] Sexual dysfunction has many parts. One part is the viewing of women as body parts, trophies, or sexual conquests. These concepts are often known as voyeurism, objectification, and trophyism. Another part is tying female approval of manliness to a man's self-image. The third part of sexual dysfunction includes avoiding intimacy, attachment, and emotions. Heterosexual pornography reinforces this syndrome through observational learning. In other words, the story within pornography becomes the expected reality. Deviations from that story create low self-esteem.

Women

Studies rarely observe women’s viewership of pornography. One modern study with female subjects provided mixed results. Pornography does not affect women's perception of body image and relationship satisfaction if it is free of behavior.^[51] Violence is one example. All other viewership appears to minimally affect body image and relationship satisfaction.

Delay discounting

Research at Alliant International University found that participants who consumed internet pornography more frequently had increased rates of delay discounting, also known as delayed gratification. The researchers state, "The constant novelty and primacy of sexual stimuli as particularly strong natural rewards make internet pornography a unique activator of the brain's reward system, thereby having implications for decision-making processes."^[52]

A 2019 survey of 1083 U.S. adults evaluated the relationship between pornography and unethical behavior in the workplace.^[53] Unethical behavior, according to the researchers, consists of delay discounting and dehumanization. Delay discounting involves the idea of waiting versus acting now and future reward. It is to expect lower rewards in the future versus when acting now. The expectation of a high reward for acting now can lead to reduced self-control and increased impulsivity. Dehumanization is a form of moral disengagement in which people view others as less than human. According to the study, increased pornography use causes increased dehumanization and unethical behavior.^[53]

Sexual effects

The sexual effects of pornography on intimacy and relationships observe some of the most gendered differences. Men and women differ vastly in how they are impacted by pornography both within and beyond a romantic or sexual relationship.

The consumption of pornography has been shown to have an impact on sexual risk-taking, including less frequent usage of condoms and birth control, as well as more casual sexual encounters.^[22]^[54] It can negatively impact sexual functioning, especially in men.^[24] However, pornography can function as an educational resource for individuals to improve their sexual knowledge,^[22]^[55] and women who consume pornography more regularly experience increased desire for sexual activity, indicating that pornography might be useful as a form of foreplay.^[22]^[56]

Sexual desire

Sexual desire is one of the factors most strongly moderated by gender differences. In general, men experience the most detrimental effects from pornography in terms of sexual desire. Straight men report less sexual desire, both for their partner and in general, directly after consuming pornography.^[57] Men also typically utilize pornography for masturbation and solo-sexual activities, rather than partnered or joint purposes.^[58]^[59]^[60] Strong associations exist between increased pornography consumption, as well as frequency of pornography consumption, and problematic decreases in sexual desire for men. Men who more frequently use pornography report less desire for their partner, and less desire for sex in general.^[59]

While most modern research on pornography focuses on men, the findings in women hold interesting information on pornography's gendered impact on sexual desire. Women have found a positive correlation between pornography consumption and sexual desire, indicating that women who view pornography feel more positively about expressing their sexual desire.^[60]^[61] In addition to increased sexual desire, women also express more sexual desire specifically for their partner on days when they watch pornography, indicating pornography may function as a form of foreplay.^[57]

Although men and women do differ in many significant ways with respect to pornography consumption and sexual behavior, they share one important similarity: brain activity. Men and women's brain activity while watching pornography is nearly identical, suggesting that both men and women experience similar arousal while watching pornography.^[62] Further, both men and women report significant support for female-centric pornography, though men express similar levels of arousal to both traditional male-centric pornography as well as female-centric pornography. While women report more general negativity towards traditional, male-centric pornography, women express stronger support and higher levels of self-reported arousal for female-centric pornography.^[63]

In general, pornography consumption in couples has been associated with greater sexual desire.^[64] Although research in the way of same-sex relationships is limited, available findings indicate that pornography use is connected to an increased level of sexual desire. Men partnered with women report less sexual desire in general with increased pornography consumption, whereas women in both mixed-sex or same-sex relationships report greater sexual desire overall. Also, individuals were less likely to consume pornography the day after engaging in sexual intercourse.^[57]

In 2016, model and actress Pamela Anderson and Orthodox Rabbi Shmuley Boteach co-authored a viral Wall Street Journal opinion piece, in which they called online pornography a "public hazard of unprecedented seriousness."^[65]^[66]^[67]^[68]

Sexual function

Sexual function is a rising concern with pornography consumption. Primarily thought to affect men, there is a notable relationship between pornography consumption and sexual function problems.^[61] Commonly reported problems include erectile dysfunction, delayed ejaculation, anorgasmia, and a lack of sexual desire.^[61] Recently, rates of sexual dysfunction have been increasing in younger age brackets.^[61] Medical professionals suspect pornography may be one factor contributing to this increase, however there is little causal evidence of such an effect.^[61] Another issue is delayed ejaculation, during which men may experience a large disconnect between their orgasm and ejaculation, or difficulty achieving ejaculation. Overarching research shows little evidence of pornography having any effect on delayed ejaculation.^[61] Despite the lack of evidence for more physical issues with sexual function, pornography is related to problematic decreases of sexual desire and sexual satisfaction, though the direction of this relationship remains up for debate without additional causal research.^[59]^[61]^[69]

In women, there is little evidence for pornography-induced sexual dysfunction. The most commonly observed effect is increased anxiety or distress, which may then lead to issues of sexual function. The most commonly reported issue for women is arousal dysfunction, indicating a difficulty in achieving or maintaining arousal during sexual activity.^[61] This could potentially lead to physical issues, such as painful penetration or vaginismus, making sexual intercourse painful and unpleasant.^[61] Women also tend to report more negative affect with regards to pornography, including strong feelings of shame or guilt.^[61]

For both men and women, pornography may lead individuals to make riskier decisions with their sexual health. A study analyzing the use of barrier contraceptives by German adults found that, when pornography is viewed as an educational resource, there is an inverse relationship between pornography consumption and condom usage; people who viewed more pornography tended to not use condoms as frequently.^[70] Overall, the most frequently reported issues with sexual function that relate to pornography are decreases in sexual desire for men, and decreases in sexual satisfaction overall.^[59]^[61]

Sexual satisfaction

Research on pornography's effect on sexual satisfaction is highly varied. Numerous studies looking at both individuals and couples have found different, at times contradictory, results. One study found a negative relationship between pornography consumption and sexual satisfaction across two samples of men.^[59] In addition, frequency of pornography consumption, rather than the type of pornography consumed, is negatively correlated with sexual satisfaction; the type of pornography an individual consumed had no effect on sexual satisfaction.^[59] When considering couples and their pornography consumption, couples with a greater discordance reported being more sexually dissatisfied than couples who watched pornography together, as well as couples who jointly abstained from pornography altogether.^[64]

When looking at women, there is a positive correlation between pornography consumption and sexual satisfaction. Some suggest the connection between male pornography use and sexual dissatisfaction may be the other way around, with men resorting to pornography due to sexual satisfaction, or even perhaps a cyclical effect.^[63] An indirect, yet positive, effect on sexual satisfaction has been found when looking at sexual preference.^[59]

Sexual preferences

The use of pornography is extremely varied, especially in the United States. Consumption rates —including general consumption, frequency of consumption, length of time, and type of pornography— vary by gender, age, and relationship status, as well as frequency of consumption, which all factor into overall pornography consumption rates. In general, men consume more pornography, and consume pornography more frequently, than women.^[58]^[71]^[72] A vast majority of men report having consumed pornography, with rates ranging from 50% to 90%, usually plateauing in the upper 80% range. Women, however, report significantly less and significantly more varied consumption of pornography, with between 30% and 80% of women saying they have viewed pornography in their lifetime.^[72] This variation reflects differences in nationality and culture in terms of sex positivity and pornography acceptance, as well as the unreliability of self-reporting. Despite the variation and lower reports of pornography consumption for women, female viewership of pornography is steadily increasing. Women tend to prefer less hardcore porn compared to men, and men report consuming pornography in conjunction with masturbation more frequently than women.^[58]

One of the more current findings revolves around how pornography impacts sexual preference. Theories speculate that increase pornography consumption may alter an individual's preferences during sexual intercourse to more closely resemble what is depicted in pornography. This may include both the acts depicted, as well as the behaviors displayed by actors. Among men, there is a positive relationship between pornography consumption and a desire for more porn-like sexual experience.^[59] Frequency of consumption and type of pornography consumed are related to increased desire for more porn-like sex, which is measured by items indicating an expressed preference for "kinkier sex," "hotter sex," and a more porn-like "sexual appearance."^[69] The latter includes grooming habits, as well as hair color and body type. While correlational, the findings do present evidence that pornography consumption has a role in sexual preferences, though causal relationships cannot be confirmed. This effect is mitigated by both the type of pornography consumed, as well as the frequency of pornography consumption, and the finding holds for both men and women.^[59]^[69]

A study by Professor Kathryn C. Seigfried-Spellar and Professor Marcus Rogers found results which suggested deviant pornography use followed a Guttman-like progression in that individuals with a younger "age of onset" for adult pornography use were more likely to engage in deviant pornography (bestiality or child) compared to those with a later "age of onset".^[73]

Sexual violence

Controlled studies

A controlled study describes the relationship between given behaviors or environmental conditions and health effects in a laboratory setting in which conditions other than those under study are effectively held constant across groups of participants receiving various levels of the experimental condition(s). Since it is considered that the only functional difference between groups is the level of experimental condition(s) received, researchers can strongly infer cause-and-effect relationships from statistically significant associations between experimental condition(s) and health consequences. Thus, if executed properly, controlled studies have high levels of internal validity. However, such studies often suffer from questionable external validity due to the considerable differences between real-world environments and the experimental context, and the consequent belief that results cannot be generalized beyond that context.^[74]

The link between pornography and sexual aggression has been the subject of multiple meta-analyses.^[75] Meta-analyses conducted in the 1990s suggested to researchers that there might not be an association of any kind between pornography and rape supportive attitudes in non-experimental studies.^[76] However, a meta-analysis by Hald, Malamuth and Yuen (2000) suggests that there is a link between consumption of violent pornography and rape-supportive attitudes in certain populations of men, particularly when moderating variables are taken into consideration.^[75]

A meta-analysis conducted in 2015 found that pornography "consumption was associated with sexual aggression in the United States and internationally, among males and females, and in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Associations were stronger for verbal than physical sexual aggression, although both were significant. The general pattern of results suggested that violent content may be an exacerbating factor."^[77]

An earlier review of this literature by Ferguson and Hartley in 2009 argued that "it is time to discard the hypothesis that pornography contributes to increased sexual assault behavior".^[78] They stated that the authors of some studies tended to highlight positive findings while de-emphasizing null findings and concluded that controlled studies, on balance, were not able to support links between pornography and sexual violence.

Ferguson and Hartley updated their review with a 2020 meta-analysis. This meta-analysis concluded that mainstream pornography could not be linked to sexual violence and was associated with reductions in societal violence at the societal level. Small correlations were found between violent porn viewing and sexual aggression, but evidence was unable to differentiate whether this was a causal or selection effect (i.e. sexual offenders seeking out violent porn).^[79]

Epidemiological studies

An epidemiological study describes the association between given behaviors or environmental conditions, and physical or psychological health by means of observation of real-world phenomena through statistical data. Epidemiological studies generally have high levels of external validity, insofar as they accurately describe events as they occur outside of a laboratory setting, but low levels of internal validity, since they do not strongly establish cause-and-effect relationships between the behaviors or conditions under study, and the health consequences observed.^[74]

Danish criminologist Berl Kutchinsky's Studies on Pornography and sex crimes in Denmark (1970), a scientific report ordered by the Presidential Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, found that the legalizing of pornography in Denmark had not resulted in an increase of sex crimes.^[80] Since then, many other experiments have been conducted, either supporting or opposing the findings of Berl Kutchinsky, who would continue his study into the social effects of pornography until his death in 1995. His life's work was summed up in the publication Law, Pornography, and Crime: The Danish Experience (1999). In 1998 Milton Diamond from the University of Hawaii noted that in Japan, the number of reported cases of child sex abuse dropped markedly after the ban on sexually explicit materials was lifted in 1969; however, in Denmark and Sweden, there was an increase in reported rapes after the liberalization of their pornography laws during the same time period.^[81]

Some researchers argue that there is a correlation between pornography and a decrease of sex crimes,^[82]^[10] including Diamond (author of a review from 2009).^[83] The effects of Pornography: An International Perspective was an epidemiological study which found that the massive growth of the pornography industry in the United States between 1975 and 1995 was accompanied by a substantial decrease in the number of sexual assaults per capita - and reported similar results for Japan - but not for Denmark and Sweden.^[84] Findings of this nature have been critiqued by Robert Peters, president of Morality in Media, on the grounds that the results are better explained by factors other than the increased prevalence of pornography: "a more plausible explanation is that if there is a decline in "forcible rape," it is the result of a tremendous effort to curb rape through community and school-based programs, media coverage, aggressive law enforcement, DNA evidence, longer prison sentences, and more."^[85]

In 1986, a review of epidemiological studies by Neil M. Malamuth found that the quantity of pornographic material viewed by men was positively correlated with degree to which they endorsed sexual assault.^[86] Malamuth's work describes Check (1984), who found among a diverse sample of Canadian men that more exposure to pornography led to higher acceptance of rape myths, violence against women, and general sexual callousness. In another study, Briere, Corne, Runtz and Neil M. Malamuth, (1984) reported similar correlations in a sample involving college males. On the other hand, the failure to find a statistically significant correlation in another previous study led Malamuth to examine other interesting correlations, which took into account the information about sexuality the samples obtained in their childhood, and pornography emerged as the second most important source of information.^[86] Malamuth's work has been criticized by other authors, however, such as Ferguson and Hartley (2009) who argue Malamuth has exaggerated positive findings and has not always properly discussed null findings.^[78] In a Quartz publication, Malamuth argued that porn is like alcohol: "whether it's bad for you depends on who you are" (stating that it increases violence in a few people, not in most people; it makes most people more relaxed).^[87]

Effects on relationships

The consumption of pornography has a large reach across various areas of relationships in life. Pornography can influence an individual's relationship and intimacy through a number of channels, including overall level of satisfaction in their relationships, communication within a relationship, and setting boundaries for infidelity within a relationship.

Pornography's impact on relationship satisfaction comes under scrutiny, as findings range from negative correlations, to positive relationships. Pornography consumption is correlated with less relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and in men, less sexual desire for their partner.^[88]^[56]^[89] Couples who regularly consume pornography together frequently report feeling closer to their partners, expressing more open communication, and feel more comfortable discussing sexual topics like fantasies and kinks. In addition, some research reports positive findings for women who consume pornography more regularly, including increased relationship satisfaction and decreased distress.^[22]^[56]

Relationship satisfaction

The research on the relationship between pornography use and relationship satisfaction is vast and mixed. While some believe pornography consumption leads people to become less satisfied in their relationships, others believe it can have the direct opposite effect. Pornography consumption tends to accompany lower levels of satisfaction in long-term, heterosexual relationships. Most of the current research is correlational, indicating a connection but not a cause; however, one major trend is the rate of divorce. Couples who consume pornography are nearly twice as likely to divorce than couples who do not, with the rate rising from 5% to 11%.^[90] One mitigator is the frequency of pornography consumption. More frequent pornography consumption is negatively associated with relationship satisfaction. Individuals who report more frequent use of pornography within a relationship also report low levels of satisfaction in their relationships.^[91]

However, many reject the idea that pornography is inherently harmful to relationship satisfaction. Joint pornography consumption within a relationship has been connected to increased levels of relationship satisfaction for both partners. Couples who consumed pornography together expressed more satisfaction with their relationships than couples in which only one individual used pornography.^[92] This suggests that there is more at play than simply the consumption of pornography, such as the role of honesty and partner perception. Individuals whose partners are honest about their own pornography consumption tend to feel more satisfied in their relationships, to a point. There is evidence for an "honesty threshold," indicating that the relationship between honesty and pornography is not linear, and partners do not want to hear every detail about the other's pornography habits.^[93] This indicates that, although honesty and disclosure is important for pornography consumption, there seems to be a threshold of helpful honesty that, once surpassed, may cause more harm. In addition, when women consume pornography, they report lower levels of distress than their counterparts.^[92] While women often consume pornography less often than men, men are fairly accurate at perceiving their partner's pornography consumption. Women, on the other hand, are less accurate at perceiving their male partner's pornography use.^[94]

Some research suggests that there is no connection between relationship satisfaction and pornography use, whether individually or jointly. Although finding evidence in their second study for a negative correlation, a study of two independent male samples found no relationship between pornography and relationship satisfaction in their first sample.^[91] Conversely, other studies found no relationship whatsoever between joint pornography use and satisfaction. When analyzing couples and their pornography consumption over the course of one month, researchers found no correlation between relationship satisfaction and pornography use.^[95]

Communication

Communication is a vital component of any healthy relationship, and many researchers question how pornography may impact the ability of a couple to communicate openly. Honesty has been shown to be a mitigator in relationship effects of pornography consumption. Couples in which partners are honest about their pornography consumption report greater satisfaction than couples dealing with concealment, or dishonesty, surrounding pornography use.^[93] Pornography consumption among couples leads to improved communication about sexual desires, and increased openness in communication.^[92] Conversely, active concealment of pornography use habits can lead to less openness in communication and trust.^[92]^[93]

Another important aspect is the communication of affection within relationships. Affection Exchange Theory establishes the inherent role of affection within romantic relationships, and even in the role of survival, reproduction, and sexual selection.^[96] Trait attachment is positively associated with relationship satisfaction. Individuals who score higher in trait attachment report feeling and expressing greater sexual desire for their partners, compared to individuals who score lower in trait attachment.^[97]^[96] Some evidence indicates that the connection between Affection Exchange Theory and sexual desire is, in fact, stronger than the connection to relationship satisfaction, suggesting that sexual desire may have a crucial moderating role between the two.^[96] While this study found no correlation between pornography consumption and trait affection, researchers noted that increased feelings of guilt were related to lower levels of sexual desire for one's partner. This is somewhat indicative of partner-imposed or communicated guilt, or possibly reflecting an effect of the sexual scripts of pornography creating unrealistic expectations that lead to magnified dissatisfaction.^[97]

Occupational safety and health in the industry

Because the creation of pornography involves unsimulated sex, usually without condoms (barebacking), pornographic actors have been found to be particularly vulnerable to sexually transmitted diseases.^[98]^[99]^[100]

The AIDS Healthcare Foundation tried several times to have California's Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Occupational Safety and Health's Appeals Board force companies in the pornography industry to treat actors and actresses as employees subject to occupational safety and health regulation. In a 2014 case brought against Treasure Island Media, an administrative judge ruled that the company did have to comply with regulations.^[101]

Effect on adolescents

In the United Kingdom, the Association of Teachers and Lecturers feels schoolchildren need to be educated about pornography and warned what is reasonable and what is not acceptable.^[102] The UK children's commissioner initiated a meta-study conducted by researchers at Middlesex University which concluded that pornography is linked to unrealistic attitudes about sex, beliefs that women are sex objects, more frequent thoughts about sex, and found that children and young people who view pornography tend to hold less progressive gender role attitudes.^[19] Miranda Horvath stated about this: "But it is not possible to establish causation from correlational studies, and to say whether pornography is changing or reinforcing attitudes."^[19]

Although some literature exists on traditional forms of media (e.g., television, radio, magazines), the empirical research that examines the impact on children of exposure to non-violent sexual material is extremely limited.^[103]
— National Academy of Sciences, Youth, Pornography, and the Internet, 2002

The Journal of Adolescence concluded in 2019 that the adolescent brain, due to its immature development, may be more sensitive to sexually explicit material, but due to a lack of empirical research, no firm conclusions can be drawn.^[104] In 2017, a research report conducted by the Australian government found that early onset pornography use can cause porn to "become the preferred sexual script for men, thus influencing their real-world expectations".^[105]

There are considerable ethical problems with performing some kinds of research on the effects of pornography use on minors.^[106] For example, Rory Reid (UCLA) declared, "Universities don't want their name on the front page of a newspaper for an unethical study exposing minors to porn."^[107]^[108]

References

^ Duffy, Athena; Dawson, David L.; das Nair, Roshan (1 May 2016). "Pornography Addiction in Adults: A Systematic Review of Definitions and Reported Impact" (PDF). The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 13 (5): 760–777. doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.03.002. ISSN 1743-6109. PMID 27114191.
^ Voon, Valerie; Mole, Thomas B.; Banca, Paula; Porter, Laura; Morris, Laurel; Mitchell, Simon; Lapa, Tatyana R.; Karr, Judy; Harrison, Neil A.; Potenza, Marc N.; Irvine, Michael (2014). "Neural correlates of sexual cue reactivity in individuals with and without compulsive sexual behaviours". PLOS ONE. 9 (7): e102419. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j2419V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0102419. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4094516. PMID 25013940.
^ Banca, Paula; Morris, Laurel S.; Mitchell, Simon; Harrison, Neil A.; Potenza, Marc N.; Voon, Valerie (2016-01-01). "Novelty, conditioning and attentional bias to sexual rewards". Journal of Psychiatric Research. 72: 91–101. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.10.017. ISSN 0022-3956. PMC 4683093. PMID 26606725.
^ Mollaioli, Sansone, Jannini, Romanelli. (August 2018). "Sexual Dysfunctions in the Internet Era". Researchgate.net.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Kraus, Shane W; Voon, Valerie; Potenza, Marc N (2015-09-22). "Neurobiology of Compulsive Sexual Behavior: Emerging Science". Neuropsychopharmacology. 41 (1): 385–386. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.300. ISSN 0893-133X. PMC 4677151. PMID 26657963.
^ ^a ^b Kraus, Shane W.; Voon, Valerie; Potenza, Marc N. (2016-02-19). "Should compulsive sexual behavior be considered an addiction?". Addiction. 111 (12): 2097–2106. doi:10.1111/add.13297. PMC 4990495. PMID 26893127.
^ ^a ^b Kühn, S.; Gallinat, J. (2016). "Neurobiological Basis of Hypersexuality". International Review of Neurobiology. Vol. 129. Elsevier. pp. 67–83. doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2016.04.002. ISBN 978-0-12-803914-4. ISSN 0074-7742. PMID 27503448.
^ ^a ^b Brand, Matthias; Young, Kimberly; Laier, Christian; Wölfling, Klaus; Potenza, Marc N. (2016). "Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 71: 252–266. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033. PMID 27590829.
^ Wright, Paul J.; Tokunaga, Robert S.; Kraus, Ashley (2016-02-01). "A Meta-Analysis of Pornography Consumption and Actual Acts of Sexual Aggression in General Population Studies". Journal of Communication. 66 (1): 183–205. doi:10.1111/jcom.12201. ISSN 0021-9916.
^ ^a ^b Kendall, Todd D. (July 2007). "Pornography, rape and the internet" (PDF). Retrieved 30 March 2014.
^ ^a ^b Maas, Megan K.; Vasilenko, Sara A.; Willoughby, Brian J. (2018-07-24). "A Dyadic Approach to Pornography Use and Relationship Satisfaction Among Heterosexual Couples: The Role of Pornography Acceptance and Anxious Attachment". The Journal of Sex Research. 55 (6): 772–782. doi:10.1080/00224499.2018.1440281. ISSN 0022-4499. PMC 6155976. PMID 29578817.
^ Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (1999). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
^ "How Attachment Style Affects Sexual Desire and Satisfaction". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2020-11-29.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Bennett, Margaret; LoPresti, Brittny J.; McGloin, Rory; Denes, Amanda (2019-10-20). "The Desire for Porn and Partner?: Investigating the Role of Scripts in Affectionate Communication, Sexual Desire, and Pornography Consumption and Guilt in Young Adults' Romantic Relationships". Western Journal of Communication. 83 (5): 647–667. doi:10.1080/10570314.2018.1564934. ISSN 1057-0314. S2CID 150401852.
^ ^a ^b Simon, William; Gagnon, John H. (April 1986). "Sexual scripts: Permanence and change". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 15 (2): 97–120. doi:10.1007/bf01542219. ISSN 0004-0002. PMID 3718206. S2CID 22275129.
^ ^a ^b Bridges, Ana J.; Sun, Chyng F.; Ezzell, Matthew B.; Johnson, Jennifer (2016-10-20). "Sexual Scripts and the Sexual Behavior of Men and Women Who Use Pornography". Sexualization, Media, & Society. 2 (4): 237462381666827. doi:10.1177/2374623816668275. ISSN 2374-6238. S2CID 151796399.
^ Carroll, Jason S.; Busby, Dean M.; Willoughby, Brian J.; Brown, Cameron C. (2017-04-03). "The Porn Gap: Differences in Men's and Women's Pornography Patterns in Couple Relationships". Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy. 16 (2): 146–163. doi:10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796. ISSN 1533-2691. S2CID 151873457.
^ ^a ^b ^c Floyd, K. (2015). Affection exchange theory. In C. R. Berger & M. E. Roloff (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of interpersonal communication (pp. 24–31). Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic139
^ ^a ^b ^c Fidgen, Jo (2013-06-25). "Do we know whether pornography harms people?". BBC News. Retrieved 2016-09-18.
^ Campbell, Lorne; Kohut, Taylor (2017-02-01). "The use and effects of pornography in romantic relationships". Current Opinion in Psychology. Relationships and stress. 13: 6–10. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.004. ISSN 2352-250X.
^ Daneback, Kristian; Træen, Bente; Månsson, Sven-Axel (October 2009). "Use of Pornography in a Random Sample of Norwegian Heterosexual Couples". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 38 (5): 746–753. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9314-4. ISSN 0004-0002.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Carroll, Jason S.; Busby, Dean M.; Willoughby, Brian J.; Brown, Cameron C. (2017-04-03). "The Porn Gap: Differences in Men's and Women's Pornography Patterns in Couple Relationships". Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy. 16 (2): 146–163. doi:10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796. ISSN 1533-2691. S2CID 151873457.
^ BRIDGES, ANA J.; MOROKOFF, PATRICIA J. (2010-12-22). "Sexual media use and relational satisfaction in heterosexual couples". Personal Relationships. 18 (4): 562–585. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01328.x. ISSN 1350-4126.
^ ^a ^b Potenza, Marc N. (2018-10-02). "Pornography in the current digital technology environment: An overview of a special issue on pornography". Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 25 (4): 241–247. doi:10.1080/10720162.2019.1567411. ISSN 1072-0162. S2CID 150546076.
^ ^a ^b ^c American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 481, 797–798. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8. Thus, groups of repetitive behaviors, which some term behavioral addictions, with such subcategories as "sex addiction," "exercise addiction," or "shopping addiction," are not included because at this time there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders.
^ Stein, Dan J.; Hollander, Eric; Rothbaum, Barbara Olasov (31 August 2009). Textbook of Anxiety Disorders. American Psychiatric Pub. pp. 359–. ISBN 978-1-58562-254-2. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
^ Parashar A, Varma A (April 2007). "Behavior and substance addictions: is the world ready for a new category in the DSM-V?". CNS Spectr. 12 (4): 257, author reply 258–9. doi:10.1017/S109285290002099X. PMID 17503551.
^ The British Psychological Society, "Response to the American Psychiatric Association: DSM-5 Development", 2001 [1] Archived 2016-04-17 at the Wayback Machine
^ Ley, David J. (2014-07-10). The Myth of Sex Addiction. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781442213050.
^ Coon, Dennis; Mitterer, John O.; Martini, Tanya S. (5 December 2016). Psychology: Modules for Active Learning. Cengage Learning. pp. 413–414. ISBN 978-1-337-51708-9.
^ Kraus, Shane W; Voon, Valerie; Potenza, Marc N (2015-09-22). "Neurobiology of Compulsive Sexual Behavior: Emerging Science". Neuropsychopharmacology. 41 (1): 385–386. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.300. ISSN 0893-133X. PMC 4677151. PMID 26657963.
^ ^a ^b Brand, Matthias; Young, Kimberly S.; Laier, Christian; Wölfling, Klaus; Potenza, Marc N. (2016-12-01). "Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 71: 252–266. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033. PMID 27590829.
^ Kühn, S.; Gallinat, J. (2016-01-01). "Neurobiological Basis of Hypersexuality". In Zahr, Natalie M.; Peterson, Eric T. (eds.). Imaging the Addicted Brain. Imaging the Addicted Brain. Vol. 129. pp. 67–83. doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2016.04.002. ISBN 9780128039144. PMID 27503448. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
^ Prause, Nicole; Steele, Vaughn R.; Staley, Cameron; Sabatinelli, Dean; Hajcak, Greg (2015). "Modulation of late positive potentials by sexual images in problem users and controls inconsistent with 'porn addiction'". Biological Psychology. 109: 192–199. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.06.005. PMID 26095441. S2CID 1446388.
^ Prause, Nicole; Janssen, Erick; Georgiadis, Janniko; Finn, Peter; Pfaus, James (2017). "Data do not support sex as addictive". The Lancet Psychiatry. 4 (12): 899. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30441-8. PMID 29179928.
^ "ASAM Definition of Addiction". 19 April 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2016.
^ ^a ^b ^c Kraus, Shane W.; Voon, Valerie; Potenza, Marc N. (December 2016). "Should compulsive sexual behavior be considered an addiction?". Addiction (Abingdon, England). 111 (12): 2097–2106. doi:10.1111/add.13297. ISSN 0965-2140. PMC 4990495. PMID 26893127. S2CID 11261106.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Gola, Mateusz; Wordecha, Małgorzata; Sescousse, Guillaume; Lew-Starowicz, Michał; Kossowski, Bartosz; Wypych, Marek; Makeig, Scott; Potenza, Marc N.; Marchewka, Artur (September 2017). "Can Pornography be Addictive? An fMRI Study of Men Seeking Treatment for Problematic Pornography Use" (PDF). Neuropsychopharmacology. 42 (10). Springer Nature: 2021–2031. doi:10.1038/npp.2017.78. eISSN 1740-634X. ISSN 0893-133X. OCLC 815994337. PMC 5561346. PMID 28409565. S2CID 13759729. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2019. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
^ "AASECT Position on Sex Addiction". April 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2019. AASECT 1) does not find sufficient empirical evidence to support the classification of sex addiction or porn addiction as a mental health disorder, and 2) does not find the sexual addiction training and treatment methods and educational pedagogies to be adequately informed by accurate human sexuality knowledge.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Awan, Hashir A.; Aamir, Alifyah; Diwan, Mufaddal N.; Ullah, Irfan; Pereira-Sanchez, Victor; Ramalho, Rodrigo; Orsolini, Laura; Ojeahere, Margaret I.; Ransing, Ramdas; Vadsaria, Aftab K.; Virani, Sanya (March 2021). Fujiwara, Hironobu (ed.). "Internet and Pornography Use During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Presumed Impact and What Can Be Done". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 12 (623508). Frontiers Media: 1–8. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.623508. eISSN 1664-0640. PMC 8007884. PMID 33796031. S2CID 232234421.
^ ^a ^b ^c de Alarcón, Rubén; de la Iglesia, Javier I.; Casado, Nerea M.; Montejo, Angel L. (January 2019). "Online Porn Addiction: What We Know and What We Don't—A Systematic Review". Journal of Clinical Medicine. 8 (1: Novel Research in Sexuality and Mental Health). MDPI: 91. doi:10.3390/jcm8010091. eISSN 2077-0383. PMC 6352245. PMID 30650522. S2CID 58578935.
^ ^a ^b ^c Love, Todd; Laier, Christian; Brand, Matthias; Hatch, Linda; Hajela, Raju (September 2015). "Neuroscience of Internet Pornography Addiction: A Review and Update". Behavioral Sciences. 5 (3: Addictive Behaviors: Assessment and Treatment). MDPI: 388–433. doi:10.3390/bs5030388. eISSN 2076-328X. PMC 4600144. PMID 26393658. S2CID 16085514.
^ ^a ^b Cooper, Alvin; Putnam, Dana E.; Planchon, Lynn A.; Boies, Sylvain C. (1999). "Online sexual compulsivity: Getting tangled in the net". Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 6 (2): 79–104. doi:10.1080/10720169908400182.
^ ^a ^b Delmonico, David L. (1997). "Cybersex: High tech sex addiction". Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 4 (2): 159–167. doi:10.1080/10720169708400139.
^ ^a ^b Layden, Mary Anne (September 2005). "Cyber Sex Addiction" (PDF). Advances in Cognitive Therapy: 1–2, 4–5.^{[permanent dead link]}
^ Nelson, Kimberly M.; Rothman, Emily F. (February 2020). Morabia, Alfredo (ed.). "Should Public Health Professionals Consider Pornography a Public Health Crisis?". American Journal of Public Health. 110 (2). American Public Health Association: 151–153. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2019.305498. ISSN 1541-0048. PMC 6951382. PMID 31913670. S2CID 210121251.
^ Rothman, Emily F. (2021). "Pornography as a US Public Health Problem". Pornography and Public Health. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190075477.003.0001. ISBN 9780190075477. LCCN 2021013439.
^ Tylka, Tracy L. (January 2015). "No harm in looking, right? Men's pornography consumption, body image, and well-being". Psychology of Men & Masculinity. 16 (1): 97–107. doi:10.1037/a0035774. ISSN 1939-151X.
^ Tylka, Tracy L. (January 2015). "No harm in looking, right? Men's pornography consumption, body image, and well-being". Psychology of Men & Masculinity. 16 (1): 97–107. doi:10.1037/a0035774. ISSN 1939-151X.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
^ Brooks, Gary (1995). The Centerfold Syndrome: How Men Can Overcome Objectification and Achieve Intimacy with Women. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 0787901040.
^ Borgogna, Nicholas C.; Lathan, Emma C.; Mitchell, Ariana (2018-10-02). "Is Women's Problematic Pornography Viewing Related to Body Image or Relationship Satisfaction?". Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 25 (4): 345–366. doi:10.1080/10720162.2018.1532360. ISSN 1072-0162.
^ Negash, Sesen; Sheppard, Nicole Van Ness; Lambert, Nathaniel M.; Fincham, Frank D. (July 2016). "Trading Later Rewards for Current Pleasure: Pornography Consumption and Delay Discounting". Journal of Sex Research. 53 (6): 689–700. doi:10.1080/00224499.2015.1025123. ISSN 1559-8519. PMID 26305628. S2CID 33576332.
^ ^a ^b Mecham, Nathan W.; Lewis-Western, Melissa F.; Wood, David A. (2021-01-01). "The Effects of Pornography on Unethical Behavior in Business". Journal of Business Ethics. 168 (1): 37–54. doi:10.1007/s10551-019-04230-8. ISSN 1573-0697.
^ Wright, Paul J.; Sun, Chyng; Steffen, Nicola (2018-11-17). "Pornography Consumption, Perceptions of Pornography as Sexual Information, and Condom Use". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 44 (8): 800–805. doi:10.1080/0092623X.2018.1462278. ISSN 0092-623X. PMID 29634458. S2CID 4794350.
^ Kohut, Taylor; Balzarini, Rhonda N.; Fisher, William A.; Campbell, Lorne (May 2018). "Pornography's associations with open sexual communication and relationship closeness vary as a function of dyadic patterns of pornography use within heterosexual relationships". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 35 (4): 655–676. doi:10.1177/0265407517743096. ISSN 0265-4075. S2CID 148998219.
^ ^a ^b ^c "How Porn Affects Relationships". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
^ ^a ^b ^c "How Porn Affects Relationships". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hald, Gert Martin (2006-10-23). "Gender Differences in Pornography Consumption among Young Heterosexual Danish Adults". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 35 (5): 577–585. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9064-0. ISSN 0004-0002. PMID 17039402. S2CID 35560724.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Miller, Dan J.; McBain, Kerry A.; Li, Wendy W.; Raggatt, Peter T. F. (March 2019). "Pornography, preference for porn‐like sex, masturbation, and men's sexual and relationship satisfaction". Personal Relationships. 26 (1): 93–113. doi:10.1111/pere.12267. ISSN 1350-4126. S2CID 151269401.
^ ^a ^b Prause, Nicole (November 2019). "Porn Is for Masturbation". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 48 (8): 2271–2277. doi:10.1007/s10508-019-1397-6. ISSN 0004-0002. PMID 30847758. S2CID 73467018.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Dwulit, Aleksandra Diana; Rzymski, Piotr (2019-06-26). "The Potential Associations of Pornography Use with Sexual Dysfunctions: An Integrative Literature Review of Observational Studies". Journal of Clinical Medicine. 8 (7): 914. doi:10.3390/jcm8070914. ISSN 2077-0383. PMC 6679165. PMID 31247949.
^ Fisher, Terri D. (2013-02-09). "Gender Roles and Pressure to be Truthful: The Bogus Pipeline Modifies Gender Differences in Sexual but Not Non-sexual Behavior". Sex Roles. 68 (7–8): 401–414. doi:10.1007/s11199-013-0266-3. ISSN 0360-0025. S2CID 143885110.
^ ^a ^b Bridges, Ana J.; Sun, Chyng F.; Ezzell, Matthew B.; Johnson, Jennifer (2016-10-20). "Sexual Scripts and the Sexual Behavior of Men and Women Who Use Pornography". Sexualization, Media, & Society. 2 (4): 237462381666827. doi:10.1177/2374623816668275. ISSN 2374-6238. S2CID 151796399.
^ ^a ^b Kohut, Taylor; Balzarini, Rhonda N.; Fisher, William A.; Campbell, Lorne (May 2018). "Pornography's associations with open sexual communication and relationship closeness vary as a function of dyadic patterns of pornography use within heterosexual relationships". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 35 (4): 655–676. doi:10.1177/0265407517743096. ISSN 0265-4075. S2CID 148998219.
^ Shmuley Boteach and Pamela Anderson (August 31, 2016). "Take the Pledge: No More Indulging Porn". The Wall Street Journal.
^ Ken Kurson (September 20, 2016). "Talking Porn With Pamela Anderson and Rabbi Shmuley". The Observer.
^ Daniel Sugarman. "Shmuley Boteach and Pamela Anderson in joint warning on dangers of pornography," The Jewish Chronicle.
^ Emine Saner (October 14, 2016). "The playmate and the rabbi: unlikely bedfellows fighting internet porn". The Guardian. Retrieved January 20, 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c Morgan, Elizabeth M. (November 2011). "Associations between Young Adults' Use of Sexually Explicit Materials and Their Sexual Preferences, Behaviors, and Satisfaction". Journal of Sex Research. 48 (6): 520–530. doi:10.1080/00224499.2010.543960. ISSN 0022-4499. PMID 21259151. S2CID 854388.
^ Wright, Paul J.; Sun, Chyng; Steffen, Nicola (2018-11-17). "Pornography Consumption, Perceptions of Pornography as Sexual Information, and Condom Use". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 44 (8): 800–805. doi:10.1080/0092623X.2018.1462278. ISSN 0092-623X. PMID 29634458. S2CID 4794350.
^ Carroll, Jason S.; Busby, Dean M.; Willoughby, Brian J.; Brown, Cameron C. (2017-04-03). "The Porn Gap: Differences in Men's and Women's Pornography Patterns in Couple Relationships". Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy. 16 (2): 146–163. doi:10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796. ISSN 1533-2691. S2CID 151873457.
^ ^a ^b Hald, Gert Martin; Seaman, Christopher; Linz, Daniel (2014), Tolman, Deborah L.; Diamond, Lisa M.; Bauermeister, José A.; George, William H. (eds.), "Sexuality and pornography.", APA handbook of sexuality and psychology, Vol. 2: Contextual approaches., Washington: American Psychological Association, pp. 3–35, doi:10.1037/14194-001, ISBN 978-1-4338-1372-6, retrieved 2020-11-29
^ Seigfried-Spellar, Kathryn C.; Rogers, Marcus K. (2013-09-01). "Does deviant pornography use follow a Guttman-like progression?". Computers in Human Behavior. 29 (5): 1997–2003. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.04.018. ISSN 0747-5632.
^ ^a ^b
*Mitchell, M. and Jolley, J. (2001). Research Design Explained (4th Ed) New York:Harcourt.
- Brewer, M. (2000). Research Design and Issues of Validity. In Reis, H. and Judd, C. (eds.) Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
- Shadish, W., Cook, T., and Campbell, D. (2002). Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generilized Causal Inference Boston:Houghton Mifflin.
- Levine, G. and Parkinson, S. (1994). Experimental Methods in Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.
- Liebert, R. M. & Liebert, L. L. (1995). Science and behavior: An introduction to methods of psychological research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
^ ^a ^b
Hald, Gert Martin; Malamuth, Neil; Yuen, Carlin (2000). "Pornography and Attitudes Supporting Violence Against Women: Revisiting the Relationship in Nonexperimental Studies" (PDF). Aggressive Behavior. 36 (1): 14–20. doi:10.1002/ab.20328. PMID 19862768. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
- Kingstona, Drew; Malamuthb, Neil; Fedoroffc, Paul; Marshalld, William (24 March 2009). "The Importance of Individual Differences in Pornography Use: Theoretical Perspectives and Implications for Treating Sexual Offenders". The Journal of Sex Research. 46 (=2–3): 216–232. doi:10.1080/00224490902747701. PMID 19308844. S2CID 205442065.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
^ Allen, Mike; D'Alessio, Dave; Brezgel, Keri (17 March 2006) [1995]. "A Meta-Analysis Summarizing the Effects of Pornography II Aggression After Exposure". Human Communication Research. 22 (2): 258–283. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1995.tb00368.x.
^ Wright, Paul J.; Tokunaga, Robert S.; Kraus, Ashley (2015-12-01). "A Meta-Analysis of Pornography Consumption and Actual Acts of Sexual Aggression in General Population Studies". Journal of Communication. 66: 183–205. doi:10.1111/jcom.12201. ISSN 1460-2466.
^ ^a ^b Ferguson, Christopher J.; Hartley, Richard D. (2009). "The pleasure is momentary…the expense damnable?" (PDF). Aggression and Violent Behavior. 14 (5). Elsevier BV: 323–329. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.04.008. ISSN 1359-1789.
^ Ferguson, Christopher J.; Hartley, Richard D. (21 July 2020). "Pornography and Sexual Aggression: Can Meta-Analysis Find a Link?". Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. doi:10.1177/1524838020942754. ISSN 1524-8380. PMID 32691692. Retrieved 22 October 2020.
^ Berl Kutchinsky: Studies on Pornography and sex crimes in Denmark Archived 2007-10-30 at the Wayback Machine
^ The Effects of Pornography: An International Perspective Archived 2012-02-03 at the Wayback Machine University of Hawaii Porn 101: Eroticism, Pornography, and the First Amendment: Milton Diamond Ph.D.
^ Kutchinsky, Berl (Summer 1973). "The Effect of Easy Availability of Pornography on the Incidence of Sex Crimes: The Danish Experience". Journal of Social Issues. 29 (3): 163–181. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1973.tb00094.x.
^ Diamond, Milton (September–October 2009). "Pornography, public acceptance and sex related crime: A review". Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 32 (5): 304–314. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.06.004. PMID 19665229.
^ Diamond, Milton. "The effects of Pornography: An International Perspective". University of Hawaii System. Archived from the original on 2008-01-15.
^ Peters, Robert (4 August 2006). "Could it be that pornography prevents rape?". ObscenityCrimes.org. Archived from the original on 2006-10-01.
^ ^a ^b Malamuth, Neil M. (August 4, 1986). Do Sexually Violent Media Indirectly Contribute to Antisocial Behavior?. Public Health Service of United States. p. 38.
^ Goldhill, Olivia (7 March 2016). "Porn is like alcohol—whether it's bad for you depends on who you are". Quartz. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
^ Miller, Dan J.; McBain, Kerry A.; Li, Wendy W.; Raggatt, Peter T. F. (March 2019). "Pornography, preference for porn‐like sex, masturbation, and men's sexual and relationship satisfaction". Personal Relationships. 26 (1): 93–113. doi:10.1111/pere.12267. ISSN 1350-4126. S2CID 151269401.
^ Morgan, Elizabeth M. (November 2011). "Associations between Young Adults' Use of Sexually Explicit Materials and Their Sexual Preferences, Behaviors, and Satisfaction". Journal of Sex Research. 48 (6): 520–530. doi:10.1080/00224499.2010.543960. ISSN 0022-4499. PMID 21259151. S2CID 854388.
^ "Researchers Explore Pornography's Effect On Long-Term Relationships". NPR.org. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
^ ^a ^b Miller, Dan J.; McBain, Kerry A.; Li, Wendy W.; Raggatt, Peter T. F. (March 2019). "Pornography, preference for porn‐like sex, masturbation, and men's sexual and relationship satisfaction". Personal Relationships. 26 (1): 93–113. doi:10.1111/pere.12267. ISSN 1350-4126. S2CID 151269401.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Kohut, Taylor; Balzarini, Rhonda N.; Fisher, William A.; Campbell, Lorne (May 2018). "Pornography's associations with open sexual communication and relationship closeness vary as a function of dyadic patterns of pornography use within heterosexual relationships". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 35 (4): 655–676. doi:10.1177/0265407517743096. ISSN 0265-4075. S2CID 148998219.
^ ^a ^b ^c Resch, Marley N.; Alderson, Kevin G. (2014-09-03). "Female Partners of Men Who Use Pornography: Are Honesty and Mutual Use Associated With Relationship Satisfaction?". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 40 (5): 410–424. doi:10.1080/0092623X.2012.751077. ISSN 0092-623X. PMID 23898992. S2CID 205472183.
^ Carroll, Jason S.; Busby, Dean M.; Willoughby, Brian J.; Brown, Cameron C. (2017-04-03). "The Porn Gap: Differences in Men's and Women's Pornography Patterns in Couple Relationships". Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy. 16 (2): 146–163. doi:10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796. ISSN 1533-2691. S2CID 151873457.
^ "How Porn Affects Relationships". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
^ ^a ^b ^c Floyd, K. (2015). Affection exchange theory. In C. R. Berger & M. E. Roloff (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of interpersonal communication (pp. 24–31). Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic139
^ ^a ^b Bennett, Margaret; LoPresti, Brittny J.; McGloin, Rory; Denes, Amanda (2019-10-20). "The Desire for Porn and Partner?: Investigating the Role of Scripts in Affectionate Communication, Sexual Desire, and Pornography Consumption and Guilt in Young Adults' Romantic Relationships". Western Journal of Communication. 83 (5): 647–667. doi:10.1080/10570314.2018.1564934. ISSN 1057-0314. S2CID 150401852.
^ Rodriguez-Hart, C; Chitale, RA; Rigg, R; Goldstein, BY; Kerndt, PR; Tavrow, P (December 2012). "Sexually transmitted infection testing of adult film performers: is disease being missed?". Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 39 (12): 989–94. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3182716e6e. PMID 23191956. S2CID 11721333.
^ Grudzen, CR; Meeker, D; Torres, J; Du, Q; Andersen, RM; Gelberg, L (February 2013). "HIV and STI risk behaviors, knowledge, and testing among female adult film performers as compared to other California women". AIDS and Behavior. 17 (2): 517–22. doi:10.1007/s10461-011-0090-0. PMID 22101890. S2CID 6446061.
^ Goldstein, BY; Steinberg, JK; Aynalem, G; Kerndt, PR (July 2011). "High Chlamydia and gonorrhea incidence and reinfection among performers in the adult film industry". Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 38 (7): 644–8. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e318214e408. PMID 21844714. S2CID 2855793.
^ Fitz-Gerald, Sean (January 27, 2014). "Condoms Required for CA Porn Performers: Judge". NBC Southern California.
^ Sellgren, Katherine (26 March 2013). "BBC News - Pupils 'should be taught about risks of pornography'". BBC News. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
^ Thornburgh, Dick; Lin, Herbert S., eds. (2002). Youth, pornography and the Internet. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-309-08274-7. OCLC 52856244. Although some literature exists on traditional forms of media (e.g., television, radio, magazines), the empirical research that examines the impact on children of exposure to non-violent sexual material is extremely limited.
^ Brown, Jennifer A.; Wisco, Jonathan J. (2019). "The components of the adolescent brain and its unique sensitivity to sexually explicit material". Journal of Adolescence. 72. Elsevier BV: 10–13. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.01.006. ISSN 0140-1971. PMID 30754014.
^ Alissar, El-Murr (December 2017). "The effects of pornography on children and young people: An evidence scan". ResearchGate.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
^ Binik, Yitzchak M.; Mah, Kenneth; Kiesler, Sara (1999). "Ethical issues in conducting sex research on the internet". Journal of Sex Research. 36 (1). Informa UK Limited: 82–90. doi:10.1080/00224499909551971. ISSN 0022-4499.
^ Segal, David (4 April 2014). "Does porn harm children?". Dallas News. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
^ Segal, David (28 March 2014). "Opinion - Does Porn Hurt Children?". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 April 2021.

External links

Report of the Surgeon General's Workshop on Pornography and Public Health, United States Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General, August 4, 1986

[At2016-1] Duffy, Athena; Dawson, David L.; das Nair, Roshan (1 May 2016). "Pornography Addiction in Adults: A Systematic Review of Definitions and Reported Impact" (PDF). The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 13 (5): 760–777. doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.03.002. ISSN 1743-6109. PMID 27114191.

[2] Voon, Valerie; Mole, Thomas B.; Banca, Paula; Porter, Laura; Morris, Laurel; Mitchell, Simon; Lapa, Tatyana R.; Karr, Judy; Harrison, Neil A.; Potenza, Marc N.; Irvine, Michael (2014). "Neural correlates of sexual cue reactivity in individuals with and without compulsive sexual behaviours". PLOS ONE. 9 (7): e102419. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j2419V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0102419. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4094516. PMID 25013940.

[3] Banca, Paula; Morris, Laurel S.; Mitchell, Simon; Harrison, Neil A.; Potenza, Marc N.; Voon, Valerie (2016-01-01). "Novelty, conditioning and attentional bias to sexual rewards". Journal of Psychiatric Research. 72: 91–101. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.10.017. ISSN 0022-3956. PMC 4683093. PMID 26606725.

[4] Mollaioli, Sansone, Jannini, Romanelli. (August 2018). "Sexual Dysfunctions in the Internet Era". Researchgate.net.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[5] Kraus, Shane W; Voon, Valerie; Potenza, Marc N (2015-09-22). "Neurobiology of Compulsive Sexual Behavior: Emerging Science". Neuropsychopharmacology. 41 (1): 385–386. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.300. ISSN 0893-133X. PMC 4677151. PMID 26657963.

[Kraus2016rev-6] Kraus, Shane W.; Voon, Valerie; Potenza, Marc N. (2016-02-19). "Should compulsive sexual behavior be considered an addiction?". Addiction. 111 (12): 2097–2106. doi:10.1111/add.13297. PMC 4990495. PMID 26893127.

[Kuhn2016rev-7] Kühn, S.; Gallinat, J. (2016). "Neurobiological Basis of Hypersexuality". International Review of Neurobiology. Vol. 129. Elsevier. pp. 67–83. doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2016.04.002. ISBN 978-0-12-803914-4. ISSN 0074-7742. PMID 27503448.

[Brand2016rev-8] Brand, Matthias; Young, Kimberly; Laier, Christian; Wölfling, Klaus; Potenza, Marc N. (2016). "Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 71: 252–266. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033. PMID 27590829.

[9] Wright, Paul J.; Tokunaga, Robert S.; Kraus, Ashley (2016-02-01). "A Meta-Analysis of Pornography Consumption and Actual Acts of Sexual Aggression in General Population Studies". Journal of Communication. 66 (1): 183–205. doi:10.1111/jcom.12201. ISSN 0021-9916.

[PDF-200707-10] Kendall, Todd D. (July 2007). "Pornography, rape and the internet" (PDF). Retrieved 30 March 2014.

[:11-11] Maas, Megan K.; Vasilenko, Sara A.; Willoughby, Brian J. (2018-07-24). "A Dyadic Approach to Pornography Use and Relationship Satisfaction Among Heterosexual Couples: The Role of Pornography Acceptance and Anxious Attachment". The Journal of Sex Research. 55 (6): 772–782. doi:10.1080/00224499.2018.1440281. ISSN 0022-4499. PMC 6155976. PMID 29578817.

[12] Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (1999). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

[13] "How Attachment Style Affects Sexual Desire and Satisfaction". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2020-11-29.

[:02-14] Bennett, Margaret; LoPresti, Brittny J.; McGloin, Rory; Denes, Amanda (2019-10-20). "The Desire for Porn and Partner?: Investigating the Role of Scripts in Affectionate Communication, Sexual Desire, and Pornography Consumption and Guilt in Young Adults' Romantic Relationships". Western Journal of Communication. 83 (5): 647–667. doi:10.1080/10570314.2018.1564934. ISSN 1057-0314. S2CID 150401852.

[:12-15] Simon, William; Gagnon, John H. (April 1986). "Sexual scripts: Permanence and change". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 15 (2): 97–120. doi:10.1007/bf01542219. ISSN 0004-0002. PMID 3718206. S2CID 22275129.

[:1-16] Bridges, Ana J.; Sun, Chyng F.; Ezzell, Matthew B.; Johnson, Jennifer (2016-10-20). "Sexual Scripts and the Sexual Behavior of Men and Women Who Use Pornography". Sexualization, Media, & Society. 2 (4): 237462381666827. doi:10.1177/2374623816668275. ISSN 2374-6238. S2CID 151796399.

[:6-17] Carroll, Jason S.; Busby, Dean M.; Willoughby, Brian J.; Brown, Cameron C. (2017-04-03). "The Porn Gap: Differences in Men's and Women's Pornography Patterns in Couple Relationships". Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy. 16 (2): 146–163. doi:10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796. ISSN 1533-2691. S2CID 151873457.

[:2-18] Floyd, K. (2015). Affection exchange theory. In C. R. Berger & M. E. Roloff (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of interpersonal communication (pp. 24–31). Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic139

[middlesexstudy-19] Fidgen, Jo (2013-06-25). "Do we know whether pornography harms people?". BBC News. Retrieved 2016-09-18.

[20] Campbell, Lorne; Kohut, Taylor (2017-02-01). "The use and effects of pornography in romantic relationships". Current Opinion in Psychology. Relationships and stress. 13: 6–10. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.004. ISSN 2352-250X.

[21] Daneback, Kristian; Træen, Bente; Månsson, Sven-Axel (October 2009). "Use of Pornography in a Random Sample of Norwegian Heterosexual Couples". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 38 (5): 746–753. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9314-4. ISSN 0004-0002.

[:63-22] Carroll, Jason S.; Busby, Dean M.; Willoughby, Brian J.; Brown, Cameron C. (2017-04-03). "The Porn Gap: Differences in Men's and Women's Pornography Patterns in Couple Relationships". Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy. 16 (2): 146–163. doi:10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796. ISSN 1533-2691. S2CID 151873457.

[23] BRIDGES, ANA J.; MOROKOFF, PATRICIA J. (2010-12-22). "Sexual media use and relational satisfaction in heterosexual couples". Personal Relationships. 18 (4): 562–585. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01328.x. ISSN 1350-4126.

[:8-24] Potenza, Marc N. (2018-10-02). "Pornography in the current digital technology environment: An overview of a special issue on pornography". Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 25 (4): 241–247. doi:10.1080/10720162.2019.1567411. ISSN 1072-0162. S2CID 150546076.

[dsm-5-25] American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 481, 797–798. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8. Thus, groups of repetitive behaviors, which some term behavioral addictions, with such subcategories as "sex addiction," "exercise addiction," or "shopping addiction," are not included because at this time there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders.

[SteinHollander2009-26] Stein, Dan J.; Hollander, Eric; Rothbaum, Barbara Olasov (31 August 2009). Textbook of Anxiety Disorders. American Psychiatric Pub. pp. 359–. ISBN 978-1-58562-254-2. Retrieved 24 April 2010.

[pmid17503551-27] Parashar A, Varma A (April 2007). "Behavior and substance addictions: is the world ready for a new category in the DSM-V?". CNS Spectr. 12 (4): 257, author reply 258–9. doi:10.1017/S109285290002099X. PMID 17503551.

[28] The British Psychological Society, "Response to the American Psychiatric Association: DSM-5 Development", 2001 [1] Archived 2016-04-17 at the Wayback Machine

[29] Ley, David J. (2014-07-10). The Myth of Sex Addiction. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781442213050.

[CoonMitterer2016-30] Coon, Dennis; Mitterer, John O.; Martini, Tanya S. (5 December 2016). Psychology: Modules for Active Learning. Cengage Learning. pp. 413–414. ISBN 978-1-337-51708-9.

[Kraus_385–386-31] Kraus, Shane W; Voon, Valerie; Potenza, Marc N (2015-09-22). "Neurobiology of Compulsive Sexual Behavior: Emerging Science". Neuropsychopharmacology. 41 (1): 385–386. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.300. ISSN 0893-133X. PMC 4677151. PMID 26657963.

[:0-32] Brand, Matthias; Young, Kimberly S.; Laier, Christian; Wölfling, Klaus; Potenza, Marc N. (2016-12-01). "Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 71: 252–266. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033. PMID 27590829.

[33] Kühn, S.; Gallinat, J. (2016-01-01). "Neurobiological Basis of Hypersexuality". In Zahr, Natalie M.; Peterson, Eric T. (eds.). Imaging the Addicted Brain. Imaging the Addicted Brain. Vol. 129. pp. 67–83. doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2016.04.002. ISBN 9780128039144. PMID 27503448. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)

[34] Prause, Nicole; Steele, Vaughn R.; Staley, Cameron; Sabatinelli, Dean; Hajcak, Greg (2015). "Modulation of late positive potentials by sexual images in problem users and controls inconsistent with 'porn addiction'". Biological Psychology. 109: 192–199. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.06.005. PMID 26095441. S2CID 1446388.

[35] Prause, Nicole; Janssen, Erick; Georgiadis, Janniko; Finn, Peter; Pfaus, James (2017). "Data do not support sex as addictive". The Lancet Psychiatry. 4 (12): 899. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30441-8. PMID 29179928.

[36] "ASAM Definition of Addiction". 19 April 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2016.

[Kraus_2097–2106-37] Kraus, Shane W.; Voon, Valerie; Potenza, Marc N. (December 2016). "Should compulsive sexual behavior be considered an addiction?". Addiction (Abingdon, England). 111 (12): 2097–2106. doi:10.1111/add.13297. ISSN 0965-2140. PMC 4990495. PMID 26893127. S2CID 11261106.

[Neuropsychopharmacology-38] Gola, Mateusz; Wordecha, Małgorzata; Sescousse, Guillaume; Lew-Starowicz, Michał; Kossowski, Bartosz; Wypych, Marek; Makeig, Scott; Potenza, Marc N.; Marchewka, Artur (September 2017). "Can Pornography be Addictive? An fMRI Study of Men Seeking Treatment for Problematic Pornography Use" (PDF). Neuropsychopharmacology. 42 (10). Springer Nature: 2021–2031. doi:10.1038/npp.2017.78. eISSN 1740-634X. ISSN 0893-133X. OCLC 815994337. PMC 5561346. PMID 28409565. S2CID 13759729. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2019. Retrieved 1 August 2021.

[39] "AASECT Position on Sex Addiction". April 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2019. AASECT 1) does not find sufficient empirical evidence to support the classification of sex addiction or porn addiction as a mental health disorder, and 2) does not find the sexual addiction training and treatment methods and educational pedagogies to be adequately informed by accurate human sexuality knowledge.

[Front._Psych-40] Awan, Hashir A.; Aamir, Alifyah; Diwan, Mufaddal N.; Ullah, Irfan; Pereira-Sanchez, Victor; Ramalho, Rodrigo; Orsolini, Laura; Ojeahere, Margaret I.; Ransing, Ramdas; Vadsaria, Aftab K.; Virani, Sanya (March 2021). Fujiwara, Hironobu (ed.). "Internet and Pornography Use During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Presumed Impact and What Can Be Done". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 12 (623508). Frontiers Media: 1–8. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.623508. eISSN 1664-0640. PMC 8007884. PMID 33796031. S2CID 232234421.

[J._Clin._Med.-41] Alarcón, Rubén; de la Iglesia, Javier I.; Casado, Nerea M.; Montejo, Angel L. (January 2019). "Online Porn Addiction: What We Know and What We Don't—A Systematic Review". Journal of Clinical Medicine. 8 (1: Novel Research in Sexuality and Mental Health). MDPI: 91. doi:10.3390/jcm8010091. eISSN 2077-0383. PMC 6352245. PMID 30650522. S2CID 58578935.

[Behav._Sci-42] Love, Todd; Laier, Christian; Brand, Matthias; Hatch, Linda; Hajela, Raju (September 2015). "Neuroscience of Internet Pornography Addiction: A Review and Update". Behavioral Sciences. 5 (3: Addictive Behaviors: Assessment and Treatment). MDPI: 388–433. doi:10.3390/bs5030388. eISSN 2076-328X. PMC 4600144. PMID 26393658. S2CID 16085514.

[cooper1999-43] Cooper, Alvin; Putnam, Dana E.; Planchon, Lynn A.; Boies, Sylvain C. (1999). "Online sexual compulsivity: Getting tangled in the net". Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 6 (2): 79–104. doi:10.1080/10720169908400182.

[delmonico1997-44] Delmonico, David L. (1997). "Cybersex: High tech sex addiction". Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 4 (2): 159–167. doi:10.1080/10720169708400139.

[layden2005-45] Layden, Mary Anne (September 2005). "Cyber Sex Addiction" (PDF). Advances in Cognitive Therapy: 1–2, 4–5.^{[permanent dead link]}

[46] Nelson, Kimberly M.; Rothman, Emily F. (February 2020). Morabia, Alfredo (ed.). "Should Public Health Professionals Consider Pornography a Public Health Crisis?". American Journal of Public Health. 110 (2). American Public Health Association: 151–153. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2019.305498. ISSN 1541-0048. PMC 6951382. PMID 31913670. S2CID 210121251.

[47] Rothman, Emily F. (2021). "Pornography as a US Public Health Problem". Pornography and Public Health. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190075477.003.0001. ISBN 9780190075477. LCCN 2021013439.

[48] Tylka, Tracy L. (January 2015). "No harm in looking, right? Men's pornography consumption, body image, and well-being". Psychology of Men & Masculinity. 16 (1): 97–107. doi:10.1037/a0035774. ISSN 1939-151X.

[49] Tylka, Tracy L. (January 2015). "No harm in looking, right? Men's pornography consumption, body image, and well-being". Psychology of Men & Masculinity. 16 (1): 97–107. doi:10.1037/a0035774. ISSN 1939-151X.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)

[50] Brooks, Gary (1995). The Centerfold Syndrome: How Men Can Overcome Objectification and Achieve Intimacy with Women. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 0787901040.

[51] Borgogna, Nicholas C.; Lathan, Emma C.; Mitchell, Ariana (2018-10-02). "Is Women's Problematic Pornography Viewing Related to Body Image or Relationship Satisfaction?". Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 25 (4): 345–366. doi:10.1080/10720162.2018.1532360. ISSN 1072-0162.

[52] Negash, Sesen; Sheppard, Nicole Van Ness; Lambert, Nathaniel M.; Fincham, Frank D. (July 2016). "Trading Later Rewards for Current Pleasure: Pornography Consumption and Delay Discounting". Journal of Sex Research. 53 (6): 689–700. doi:10.1080/00224499.2015.1025123. ISSN 1559-8519. PMID 26305628. S2CID 33576332.

[Mecham_37–54-53] Mecham, Nathan W.; Lewis-Western, Melissa F.; Wood, David A. (2021-01-01). "The Effects of Pornography on Unethical Behavior in Business". Journal of Business Ethics. 168 (1): 37–54. doi:10.1007/s10551-019-04230-8. ISSN 1573-0697.

[:172-54] Wright, Paul J.; Sun, Chyng; Steffen, Nicola (2018-11-17). "Pornography Consumption, Perceptions of Pornography as Sexual Information, and Condom Use". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 44 (8): 800–805. doi:10.1080/0092623X.2018.1462278. ISSN 0092-623X. PMID 29634458. S2CID 4794350.

[:42-55] Kohut, Taylor; Balzarini, Rhonda N.; Fisher, William A.; Campbell, Lorne (May 2018). "Pornography's associations with open sexual communication and relationship closeness vary as a function of dyadic patterns of pornography use within heterosexual relationships". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 35 (4): 655–676. doi:10.1177/0265407517743096. ISSN 0265-4075. S2CID 148998219.

[:52-56] "How Porn Affects Relationships". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2020-11-28.

[:5-57] "How Porn Affects Relationships". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2020-11-28.

[:10-58] Hald, Gert Martin (2006-10-23). "Gender Differences in Pornography Consumption among Young Heterosexual Danish Adults". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 35 (5): 577–585. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9064-0. ISSN 0004-0002. PMID 17039402. S2CID 35560724.

[:3-59] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Miller, Dan J.; McBain, Kerry A.; Li, Wendy W.; Raggatt, Peter T. F. (March 2019). "Pornography, preference for porn‐like sex, masturbation, and men's sexual and relationship satisfaction". Personal Relationships. 26 (1): 93–113. doi:10.1111/pere.12267. ISSN 1350-4126. S2CID 151269401.

[:16-60] Prause, Nicole (November 2019). "Porn Is for Masturbation". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 48 (8): 2271–2277. doi:10.1007/s10508-019-1397-6. ISSN 0004-0002. PMID 30847758. S2CID 73467018.

[:14-61] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Dwulit, Aleksandra Diana; Rzymski, Piotr (2019-06-26). "The Potential Associations of Pornography Use with Sexual Dysfunctions: An Integrative Literature Review of Observational Studies". Journal of Clinical Medicine. 8 (7): 914. doi:10.3390/jcm8070914. ISSN 2077-0383. PMC 6679165. PMID 31247949.

[62] Fisher, Terri D. (2013-02-09). "Gender Roles and Pressure to be Truthful: The Bogus Pipeline Modifies Gender Differences in Sexual but Not Non-sexual Behavior". Sex Roles. 68 (7–8): 401–414. doi:10.1007/s11199-013-0266-3. ISSN 0360-0025. S2CID 143885110.

[:13-63] Bridges, Ana J.; Sun, Chyng F.; Ezzell, Matthew B.; Johnson, Jennifer (2016-10-20). "Sexual Scripts and the Sexual Behavior of Men and Women Who Use Pornography". Sexualization, Media, & Society. 2 (4): 237462381666827. doi:10.1177/2374623816668275. ISSN 2374-6238. S2CID 151796399.

[:4-64] Kohut, Taylor; Balzarini, Rhonda N.; Fisher, William A.; Campbell, Lorne (May 2018). "Pornography's associations with open sexual communication and relationship closeness vary as a function of dyadic patterns of pornography use within heterosexual relationships". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 35 (4): 655–676. doi:10.1177/0265407517743096. ISSN 0265-4075. S2CID 148998219.

[65] Shmuley Boteach and Pamela Anderson (August 31, 2016). "Take the Pledge: No More Indulging Porn". The Wall Street Journal.

[66] Ken Kurson (September 20, 2016). "Talking Porn With Pamela Anderson and Rabbi Shmuley". The Observer.

[auto12-67] Daniel Sugarman. "Shmuley Boteach and Pamela Anderson in joint warning on dangers of pornography," The Jewish Chronicle.

[68] Emine Saner (October 14, 2016). "The playmate and the rabbi: unlikely bedfellows fighting internet porn". The Guardian. Retrieved January 20, 2021.

[:7-69] Morgan, Elizabeth M. (November 2011). "Associations between Young Adults' Use of Sexually Explicit Materials and Their Sexual Preferences, Behaviors, and Satisfaction". Journal of Sex Research. 48 (6): 520–530. doi:10.1080/00224499.2010.543960. ISSN 0022-4499. PMID 21259151. S2CID 854388.

[:17-70] Wright, Paul J.; Sun, Chyng; Steffen, Nicola (2018-11-17). "Pornography Consumption, Perceptions of Pornography as Sexual Information, and Condom Use". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 44 (8): 800–805. doi:10.1080/0092623X.2018.1462278. ISSN 0092-623X. PMID 29634458. S2CID 4794350.

[:62-71] Carroll, Jason S.; Busby, Dean M.; Willoughby, Brian J.; Brown, Cameron C. (2017-04-03). "The Porn Gap: Differences in Men's and Women's Pornography Patterns in Couple Relationships". Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy. 16 (2): 146–163. doi:10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796. ISSN 1533-2691. S2CID 151873457.

[:18-72] Hald, Gert Martin; Seaman, Christopher; Linz, Daniel (2014), Tolman, Deborah L.; Diamond, Lisa M.; Bauermeister, José A.; George, William H. (eds.), "Sexuality and pornography.", APA handbook of sexuality and psychology, Vol. 2: Contextual approaches., Washington: American Psychological Association, pp. 3–35, doi:10.1037/14194-001, ISBN 978-1-4338-1372-6, retrieved 2020-11-29

[73] Seigfried-Spellar, Kathryn C.; Rogers, Marcus K. (2013-09-01). "Does deviant pornography use follow a Guttman-like progression?". Computers in Human Behavior. 29 (5): 1997–2003. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.04.018. ISSN 0747-5632.

[psychtextbooks-74] *Mitchell, M. and Jolley, J. (2001). Research Design Explained (4th Ed) New York:Harcourt.
Brewer, M. (2000). Research Design and Issues of Validity. In Reis, H. and Judd, C. (eds.) Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Shadish, W., Cook, T., and Campbell, D. (2002). Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generilized Causal Inference Boston:Houghton Mifflin.

Levine, G. and Parkinson, S. (1994). Experimental Methods in Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.

Liebert, R. M. & Liebert, L. L. (1995). Science and behavior: An introduction to methods of psychological research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

[75] Brewer, M. (2000). Research Design and Issues of Validity. In Reis, H. and Judd, C. (eds.) Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

[76] Shadish, W., Cook, T., and Campbell, D. (2002). Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generilized Causal Inference Boston:Houghton Mifflin.

[77] Levine, G. and Parkinson, S. (1994). Experimental Methods in Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.

[78] Liebert, R. M. & Liebert, L. L. (1995). Science and behavior: An introduction to methods of psychological research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

[g-75] Hald, Gert Martin; Malamuth, Neil; Yuen, Carlin (2000). "Pornography and Attitudes Supporting Violence Against Women: Revisiting the Relationship in Nonexperimental Studies" (PDF). Aggressive Behavior. 36 (1): 14–20. doi:10.1002/ab.20328. PMID 19862768. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
Kingstona, Drew; Malamuthb, Neil; Fedoroffc, Paul; Marshalld, William (24 March 2009). "The Importance of Individual Differences in Pornography Use: Theoretical Perspectives and Implications for Treating Sexual Offenders". The Journal of Sex Research. 46 (=2–3): 216–232. doi:10.1080/00224490902747701. PMID 19308844. S2CID 205442065.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)

[80] Kingstona, Drew; Malamuthb, Neil; Fedoroffc, Paul; Marshalld, William (24 March 2009). "The Importance of Individual Differences in Pornography Use: Theoretical Perspectives and Implications for Treating Sexual Offenders". The Journal of Sex Research. 46 (=2–3): 216–232. doi:10.1080/00224490902747701. PMID 19308844. S2CID 205442065.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)

[76] Allen, Mike; D'Alessio, Dave; Brezgel, Keri (17 March 2006) [1995]. "A Meta-Analysis Summarizing the Effects of Pornography II Aggression After Exposure". Human Communication Research. 22 (2): 258–283. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1995.tb00368.x.

[77] Wright, Paul J.; Tokunaga, Robert S.; Kraus, Ashley (2015-12-01). "A Meta-Analysis of Pornography Consumption and Actual Acts of Sexual Aggression in General Population Studies". Journal of Communication. 66: 183–205. doi:10.1111/jcom.12201. ISSN 1460-2466.

[Ferguson_&_Hartley_(2009)-78] Ferguson, Christopher J.; Hartley, Richard D. (2009). "The pleasure is momentary…the expense damnable?" (PDF). Aggression and Violent Behavior. 14 (5). Elsevier BV: 323–329. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.04.008. ISSN 1359-1789.

[79] Ferguson, Christopher J.; Hartley, Richard D. (21 July 2020). "Pornography and Sexual Aggression: Can Meta-Analysis Find a Link?". Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. doi:10.1177/1524838020942754. ISSN 1524-8380. PMID 32691692. Retrieved 22 October 2020.

[80] Berl Kutchinsky: Studies on Pornography and sex crimes in Denmark Archived 2007-10-30 at the Wayback Machine

[81] The Effects of Pornography: An International Perspective Archived 2012-02-03 at the Wayback Machine University of Hawaii Porn 101: Eroticism, Pornography, and the First Amendment: Milton Diamond Ph.D.

[JSI-Summer1973-82] Kutchinsky, Berl (Summer 1973). "The Effect of Easy Availability of Pornography on the Incidence of Sex Crimes: The Danish Experience". Journal of Social Issues. 29 (3): 163–181. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1973.tb00094.x.

[MD-2009-83] Diamond, Milton (September–October 2009). "Pornography, public acceptance and sex related crime: A review". Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 32 (5): 304–314. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.06.004. PMID 19665229.

[intern-84] Diamond, Milton. "The effects of Pornography: An International Perspective". University of Hawaii System. Archived from the original on 2008-01-15.

[OC-20060804-85] Peters, Robert (4 August 2006). "Could it be that pornography prevents rape?". ObscenityCrimes.org. Archived from the original on 2006-10-01.

[Malamuth-86] Malamuth, Neil M. (August 4, 1986). Do Sexually Violent Media Indirectly Contribute to Antisocial Behavior?. Public Health Service of United States. p. 38.

[Goldhill_Goldhill_2016-87] Goldhill, Olivia (7 March 2016). "Porn is like alcohol—whether it's bad for you depends on who you are". Quartz. Retrieved 18 February 2019.

[:32-88] Miller, Dan J.; McBain, Kerry A.; Li, Wendy W.; Raggatt, Peter T. F. (March 2019). "Pornography, preference for porn‐like sex, masturbation, and men's sexual and relationship satisfaction". Personal Relationships. 26 (1): 93–113. doi:10.1111/pere.12267. ISSN 1350-4126. S2CID 151269401.

[:72-89] Morgan, Elizabeth M. (November 2011). "Associations between Young Adults' Use of Sexually Explicit Materials and Their Sexual Preferences, Behaviors, and Satisfaction". Journal of Sex Research. 48 (6): 520–530. doi:10.1080/00224499.2010.543960. ISSN 0022-4499. PMID 21259151. S2CID 854388.

[90] "Researchers Explore Pornography's Effect On Long-Term Relationships". NPR.org. Retrieved 2020-11-28.

[:33-91] Miller, Dan J.; McBain, Kerry A.; Li, Wendy W.; Raggatt, Peter T. F. (March 2019). "Pornography, preference for porn‐like sex, masturbation, and men's sexual and relationship satisfaction". Personal Relationships. 26 (1): 93–113. doi:10.1111/pere.12267. ISSN 1350-4126. S2CID 151269401.

[:43-92] Kohut, Taylor; Balzarini, Rhonda N.; Fisher, William A.; Campbell, Lorne (May 2018). "Pornography's associations with open sexual communication and relationship closeness vary as a function of dyadic patterns of pornography use within heterosexual relationships". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 35 (4): 655–676. doi:10.1177/0265407517743096. ISSN 0265-4075. S2CID 148998219.

[:132-93] Resch, Marley N.; Alderson, Kevin G. (2014-09-03). "Female Partners of Men Who Use Pornography: Are Honesty and Mutual Use Associated With Relationship Satisfaction?". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 40 (5): 410–424. doi:10.1080/0092623X.2012.751077. ISSN 0092-623X. PMID 23898992. S2CID 205472183.

[:64-94] Carroll, Jason S.; Busby, Dean M.; Willoughby, Brian J.; Brown, Cameron C. (2017-04-03). "The Porn Gap: Differences in Men's and Women's Pornography Patterns in Couple Relationships". Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy. 16 (2): 146–163. doi:10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796. ISSN 1533-2691. S2CID 151873457.

[:53-95] "How Porn Affects Relationships". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2020-11-28.

[:22-96] Floyd, K. (2015). Affection exchange theory. In C. R. Berger & M. E. Roloff (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of interpersonal communication (pp. 24–31). Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic139

[:03-97] Bennett, Margaret; LoPresti, Brittny J.; McGloin, Rory; Denes, Amanda (2019-10-20). "The Desire for Porn and Partner?: Investigating the Role of Scripts in Affectionate Communication, Sexual Desire, and Pornography Consumption and Guilt in Young Adults' Romantic Relationships". Western Journal of Communication. 83 (5): 647–667. doi:10.1080/10570314.2018.1564934. ISSN 1057-0314. S2CID 150401852.

[98] Rodriguez-Hart, C; Chitale, RA; Rigg, R; Goldstein, BY; Kerndt, PR; Tavrow, P (December 2012). "Sexually transmitted infection testing of adult film performers: is disease being missed?". Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 39 (12): 989–94. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3182716e6e. PMID 23191956. S2CID 11721333.

[99] Grudzen, CR; Meeker, D; Torres, J; Du, Q; Andersen, RM; Gelberg, L (February 2013). "HIV and STI risk behaviors, knowledge, and testing among female adult film performers as compared to other California women". AIDS and Behavior. 17 (2): 517–22. doi:10.1007/s10461-011-0090-0. PMID 22101890. S2CID 6446061.

[100] Goldstein, BY; Steinberg, JK; Aynalem, G; Kerndt, PR (July 2011). "High Chlamydia and gonorrhea incidence and reinfection among performers in the adult film industry". Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 38 (7): 644–8. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e318214e408. PMID 21844714. S2CID 2855793.

[101] Fitz-Gerald, Sean (January 27, 2014). "Condoms Required for CA Porn Performers: Judge". NBC Southern California.

[102] Sellgren, Katherine (26 March 2013). "BBC News - Pupils 'should be taught about risks of pornography'". BBC News. Retrieved 13 March 2014.

[Thornburgh_2002_p.-103] Thornburgh, Dick; Lin, Herbert S., eds. (2002). Youth, pornography and the Internet. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-309-08274-7. OCLC 52856244. Although some literature exists on traditional forms of media (e.g., television, radio, magazines), the empirical research that examines the impact on children of exposure to non-violent sexual material is extremely limited.

[Brown_Wisco_2019_pp._10–13-104] Brown, Jennifer A.; Wisco, Jonathan J. (2019). "The components of the adolescent brain and its unique sensitivity to sexually explicit material". Journal of Adolescence. 72. Elsevier BV: 10–13. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.01.006. ISSN 0140-1971. PMID 30754014.

[105] Alissar, El-Murr (December 2017). "The effects of pornography on children and young people: An evidence scan". ResearchGate.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

[Binik_Mah_Kiesler_1999_pp._82–90-106] Binik, Yitzchak M.; Mah, Kenneth; Kiesler, Sara (1999). "Ethical issues in conducting sex research on the internet". Journal of Sex Research. 36 (1). Informa UK Limited: 82–90. doi:10.1080/00224499909551971. ISSN 0022-4499.

[Dallas_News_2014-107] Segal, David (4 April 2014). "Does porn harm children?". Dallas News. Retrieved 14 April 2021.

[The_New_York_Times_2014-108] Segal, David (28 March 2014). "Opinion - Does Porn Hurt Children?". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 April 2021.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Short description|Influence of pornography on an individual and their sexual relationships}}
+{{Short description|Influence of pornography on an individual and their intimate relationships}}
+{{essay-like|date=December 2020}}The '''effects of pornography''' on individuals or their intimate relationships depend on the type of [[pornography]] used and differ from person to person. Consumption of [[Pornography|pornographic material]] is associated with negative and positive impacts. It has been studied particularly for associations with [[Pornography addiction|addiction]]<ref name="At2016">{{cite journal|first1=Athena|last1=Duffy|first2=David L.|last2=Dawson|first3=Roshan|last3=das Nair |title=Pornography Addiction in Adults: A Systematic Review of Definitions and Reported Impact|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|date=1 May 2016|issn=1743-6109|pages=760–777|volume=13|issue=5|pmid=27114191|doi=10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.03.002|url=http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/23086/1/23086%20Duffy%20-%20Porn%20Addiction%20Review%202017%20repository.pdf}}</ref> as well as effects on the brain over time. Some [[literature reviews]] suggest that pornographic images and films can be addictive,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Voon|first1=Valerie|last2=Mole|first2=Thomas B.|last3=Banca|first3=Paula|last4=Porter|first4=Laura|last5=Morris|first5=Laurel|last6=Mitchell|first6=Simon|last7=Lapa|first7=Tatyana R.|last8=Karr|first8=Judy|last9=Harrison|first9=Neil A.|last10=Potenza|first10=Marc N.|last11=Irvine|first11=Michael|date=2014|title=Neural correlates of sexual cue reactivity in individuals with and without compulsive sexual behaviours|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9|issue=7|pages=e102419|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0102419|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4094516|pmid=25013940|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j2419V|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Banca|first1=Paula|last2=Morris|first2=Laurel S.|last3=Mitchell|first3=Simon|last4=Harrison|first4=Neil A.|last5=Potenza|first5=Marc N.|last6=Voon|first6=Valerie|date=2016-01-01|title=Novelty, conditioning and attentional bias to sexual rewards|journal=Journal of Psychiatric Research|volume=72|pages=91–101|doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.10.017|pmid=26606725|pmc=4683093|issn=0022-3956}}</ref> particularly when combined with masturbation,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327295984|title=Sexual Dysfunctions in the Internet Era|last=Mollaioli, Sansone, Jannini, Romanelli.|date=August 2018|website=Researchgate.net}}</ref> while others maintain that data remains inconclusive.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kraus|first1=Shane W|last2=Voon|first2=Valerie|last3=Potenza|first3=Marc N|date=2015-09-22|title=Neurobiology of Compulsive Sexual Behavior: Emerging Science|journal=Neuropsychopharmacology|volume=41|issue=1|pages=385–386|doi=10.1038/npp.2015.300|issn=0893-133X|pmc=4677151|pmid=26657963}}</ref><ref name="Kraus2016rev">{{Cite journal|last1=Kraus|first1=Shane W.|last2=Voon|first2=Valerie|last3=Potenza|first3=Marc N. |date=2016-02-19|title=Should compulsive sexual behavior be considered an addiction?|journal=Addiction|volume=111|issue=12|pages=2097–2106|doi=10.1111/add.13297|pmid=26893127|pmc=4990495}}</ref><ref name="Kuhn2016rev">{{cite book | last1=Kühn | first1=S. | last2=Gallinat | first2=J. | title=International Review of Neurobiology | chapter=Neurobiological Basis of Hypersexuality | publisher=Elsevier | year=2016 | volume=129 | isbn=978-0-12-803914-4 | issn=0074-7742 | doi=10.1016/bs.irn.2016.04.002 | pages=67–83| pmid=27503448 }}</ref><ref name="Brand2016rev">{{Cite journal|last1=Brand|first1=Matthias|last2=Young|first2=Kimberly|last3=Laier|first3=Christian|last4=Wölfling|first4=Klaus|last5=Potenza|first5=Marc N.|title=Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model|journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033|volume=71|pages=252–266|pmid=27590829|year=2016|doi-access=free}}</ref> Other research has looked at pornographic material's relation to acts of sexual violence, with varying results.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=Paul J.|last2=Tokunaga|first2=Robert S.|last3=Kraus|first3=Ashley|date=2016-02-01|title=A Meta-Analysis of Pornography Consumption and Actual Acts of Sexual Aggression in General Population Studies|url=https://academic.oup.com/joc/article/66/1/183/4082427|journal=Journal of Communication|volume=66|issue=1|pages=183–205|doi=10.1111/jcom.12201|issn=0021-9916}}</ref><ref name="PDF-200707">{{cite web|url=http://www.yapaka.be/sites/yapaka.be/files/actualite/pornography-rape-and-the-internet.pdf|title=Pornography, rape and the internet|last=Kendall|first=Todd D.|date=July 2007|access-date=30 March 2014}}</ref>
-{{merge from|Effects of pornography on relationships|discuss=Talk:Effects of pornography#The Effects of pornography on relationships spin-off article|date=December 2020}}
-The '''effects of pornography''' on individuals or their [[sexual relationship]]s depend on the type of pornography used and differ from person to person. [[Pornography|Pornographic material]] has been studied particularly for associations with [[addiction]]<ref name=At2016>{{cite journal|first1=Athena|last1=Duffy|first2=David L.|last2=Dawson|first3=Roshan|last3=das Nair |title=Pornography Addiction in Adults: A Systematic Review of Definitions and Reported Impact|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|date=1 May 2016|issn=1743-6109|pages=760–777|volume=13|issue=5|pmid=27114191|doi=10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.03.002|url=http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/23086/1/23086%20Duffy%20-%20Porn%20Addiction%20Review%202017%20repository.pdf}}</ref> as well as effects on the brain over time. Some [[literature reviews]] suggest that pornographic images and films can be addictive,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Voon|first1=Valerie|last2=Mole|first2=Thomas B.|last3=Banca|first3=Paula|last4=Porter|first4=Laura|last5=Morris|first5=Laurel|last6=Mitchell|first6=Simon|last7=Lapa|first7=Tatyana R.|last8=Karr|first8=Judy|last9=Harrison|first9=Neil A.|last10=Potenza|first10=Marc N.|last11=Irvine|first11=Michael|date=2014|title=Neural correlates of sexual cue reactivity in individuals with and without compulsive sexual behaviours|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9|issue=7|pages=e102419|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0102419|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4094516|pmid=25013940|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j2419V|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Banca|first1=Paula|last2=Morris|first2=Laurel S.|last3=Mitchell|first3=Simon|last4=Harrison|first4=Neil A.|last5=Potenza|first5=Marc N.|last6=Voon|first6=Valerie|date=2016-01-01|title=Novelty, conditioning and attentional bias to sexual rewards|journal=Journal of Psychiatric Research|volume=72|pages=91–101|doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.10.017|pmid=26606725|pmc=4683093|issn=0022-3956}}</ref> particularly when combined with masturbation,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327295984|title=Sexual Dysfunctions in the Internet Era|last=Mollaioli, Sansone, Jannini, Romanelli.|date=August 2018|website=Researchgate.net}}</ref> while others maintain that data remains inconclusive.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kraus|first1=Shane W|last2=Voon|first2=Valerie|last3=Potenza|first3=Marc N|date=2015-09-22|title=Neurobiology of Compulsive Sexual Behavior: Emerging Science|journal=Neuropsychopharmacology|volume=41|issue=1|pages=385–386|doi=10.1038/npp.2015.300|issn=0893-133X|pmc=4677151|pmid=26657963}}</ref><ref name="Kraus2016rev">{{Cite journal|last1=Kraus|first1=Shane W.|last2=Voon|first2=Valerie|last3=Potenza|first3=Marc N. |date=2016-02-19|title=Should compulsive sexual behavior be considered an addiction?|journal=Addiction|volume=111|issue=12|pages=2097–2106|doi=10.1111/add.13297|pmid=26893127|pmc=4990495}}</ref><ref name=Kuhn2016rev>{{cite book | last1=Kühn | first1=S. | last2=Gallinat | first2=J. | title=International Review of Neurobiology | chapter=Neurobiological Basis of Hypersexuality | publisher=Elsevier | year=2016 | volume=129 | isbn=978-0-12-803914-4 | issn=0074-7742 | doi=10.1016/bs.irn.2016.04.002 | pages=67–83| pmid=27503448 }}</ref><ref name=Brand2016rev>{{Cite journal|last1=Brand|first1=Matthias|last2=Young|first2=Kimberly|last3=Laier|first3=Christian|last4=Wölfling|first4=Klaus|last5=Potenza|first5=Marc N.|title=Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model|journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033|volume=71|pages=252–266|pmid=27590829|year=2016|doi-access=free}}</ref> Other research has looked at pornographic material's relation to acts of sexual violence, with varying results.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=Paul J.|last2=Tokunaga|first2=Robert S.|last3=Kraus|first3=Ashley|date=2016-02-01|title=A Meta-Analysis of Pornography Consumption and Actual Acts of Sexual Aggression in General Population Studies|url=https://academic.oup.com/joc/article/66/1/183/4082427|journal=Journal of Communication|volume=66|issue=1|pages=183–205|doi=10.1111/jcom.12201|issn=0021-9916}}</ref><ref name="PDF-200707">{{cite web|url=http://www.yapaka.be/sites/yapaka.be/files/actualite/pornography-rape-and-the-internet.pdf|title=Pornography, rape and the internet|last=Kendall|first=Todd D.|date=July 2007|access-date=30 March 2014}}</ref>
-==Methodology and hypotheses==
+==Methodology and key theories==
-===Issues with research===
+=== Attachment style ===
+{{Further|Attachment theory}}
+Current research often views relationship and sexual satisfaction through the lens of attachment theory. There are generally four styles of attachment: anxious, avoidant, fearful, and secure attachment. Individuals with anxious attachment styles report strong fears of abandonment and distrust in their partners, as well as jealousy.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Maas|first1=Megan K.|last2=Vasilenko|first2=Sara A.|last3=Willoughby|first3=Brian J.|date=2018-07-24|title=A Dyadic Approach to Pornography Use and Relationship Satisfaction Among Heterosexual Couples: The Role of Pornography Acceptance and Anxious Attachment|url=|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|language=en|volume=55|issue=6|pages=772–782|doi=10.1080/00224499.2018.1440281|issn=0022-4499|pmc=6155976|pmid=29578817}}</ref><ref>Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (1999). ''Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications''. New York, NY: Guilford Press.</ref> Attachment style may be moderated by gender identity and sexual orientation, and both anxious and avoidant attached individuals report less satisfaction in their relationships, as well as sexual satisfaction.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How Attachment Style Affects Sexual Desire and Satisfaction|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/experimentations/201711/how-attachment-style-affects-sexual-desire-and-satisfaction|access-date=2020-11-29|website=Psychology Today|language=en-US}}</ref> An individual's attachment style may play a role in their acceptance of pornography, in their own pornography consumption, and in their views of a partner's pornography consumption, however more research is needed to determine this relationship. One current hypothesis popularizes the idea that anxiously attached individuals will have more negative feelings towards the consumption of pornography.<ref name=":11" />
+=== Sexual scripting ===
+{{Further|Sexual script theory}}{{See also|Script theory}}
+Pornography research is also greatly influenced by script theory. Originally proposed by researcher Silvan Tomkins, script theory proposes that behavior is a series of "scripts," or programs in order to achieve a goal.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last1=Bennett|first1=Margaret|last2=LoPresti|first2=Brittny J.|last3=McGloin|first3=Rory|last4=Denes|first4=Amanda|date=2019-10-20|title=The Desire for Porn and Partner?: Investigating the Role of Scripts in Affectionate Communication, Sexual Desire, and Pornography Consumption and Guilt in Young Adults' Romantic Relationships|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10570314.2018.1564934|journal=Western Journal of Communication|language=en|volume=83|issue=5|pages=647–667|doi=10.1080/10570314.2018.1564934|issn=1057-0314|s2cid=150401852}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Simon|first1=William|last2=Gagnon|first2=John H.|date=April 1986|title=Sexual scripts: Permanence and change|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01542219|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=15|issue=2|pages=97–120|doi=10.1007/bf01542219|issn=0004-0002|pmid=3718206|s2cid=22275129}}</ref> These scripts provide meaning for specific behaviors in relation to a goal or desire. In 1986, Simon and Gagnon applied script theory to sexuality research, asserting that sexual scripts fall under a category of cultural scripts to regulate sexual behaviors.<ref name=":12" /> Modern research has applied this concept to work with pornography, and specifically how pornography may influence sexual scripts and behaviors. Some studies argue that pornography functions as a sexual script, cluing people in to certain signals and behaviors and influencing their own sexual behaviors in later encounters.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Bridges|first1=Ana J.|last2=Sun|first2=Chyng F.|last3=Ezzell|first3=Matthew B.|last4=Johnson|first4=Jennifer|date=2016-10-20|title=Sexual Scripts and the Sexual Behavior of Men and Women Who Use Pornography|journal=Sexualization, Media, & Society|language=en|volume=2|issue=4|pages=237462381666827|doi=10.1177/2374623816668275|issn=2374-6238|doi-access=free|s2cid=151796399}}</ref>
+Pornography may alter individuals' expectations regarding sexual activity, which then impacts their ability to form and maintain romantic, or sexual, relationships. Pornography functions as a cultural script, a media through which individuals may pick up on or learn sexual cues.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":1" /> These cues lead individuals to express sexual behaviors and function in sexual situations at appropriate times. One concern is that, by relying on pornography for education on sexual cues or sexual scripts, individuals may have an altered sense of what sexuality and sexual intercourse truly entail, or how to behave sexually in a real-life scenario.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Carroll|first1=Jason S.|last2=Busby|first2=Dean M.|last3=Willoughby|first3=Brian J.|last4=Brown|first4=Cameron C.|date=2017-04-03|title=The Porn Gap: Differences in Men's and Women's Pornography Patterns in Couple Relationships|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796|journal=Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=146–163|doi=10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796|issn=1533-2691|s2cid=151873457}}</ref>
+=== Affection exchange theory ===
+{{Further|Affection Exchange Theory}}
+Affection Exchange Theory classifies human affection and interaction as innate acts which assist individuals in mating, reproduction, and survival, as well as in developing and maintaining healthy relationships.<ref name=":2">Floyd, K. (2015). Affection exchange theory. In C. R. Berger & M. E. Roloff (Eds.), ''The international encyclopedia of interpersonal communication'' (pp. 24–31). Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. {{doi|10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic139}}</ref> This theory can be extended to sexuality to consider sexual acts as significant contributions to affection behavior. Humans express affection through a myriad of actions, including verbal affirmations and physical touch. This theory takes a more modern approach to traditional evolutionary theories, and extrapolates that affection communication plays a role in sexual selection and reproduction.<ref name=":2" /> Furthermore, Affection Exchange Theory posits that, although often found together, affectionate expression is separate from affectionate emotion. An individual may express unauthentic affection (expression without emotion), or may feel affection that they suppress (emotion without expression). Beyond relationship findings, more affectionate people also report better overall health, including more self-esteem, less anxiety, less fear of [[intimacy]], and greater satisfaction with their lives and their relationships.<ref name=":2" /> Research on Affection Exchange Theory has been connected to pornography and couples research as a potential mitigator to relationship and sexual satisfaction, as well as sexual desire.<ref name=":02" />
+===Methodology limitations===
 Pornography has many different forms which are difficult to cover in blanket form. Pornographic internet videos, for example, have been found to have different effects on viewers than material such as pornographic magazines. Within the field of pornography research, there are also other challenges that arise due to strong opinions and feelings on the topic. [[Confirmation bias]] has been prevalent on both sides due to societal taboos surrounding pornography. Studies have looked into both negative effects of pornography as well as potential benefits or positive effects of pornography. A large percentage of studies suffer from [[methodological]] issues. In one meta-study by researchers at Middlesex University in England, over 40,000 papers and articles were submitted to the team for review: 276 or 0.69% were suitable for consideration due to the low quality of research within the field.<ref name="middlesexstudy">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-22987051|title=Do we know whether pornography harms people?|last=Fidgen|first=Jo|date=2013-06-25|newspaper=BBC News|access-date=2016-09-18}}</ref>
-One limitation to current research about pornography’s effect on relationships is the sample. Researchers often, but not always, sample individuals who are in a relationship. They rarely sample both partners.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Campbell|first=Lorne|last2=Kohut|first2=Taylor|date=2017-02-01|title=The use and effects of pornography in romantic relationships|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X16300185|journal=Current Opinion in Psychology|series=Relationships and stress|language=en|volume=13|pages=6–10|doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.004|issn=2352-250X}}</ref> This method limits the scope of research. Pornography can affect a relationship depending on how often one or both partners watch and if they watch alone or together. A Norwegian study on heterosexual partners evaluated these effects.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Daneback|first=Kristian|last2=Træen|first2=Bente|last3=Månsson|first3=Sven-Axel|date=October 2009|title=Use of Pornography in a Random Sample of Norwegian Heterosexual Couples|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10508-008-9314-4|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=38|issue=5|pages=746–753|doi=10.1007/s10508-008-9314-4|issn=0004-0002}}</ref> The study found that couples experience higher levels of dysfunction when one partner is watching alone. Partners who both watch pornography alone experienced low levels of dysfunction. Partners who did not watch at all experienced an average level.
+One limitation to current research about pornography’s effect on relationships is the sample. Researchers often, but not always, sample individuals who are in a relationship. They rarely sample both partners.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Campbell|first=Lorne|last2=Kohut|first2=Taylor|date=2017-02-01|title=The use and effects of pornography in romantic relationships|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X16300185|journal=Current Opinion in Psychology|series=Relationships and stress|language=en|volume=13|pages=6–10|doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.004|issn=2352-250X}}</ref> This method limits the scope of research as pornography can affect a relationship depending on how often one or both partners watch and if they watch alone or together. For example, a Norwegian study on heterosexual partners evaluated these effects.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Daneback|first=Kristian|last2=Træen|first2=Bente|last3=Månsson|first3=Sven-Axel|date=October 2009|title=Use of Pornography in a Random Sample of Norwegian Heterosexual Couples|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10508-008-9314-4|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=38|issue=5|pages=746–753|doi=10.1007/s10508-008-9314-4|issn=0004-0002}}</ref> The study found that couples experience higher levels of dysfunction when only one partner is watching alone. Partners who both watch pornography alone experienced low levels of dysfunction. Partners who did not watch at all experienced an average level of dysfunction.
+== Psychological effects ==
+Men who consume pornography regularly have reported less stable mental health, specifically higher levels of depression.<ref name=":63">{{Cite journal|last1=Carroll|first1=Jason S.|last2=Busby|first2=Dean M.|last3=Willoughby|first3=Brian J.|last4=Brown|first4=Cameron C.|date=2017-04-03|title=The Porn Gap: Differences in Men's and Women's Pornography Patterns in Couple Relationships|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796|journal=Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=146–163|doi=10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796|issn=1533-2691|s2cid=151873457}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=BRIDGES|first1=ANA J.|last2=MOROKOFF|first2=PATRICIA J.|date=2010-12-22|title=Sexual media use and relational satisfaction in heterosexual couples|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01328.x|journal=Personal Relationships|volume=18|issue=4|pages=562–585|doi=10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01328.x|issn=1350-4126}}</ref> Pornography can be considered addictive, especially in men.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Potenza|first=Marc N.|date=2018-10-02|title=Pornography in the current digital technology environment: An overview of a special issue on pornography|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10720162.2019.1567411|journal=Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity|language=en|volume=25|issue=4|pages=241–247|doi=10.1080/10720162.2019.1567411|issn=1072-0162|s2cid=150546076}}</ref>
+===Pornography addiction===
-==Addiction==
 {{Main Article|Pornography addiction}}
-[[Pornography addiction]] is a purported [[behavioral addiction]] characterized by [[compulsive]], repeated use of pornographic material which causes serious consequences to one's physical, mental, social, and/or financial well-being.<ref name="dsm-5" /><ref name="SteinHollander2009">{{cite book |first1=Dan J. |last1=Stein |first2=Eric |last2=Hollander |first3=Barbara Olasov |last3=Rothbaum |title=Textbook of Anxiety Disorders |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=quQY1R8vsZcC&pg=PA359 |access-date=24 April 2010 |date=31 August 2009 |publisher=American Psychiatric Pub |isbn=978-1-58562-254-2|pages=359–}}</ref><ref name="pmid17503551">{{cite journal |vauthors=Parashar A, Varma A |title=Behavior and substance addictions: is the world ready for a new category in the DSM-V? |journal=CNS Spectr |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=257; author reply 258–9 |date=April 2007 |pmid=17503551 |doi= 10.1017/S109285290002099X|doi-access=free }}</ref> There is no diagnosis of pornography addiction in the current ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' ([[DSM-5]]),<ref name="dsm-5" /> though the DSM-5 considered the diagnosis of hypersexuality-related behavioral disorders (to which porn addiction was a subset), but rejected it because "there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders."<ref name="dsm-5">{{Cite book|author=American Psychiatric Association|year=2013|title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|edition=Fifth|publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing|location=Arlington, VA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/481 481, 797–798]|isbn=978-0-89042-555-8|quote=Thus, groups of repetitive behaviors, which some term behavioral addictions, with such subcategories as "sex addiction," "exercise addiction," or "shopping addiction," are not included because at this time there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders.|url=https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/481}}</ref> Instead, some psychologists suggest that any [[maladaptive]] sexual symptoms represent a manifestation of an underlying disorder, such as depression or anxiety which is simply manifesting itself sexually, or, alternatively, there is no underlying disorder and the behavior simply is not maladaptive. It is argued that psychologists do not recognize the concept of addiction, only chemical dependence, and some believe the concept and diagnosis to be stigmatizing and unhelpful.<ref>The British Psychological Society, "Response to the American Psychiatric Association: DSM-5 Development", 2001 [http://apps.bps.org.uk/_publicationfiles/consultation-responses/DSM-5%202011%20-%20BPS%20response.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417085743/http://apps.bps.org.uk/_publicationfiles/consultation-responses/DSM-5%202011%20-%20BPS%20response.pdf |date=2016-04-17 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlBQ8G56X7YC&q=Myth+of+addiction+ley|title=The Myth of Sex Addiction|last=Ley|first=David J.|date=2014-07-10|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9781442213050}}</ref>
+<!-- Health-related information needs to meet the [[WP:MEDRS]] requirements for sourcing. -->[[Pornography addiction]] is a purported [[behavioral addiction]] characterized by [[compulsive]], repeated use of pornographic material which causes serious consequences to one's physical, mental, social, and/or financial well-being.<ref name="dsm-5" /><ref name="SteinHollander2009">{{cite book |first1=Dan J. |last1=Stein |first2=Eric |last2=Hollander |first3=Barbara Olasov |last3=Rothbaum |title=Textbook of Anxiety Disorders |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=quQY1R8vsZcC&pg=PA359 |access-date=24 April 2010 |date=31 August 2009 |publisher=American Psychiatric Pub |isbn=978-1-58562-254-2|pages=359–}}</ref><ref name="pmid17503551">{{cite journal |vauthors=Parashar A, Varma A |title=Behavior and substance addictions: is the world ready for a new category in the DSM-V? |journal=CNS Spectr |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=257; author reply 258–9 |date=April 2007 |pmid=17503551 |doi= 10.1017/S109285290002099X|doi-access=free }}</ref> There is no diagnosis of pornography addiction in the current ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' ([[DSM-5]]),<ref name="dsm-5" /> though the DSM-5 considered the diagnosis of hypersexuality-related behavioral disorders (to which porn addiction was a subset), but rejected it because "there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders."<ref name="dsm-5">{{Cite book|author=American Psychiatric Association|year=2013|title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|edition=Fifth|publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing|location=Arlington, VA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/481 481, 797–798]|isbn=978-0-89042-555-8|quote=Thus, groups of repetitive behaviors, which some term behavioral addictions, with such subcategories as "sex addiction," "exercise addiction," or "shopping addiction," are not included because at this time there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders.|url=https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/481}}</ref> Instead, some psychologists suggest that any [[maladaptive]] sexual symptoms represent a manifestation of an underlying disorder, such as depression or anxiety which is simply manifesting itself sexually, or, alternatively, there is no underlying disorder and the behavior simply is not maladaptive. It is argued that psychologists do not recognize the concept of addiction, only chemical dependence, and some believe the concept and diagnosis to be stigmatizing and unhelpful.<ref>The British Psychological Society, "Response to the American Psychiatric Association: DSM-5 Development", 2001 [http://apps.bps.org.uk/_publicationfiles/consultation-responses/DSM-5%202011%20-%20BPS%20response.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417085743/http://apps.bps.org.uk/_publicationfiles/consultation-responses/DSM-5%202011%20-%20BPS%20response.pdf |date=2016-04-17 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlBQ8G56X7YC&q=Myth+of+addiction+ley|title=The Myth of Sex Addiction|last=Ley|first=David J.|date=2014-07-10|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9781442213050}}</ref>
 Two 2016 neurology reviews found evidence of addiction related brain changes in internet pornography users. Psychological effects of these brain changes are described as desensitization to reward, a dysfunctional anxiety response, and impulsiveness.<ref name=Kraus2016rev/><ref name=Kuhn2016rev/> Another 2016 review suggests that internet behaviors, including the use of pornography, be considered potentially addictive, and that problematic use of online pornography be considered an "internet-use disorder".<ref name=Brand2016rev/>
@@ Line 26: / Line 43: @@
 Some clinicians and support organizations recommend voluntary use of Internet [[content-control software]], [[Internet surveillance|internet monitoring]], or both, to manage problematic online pornography use.<ref name="cooper1999">{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/10720169908400182 |title=Online sexual compulsivity: Getting tangled in the net |year=1999 |last1=Cooper |first1=Alvin |last2=Putnam |first2=Dana E. |last3=Planchon |first3=Lynn A. |last4=Boies |first4=Sylvain C. |journal=Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=79–104}}</ref><ref name="delmonico1997">{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/10720169708400139 |title=Cybersex: High tech sex addiction |year=1997 |last1=Delmonico |first1=David L. |journal=Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=159–167}}</ref><ref name="layden2005">{{cite journal | author=Layden, Mary Anne | date=September 2005 | title=Cyber Sex Addiction | journal=Advances in Cognitive Therapy | pages=1–2, 4–5 | url=http://www.academyofct.org/Library/InfoManage/Guide.asp?FolderID=295&SessionID= | format=PDF }}{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Sex researcher Alvin Cooper and colleagues suggested several reasons for using filters as a therapeutic measure, including curbing accessibility that facilitates problematic behavior and encouraging clients to develop coping and relapse prevention strategies.<ref name=cooper1999/> Cognitive therapist Mary Anne Layden suggested that filters may be useful in maintaining environmental control.<ref name=layden2005/> Internet behavior researcher David Delmonico stated that, despite their limitations, filters may serve as a "frontline of protection."<ref name=delmonico1997/>
-Despite the fact that pornography is being indicted as a [[public health]] crisis in the [[United States]] and elsewhere,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=Kimberly M. |last2=Rothman |first2=Emily F. |date=February 2020 |title=Should Public Health Professionals Consider Pornography a Public Health Crisis? |editor-last=Morabia |editor-first=Alfredo |editor-link=Alfredo Morabia |journal=[[American Journal of Public Health]] |publisher=[[American Public Health Association]] |volume=110 |issue=2 |pages=151–153 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2019.305498 |doi-access=free |issn=1541-0048 |pmc=6951382 |pmid=31913670 |s2cid=210121251}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rothman |first=Emily F. |year=2021 |chapter=Pornography as a US Public Health Problem |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M30_EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover |title=Pornography and Public Health |location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190075477.003.0001 |isbn=9780190075477 |lccn=2021013439}}</ref> with problematic Internet and [[online pornography]] use reported to constitute an increasing burden in public [[mental health]] since the 2000s, psychopathological models and diagnostic criteria have lacked consensus, and the body of evidence on the effectiveness of therapeutic approaches is still scarce.<ref name="Front. Psych"/> In consequence of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] (2020-2021), problematic Internet pornography use and Internet addiction disorder have become difficult to cope for individuals who have adopted this lifestyle and have developed a dependence on these activities as an essential part of their lives, owing to elongated periods of staying at home due to [[self-isolation]].<ref name="Front. Psych"/>
+Despite the fact that pornography is being indicted as a [[public health]] crisis in the [[United States]] and elsewhere,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=Kimberly M. |last2=Rothman |first2=Emily F. |date=February 2020 |title=Should Public Health Professionals Consider Pornography a Public Health Crisis? |editor-last=Morabia |editor-first=Alfredo |editor-link=Alfredo Morabia |journal=[[American Journal of Public Health]] |publisher=[[American Public Health Association]] |volume=110 |issue=2 |pages=151–153 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2019.305498 |doi-access=free |issn=1541-0048 |pmc=6951382 |pmid=31913670 |s2cid=210121251}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rothman |first=Emily F. |year=2021 |chapter=Pornography as a US Public Health Problem |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M30_EAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover |title=Pornography and Public Health |location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190075477.003.0001 |isbn=9780190075477 |lccn=2021013439}}</ref> with problematic Internet and [[online pornography]] use reported to constitute an increasing burden in public [[mental health]] since the 2000s, psychopathological models and diagnostic criteria have lacked consensus, and the body of evidence on the effectiveness of therapeutic approaches is still scarce.<ref name="Front. Psych"/> In consequence of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], problematic Internet pornography use and Internet addiction disorder have become difficult to cope with for individuals and have developed a dependence on these activities as an essential part of their lives, owing to elongated periods of staying at home due to [[self-isolation]].<ref name="Front. Psych"/>
-=== Other effects on human behavior ===
+===Body image and self esteem===
+====Men====
-Research at [[Alliant International University]] found that participants who consumed internet pornography more frequently had increased rates of [[Delayed gratification|delay discounting]]. The researchers state, "The constant novelty and primacy of sexual stimuli as particularly strong natural rewards make internet pornography a unique activator of the brain's reward system, thereby having implications for decision-making processes."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Negash|first1=Sesen|last2=Sheppard|first2=Nicole Van Ness|last3=Lambert|first3=Nathaniel M.|last4=Fincham|first4=Frank D.|s2cid=33576332|date=July 2016|title=Trading Later Rewards for Current Pleasure: Pornography Consumption and Delay Discounting|journal=Journal of Sex Research|volume=53|issue=6|pages=689–700|doi=10.1080/00224499.2015.1025123|issn=1559-8519|pmid=26305628}}</ref>
+A study of 359 college men found that high viewership of pornography relates to increased masculinity and body dissatisfaction.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tylka|first=Tracy L.|date=January 2015|title=No harm in looking, right? Men’s pornography consumption, body image, and well-being.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0035774|journal=Psychology of Men & Masculinity|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=97–107|doi=10.1037/a0035774|issn=1939-151X}}</ref> Sexual performance changes a man’s view of his masculinity, and often his self-esteem. Pornography is not the only factor affecting men’s self-esteem and body image. Popular media often depicts strong but lean men. Pornography is significant to men's self-image. It connects a lean body type to sexual validation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tylka|first=Tracy L.|date=January 2015|year=2015|title=No harm in looking, right? Men’s pornography consumption, body image, and well-being.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0035774|journal=Psychology of Men & Masculinity|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=97–107|doi=10.1037/a0035774|issn=1939-151X}}</ref> As of 2021, few studies have evaluated how exposure to pornography relates to men’s body image. Researchers recommend that others conduct more studies on pornography's effect on men's psychology.
+Heterosexual pornography reinforces a concept called the centerfold syndrome. In 1995, psychologist Gary R. Brooks wrote about men and the centerfold syndrome. This concept asserted that gender roles in media contribute to high sexual dysfunction in men.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brooks|first=Gary|title=The Centerfold Syndrome: How Men Can Overcome Objectification and Achieve Intimacy with Women|publisher=Jossey-Bass.|year=1995|isbn=0787901040|location=San Francisco, CA}}</ref> Sexual dysfunction has many parts. One part is the viewing of women as body parts, trophies, or sexual conquests. These concepts are often known as [[voyeurism]], [[objectification]], and [[Trophy wife|trophyism]]. Another part is tying female approval of manliness to a man's self-image. The third part of sexual dysfunction includes avoiding intimacy, attachment, and emotions. Heterosexual pornography reinforces this syndrome through observational learning. In other words, the story within pornography becomes the expected reality. Deviations from that story create low self-esteem.
+====Women====
+Studies rarely observe women’s viewership of pornography. One modern study with female subjects provided mixed results. Pornography does not affect women's perception of body image and relationship satisfaction if it is free of behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Borgogna|first=Nicholas C.|last2=Lathan|first2=Emma C.|last3=Mitchell|first3=Ariana|date=2018-10-02|title=Is Women’s Problematic Pornography Viewing Related to Body Image or Relationship Satisfaction?|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10720162.2018.1532360|journal=Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity|language=en|volume=25|issue=4|pages=345–366|doi=10.1080/10720162.2018.1532360|issn=1072-0162}}</ref> Violence is one example. All other viewership appears to minimally affect body image and relationship satisfaction.
+=== Delay discounting ===
+Research at [[Alliant International University]] found that participants who consumed internet pornography more frequently had increased rates of [[Delayed gratification|delay discounting]], also known as delayed gratification. The researchers state, "The constant novelty and primacy of sexual stimuli as particularly strong natural rewards make internet pornography a unique activator of the brain's reward system, thereby having implications for decision-making processes."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Negash|first1=Sesen|last2=Sheppard|first2=Nicole Van Ness|last3=Lambert|first3=Nathaniel M.|last4=Fincham|first4=Frank D.|s2cid=33576332|date=July 2016|title=Trading Later Rewards for Current Pleasure: Pornography Consumption and Delay Discounting|journal=Journal of Sex Research|volume=53|issue=6|pages=689–700|doi=10.1080/00224499.2015.1025123|issn=1559-8519|pmid=26305628}}</ref>
 A 2019 survey of 1083 U.S. adults evaluated the relationship between pornography and unethical behavior in the workplace.<ref name="Mecham 37–54">{{Cite journal|last=Mecham|first=Nathan W.|last2=Lewis-Western|first2=Melissa F.|last3=Wood|first3=David A.|date=2021-01-01|title=The Effects of Pornography on Unethical Behavior in Business|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04230-8|journal=Journal of Business Ethics|language=en|volume=168|issue=1|pages=37–54|doi=10.1007/s10551-019-04230-8|issn=1573-0697}}</ref> Unethical behavior, according to the researchers, consists of delay discounting and dehumanization. Delay discounting involves the idea of waiting versus acting now and future reward. It is to expect lower rewards in the future versus when acting now. The expectation of a high reward for acting now can lead to reduced self-control and increased impulsivity.  Dehumanization is a form of moral disengagement in which people view others as less than human. According to the study, increased pornography use causes increased dehumanization and unethical behavior.<ref name="Mecham 37–54"/>
+== Sexual effects ==
-A study by Professor Kathryn C. Seigfried-Spellar and Professor Marcus Rogers found results which suggested deviant pornography use followed a Guttman-like progression in that individuals with a younger "age of onset" for adult pornography use were more likely to engage in deviant pornography ([[bestiality]] or [[Child pornography|child]]) compared to those with a later "age of onset".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Seigfried-Spellar|first1=Kathryn C.|last2=Rogers|first2=Marcus K.|date=2013-09-01|title=Does deviant pornography use follow a Guttman-like progression?|journal=Computers in Human Behavior|volume=29|issue=5|pages=1997–2003|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2013.04.018|issn=0747-5632}}</ref>
+The sexual effects of pornography on intimacy and relationships observe some of the most gendered differences. Men and women differ vastly in how they are impacted by pornography both within and beyond a romantic or sexual relationship.
+The consumption of pornography has been shown to have an impact on sexual risk-taking, including less frequent usage of condoms and birth control, as well as more casual sexual encounters.<ref name=":63" /><ref name=":172">{{Cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=Paul J.|last2=Sun|first2=Chyng|last3=Steffen|first3=Nicola|date=2018-11-17|title=Pornography Consumption, Perceptions of Pornography as Sexual Information, and Condom Use|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0092623X.2018.1462278|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|language=en|volume=44|issue=8|pages=800–805|doi=10.1080/0092623X.2018.1462278|issn=0092-623X|pmid=29634458|s2cid=4794350}}</ref> It can negatively impact sexual functioning, especially in men.<ref name=":8" /> However, pornography can function as an educational resource for individuals to improve their sexual knowledge,<ref name=":63" /><ref name=":42">{{Cite journal|last1=Kohut|first1=Taylor|last2=Balzarini|first2=Rhonda N.|last3=Fisher|first3=William A.|last4=Campbell|first4=Lorne|date=May 2018|title=Pornography's associations with open sexual communication and relationship closeness vary as a function of dyadic patterns of pornography use within heterosexual relationships|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0265407517743096|journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships|language=en|volume=35|issue=4|pages=655–676|doi=10.1177/0265407517743096|issn=0265-4075|s2cid=148998219}}</ref> and women who consume pornography more regularly experience increased desire for sexual activity, indicating that pornography might be useful as a form of foreplay.<ref name=":63" /><ref name=":52">{{Cite web|title=How Porn Affects Relationships|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/talking-apes/202008/how-porn-affects-relationships|access-date=2020-11-28|website=Psychology Today|language=en-US}}</ref>
-==Psychological effects==
-===Men's body image and self esteem===
-A study of 359 college men found that high viewership of pornography relates to increased masculinity and body dissatisfaction.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tylka|first=Tracy L.|date=January 2015|title=No harm in looking, right? Men’s pornography consumption, body image, and well-being.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0035774|journal=Psychology of Men & Masculinity|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=97–107|doi=10.1037/a0035774|issn=1939-151X}}</ref> Sexual performance changes a man’s view of his masculinity, and often his self-esteem. Pornography is not the only factor affecting men’s self-esteem and body image. Popular media often depicts strong but lean men. Pornography is significant to men's self-image. It connects a lean body type to sexual validation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tylka|first=Tracy L.|date=January 2015|year=2015|title=No harm in looking, right? Men’s pornography consumption, body image, and well-being.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0035774|journal=Psychology of Men & Masculinity|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=97–107|doi=10.1037/a0035774|issn=1939-151X}}</ref> As of 2021, few studies have evaluated how exposure to pornography relates to men’s body image. Researchers recommend that others conduct more studies on pornography's effect on men's psychology.
+=== Sexual desire ===
-Heterosexual pornography reinforces a concept called the centerfold syndrome. In 1995, psychologist Gary R. Brooks wrote about men and the centerfold syndrome. This concept asserted that gender roles in media contribute to high sexual dysfunction in men.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brooks|first=Gary|title=The Centerfold Syndrome: How Men Can Overcome Objectification and Achieve Intimacy with Women|publisher=Jossey-Bass.|year=1995|isbn=0787901040|location=San Francisco, CA}}</ref> Sexual dysfunction has many parts. One part is the viewing of women as body parts, trophies, or sexual conquests. These concepts are often known as [[voyeurism]], [[objectification]], and [[Trophy wife|trophyism]]. Another part is tying female approval of manliness to a man's self-image. The third part of sexual dysfunction includes avoiding intimacy, attachment, and emotions. Heterosexual pornography reinforces this syndrome through observational learning. In other words, the story within pornography becomes the expected reality. Deviations from that story create low self-esteem.
+{{See also|Sexual desire and intimate relationships}}
+Sexual desire is one of the factors most strongly moderated by gender differences. In general, men experience the most detrimental effects from pornography in terms of sexual desire. Straight men report less sexual desire, both for their partner and in general, directly after consuming pornography.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=How Porn Affects Relationships|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/talking-apes/202008/how-porn-affects-relationships|access-date=2020-11-28|website=Psychology Today|language=en-US}}</ref> Men also typically utilize pornography for masturbation and solo-sexual activities, rather than partnered or joint purposes.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Hald|first=Gert Martin|date=2006-10-23|title=Gender Differences in Pornography Consumption among Young Heterosexual Danish Adults|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10508-006-9064-0|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=35|issue=5|pages=577–585|doi=10.1007/s10508-006-9064-0|issn=0004-0002|pmid=17039402|s2cid=35560724}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Dan J.|last2=McBain|first2=Kerry A.|last3=Li|first3=Wendy W.|last4=Raggatt|first4=Peter T. F.|date=March 2019|title=Pornography, preference for porn‐like sex, masturbation, and men's sexual and relationship satisfaction|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/pere.12267|journal=Personal Relationships|language=en|volume=26|issue=1|pages=93–113|doi=10.1111/pere.12267|issn=1350-4126|s2cid=151269401}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Prause|first=Nicole|date=November 2019|title=Porn Is for Masturbation|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10508-019-1397-6|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=48|issue=8|pages=2271–2277|doi=10.1007/s10508-019-1397-6|issn=0004-0002|pmid=30847758|s2cid=73467018}}</ref> Strong associations exist between increased pornography consumption, as well as frequency of pornography consumption, and problematic decreases in sexual desire for men. Men who more frequently use pornography report less desire for their partner, and less desire for sex in general.<ref name=":3" />
+While most modern research on pornography focuses on men, the findings in women hold interesting information on pornography's gendered impact on sexual desire. Women have found a positive correlation between pornography consumption and sexual desire, indicating that women who view pornography feel more positively about expressing their sexual desire.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last1=Dwulit|first1=Aleksandra Diana|last2=Rzymski|first2=Piotr|date=2019-06-26|title=The Potential Associations of Pornography Use with Sexual Dysfunctions: An Integrative Literature Review of Observational Studies|journal=Journal of Clinical Medicine|language=en|volume=8|issue=7|pages=914|doi=10.3390/jcm8070914|issn=2077-0383|pmc=6679165|pmid=31247949|doi-access=free}}</ref> In addition to increased sexual desire, women also express more sexual desire specifically for their partner on days when they watch pornography, indicating pornography may function as a form of foreplay.<ref name=":5" />
-===Women’s body image and self esteem===
-Studies are rare that observe women’s viewership of pornography. To understand the effect of pornography, researchers can include females. One modern study with female subjects provided mixed results. Pornography does not affect women's perception of body image and relationship satisfaction if it is free of behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Borgogna|first=Nicholas C.|last2=Lathan|first2=Emma C.|last3=Mitchell|first3=Ariana|date=2018-10-02|title=Is Women’s Problematic Pornography Viewing Related to Body Image or Relationship Satisfaction?|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10720162.2018.1532360|journal=Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity|language=en|volume=25|issue=4|pages=345–366|doi=10.1080/10720162.2018.1532360|issn=1072-0162}}</ref> Violence is one example. All other viewership appears to minimally affect body image and relationship satisfaction.
+Although men and women do differ in many significant ways with respect to pornography consumption and sexual behavior, they share one important similarity: brain activity. Men and women's brain activity while watching pornography is nearly identical, suggesting that both men and women experience similar arousal while watching pornography.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fisher|first=Terri D.|date=2013-02-09|title=Gender Roles and Pressure to be Truthful: The Bogus Pipeline Modifies Gender Differences in Sexual but Not Non-sexual Behavior|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0266-3|journal=Sex Roles|volume=68|issue=7–8|pages=401–414|doi=10.1007/s11199-013-0266-3|issn=0360-0025|s2cid=143885110}}</ref> Further, both men and women report significant support for female-centric pornography, though men express similar levels of arousal to both traditional male-centric pornography as well as female-centric pornography. While women report more general negativity towards traditional, male-centric pornography, women express stronger support and higher levels of self-reported arousal for female-centric pornography.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Bridges|first1=Ana J.|last2=Sun|first2=Chyng F.|last3=Ezzell|first3=Matthew B.|last4=Johnson|first4=Jennifer|date=2016-10-20|title=Sexual Scripts and the Sexual Behavior of Men and Women Who Use Pornography|journal=Sexualization, Media, & Society|language=en|volume=2|issue=4|pages=237462381666827|doi=10.1177/2374623816668275|issn=2374-6238|doi-access=free|s2cid=151796399}}</ref>
+In general, pornography consumption in couples has been associated with greater sexual desire.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Kohut|first1=Taylor|last2=Balzarini|first2=Rhonda N.|last3=Fisher|first3=William A.|last4=Campbell|first4=Lorne|date=May 2018|title=Pornography's associations with open sexual communication and relationship closeness vary as a function of dyadic patterns of pornography use within heterosexual relationships|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0265407517743096|journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships|language=en|volume=35|issue=4|pages=655–676|doi=10.1177/0265407517743096|issn=0265-4075|s2cid=148998219}}</ref> Although research in the way of same-sex relationships is limited, available findings indicate that pornography use is connected to an increased level of sexual desire. Men partnered with women report less sexual desire in general with increased pornography consumption, whereas women in both mixed-sex or same-sex relationships report greater sexual desire overall. Also, individuals were less likely to consume pornography the day after engaging in sexual intercourse.<ref name=":5" />
+In 2016, model and actress [[Pamela Anderson]] and Orthodox Rabbi [[Shmuley Boteach]] co-authored a viral ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' opinion piece, in which they called [[online pornography]] a "public hazard of unprecedented seriousness."<ref>{{Cite web|author=Shmuley Boteach and Pamela Anderson|date=August 31, 2016|title=Take the Pledge: No More Indulging Porn|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/take-the-pledge-no-more-indulging-porn-1472684658|work=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Ken Kurson|date=September 20, 2016|title=Talking Porn With Pamela Anderson and Rabbi Shmuley|url=https://observer.com/2016/09/talking-porn-with-pamela-anderson-and-rabbi-shmuley/|work=The Observer}}</ref><ref name="auto12">Daniel Sugarman. [https://www.thejc.com/news/world/shmuley-boteach-and-pamela-anderson-in-joint-warning-on-dangers-of-pornography-1.63911 "Shmuley Boteach and Pamela Anderson in joint warning on dangers of pornography,"] ''The Jewish Chronicle''.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Emine Saner|date=October 14, 2016|title=The playmate and the rabbi: unlikely bedfellows fighting internet porn|url=http://www.theguardian.com/culture/2016/oct/14/pamela-anderson-and-the-rabbi-unlikely-bedfellows-fighting-internet-porn|access-date=January 20, 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref>
+=== Sexual function ===
+<!-- Health-related information needs to meet the [[WP:MEDRS]] requirements for sourcing. -->[[Sexual function]] is a rising concern with pornography consumption. Primarily thought to affect men, there is a notable relationship between pornography consumption and sexual function problems.<ref name=":14" /> Commonly reported problems include [[erectile dysfunction]], [[delayed ejaculation]], [[anorgasmia]], and a lack of sexual desire.<ref name=":14" /> Recently, rates of sexual dysfunction have been increasing in younger age brackets.<ref name=":14" /> Medical professionals suspect pornography may be one factor contributing to this increase, however there is little causal evidence of such an effect.<ref name=":14" /> Another issue is delayed ejaculation, during which men may experience a large disconnect between their orgasm and ejaculation, or difficulty achieving ejaculation. Overarching research shows little evidence of pornography having any effect on delayed ejaculation.<ref name=":14" /> Despite the lack of evidence for more physical issues with sexual function, pornography is related to problematic decreases of sexual desire and sexual satisfaction, though the direction of this relationship remains up for debate without additional causal research.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":14" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Morgan|first=Elizabeth M.|date=November 2011|title=Associations between Young Adults' Use of Sexually Explicit Materials and Their Sexual Preferences, Behaviors, and Satisfaction|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224499.2010.543960|journal=Journal of Sex Research|language=en|volume=48|issue=6|pages=520–530|doi=10.1080/00224499.2010.543960|issn=0022-4499|pmid=21259151|s2cid=854388}}</ref>
+In women, there is little evidence for pornography-induced sexual dysfunction. The most commonly observed effect is increased anxiety or distress, which may then lead to issues of sexual function. The most commonly reported issue for women is arousal dysfunction, indicating a difficulty in achieving or maintaining arousal during sexual activity.<ref name=":14" /> This could potentially lead to physical issues, such as painful penetration or [[vaginismus]], making sexual intercourse painful and unpleasant.<ref name=":14" /> Women also tend to report more negative affect with regards to pornography, including strong feelings of shame or guilt.<ref name=":14" />
+For both men and women, pornography may lead individuals to make riskier decisions with their sexual health. A study analyzing the use of barrier contraceptives by German adults found that, when pornography is viewed as an educational resource, there is an inverse relationship between pornography consumption and condom usage; people who viewed more pornography tended to not use condoms as frequently.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=Paul J.|last2=Sun|first2=Chyng|last3=Steffen|first3=Nicola|date=2018-11-17|title=Pornography Consumption, Perceptions of Pornography as Sexual Information, and Condom Use|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0092623X.2018.1462278|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|language=en|volume=44|issue=8|pages=800–805|doi=10.1080/0092623X.2018.1462278|issn=0092-623X|pmid=29634458|s2cid=4794350}}</ref> Overall, the most frequently reported issues with sexual function that relate to pornography are decreases in sexual desire for men, and decreases in sexual satisfaction overall.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":14" />
+=== Sexual satisfaction ===
+Research on pornography's effect on [[sexual satisfaction]] is highly varied. Numerous studies looking at both individuals and couples have found different, at times contradictory, results. One study found a negative relationship between pornography consumption and sexual satisfaction across two samples of men.<ref name=":3" /> In addition, frequency of pornography consumption, rather than the type of pornography consumed, is negatively correlated with sexual satisfaction; the type of pornography an individual consumed had no effect on sexual satisfaction.<ref name=":3" /> When considering couples and their pornography consumption, couples with a greater discordance reported being more sexually dissatisfied than couples who watched pornography together, as well as couples who jointly abstained from pornography altogether.<ref name=":4" />
+When looking at women, there is a positive correlation between pornography consumption and sexual satisfaction. Some suggest the connection between male pornography use and sexual dissatisfaction may be the other way around, with men resorting to pornography due to sexual satisfaction, or even perhaps a cyclical effect.<ref name=":13" /> An indirect, yet positive, effect on sexual satisfaction has been found when looking at sexual preference.<ref name=":3" />
+=== Sexual preferences ===
+The use of pornography is extremely varied, especially in the United States. Consumption rates —including general consumption, frequency of consumption, length of time, and type of pornography— vary by gender, age, and relationship status, as well as frequency of consumption, which all factor into overall pornography consumption rates. In general, men consume more pornography, and consume pornography more frequently, than women.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|last1=Carroll|first1=Jason S.|last2=Busby|first2=Dean M.|last3=Willoughby|first3=Brian J.|last4=Brown|first4=Cameron C.|date=2017-04-03|title=The Porn Gap: Differences in Men's and Women's Pornography Patterns in Couple Relationships|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796|journal=Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=146–163|doi=10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796|issn=1533-2691|s2cid=151873457}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Citation|last1=Hald|first1=Gert Martin|title=Sexuality and pornography.|date=2014|url=http://content.apa.org/books/14194-001|work=APA handbook of sexuality and psychology, Vol. 2: Contextual approaches.|pages=3–35|editor-last=Tolman|editor-first=Deborah L.|place=Washington|publisher=American Psychological Association|language=en|doi=10.1037/14194-001|isbn=978-1-4338-1372-6|access-date=2020-11-29|last2=Seaman|first2=Christopher|last3=Linz|first3=Daniel|editor2-last=Diamond|editor2-first=Lisa M.|editor3-last=Bauermeister|editor3-first=José A.|editor4-last=George|editor4-first=William H.}}</ref> A vast majority of men report having consumed pornography, with rates ranging from 50% to 90%, usually plateauing in the upper 80% range. Women, however, report significantly less and significantly more varied consumption of pornography, with between 30% and 80% of women saying they have viewed pornography in their lifetime.<ref name=":18" /> This variation reflects differences in nationality and culture in terms of [[sex positivity]] and pornography acceptance, as well as the unreliability of self-reporting. Despite the variation and lower reports of pornography consumption for women, female viewership of pornography is steadily increasing. Women tend to prefer less hardcore porn compared to men, and men report consuming pornography in conjunction with masturbation more frequently than women.<ref name=":10" />
+One of the more current findings revolves around how pornography impacts sexual preference. Theories speculate that increase pornography consumption may alter an individual's preferences during sexual intercourse to more closely resemble what is depicted in pornography. This may include both the acts depicted, as well as the behaviors displayed by actors. Among men, there is a positive relationship between pornography consumption and a desire for more porn-like sexual experience.<ref name=":3" /> Frequency of consumption and type of pornography consumed are related to increased desire for more porn-like sex, which is measured by items  indicating an expressed preference for "kinkier sex," "hotter sex," and a more porn-like "sexual appearance."<ref name=":7" /> The latter includes grooming habits, as well as hair color and body type. While correlational, the findings do present evidence that pornography consumption has a role in sexual preferences, though causal relationships cannot be confirmed. This effect is mitigated by both the type of pornography consumed, as well as the frequency of pornography consumption, and the finding holds for both men and women.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7" />
+A study by Professor Kathryn C. Seigfried-Spellar and Professor Marcus Rogers found results which suggested deviant pornography use followed a Guttman-like progression in that individuals with a younger "age of onset" for adult pornography use were more likely to engage in deviant pornography ([[bestiality]] or [[Child pornography|child]]) compared to those with a later "age of onset".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Seigfried-Spellar|first1=Kathryn C.|last2=Rogers|first2=Marcus K.|date=2013-09-01|title=Does deviant pornography use follow a Guttman-like progression?|journal=Computers in Human Behavior|volume=29|issue=5|pages=1997–2003|doi=10.1016/j.chb.2013.04.018|issn=0747-5632}}</ref>
-==Sexual violence==
+===Sexual violence===
-===Controlled studies===
+====Controlled studies====
 {{See also|Correlation does not imply causation}}
 A controlled study describes the relationship between given behaviors or environmental conditions and health effects in a laboratory setting in which conditions other than those under study are effectively held constant across groups of participants receiving various levels of the experimental condition(s).  Since it is considered that the only functional difference between groups is the level of experimental condition(s) received, researchers can strongly infer cause-and-effect relationships from [[Statistical significance|statistically significant]] associations between experimental condition(s) and health consequences. Thus, if executed properly, controlled studies have high levels of [[internal validity]]. However, such studies often suffer from questionable [[external validity]] due to the considerable differences between real-world environments and the experimental context, and the consequent belief that results cannot be generalized beyond that context.<ref name=psychtextbooks/>
@@ Line 55: / Line 106: @@
 A meta-analysis conducted in 2015 found that pornography "consumption was associated with sexual aggression in the United States and internationally, among males and females, and in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Associations were stronger for verbal than physical sexual aggression, although both were significant. The general pattern of results suggested that violent content may be an exacerbating factor."<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A Meta-Analysis of Pornography Consumption and Actual Acts of Sexual Aggression in General Population Studies|journal = Journal of Communication|date = 2015-12-01|issn = 1460-2466|pages = 183–205|doi = 10.1111/jcom.12201|first1 = Paul J.|last1 = Wright|first2 = Robert S.|last2 = Tokunaga|first3 = Ashley|last3 = Kraus|volume=66}}</ref>
-An earlier review of this literature by Ferguson and Hartley in 2009 argued that "it is time to discard the hypothesis that pornography contributes to increased sexual assault behavior".<ref name="Ferguson & Hartley (2009)">{{cite journal | last1=Ferguson | first1=Christopher J. | last2=Hartley | first2=Richard D. | title=The pleasure is momentary…the expense damnable? | journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=14 | issue=5 | year=2009 | issn=1359-1789 | doi=10.1016/j.avb.2009.04.008 | pages=323–329 | url=https://www.christopherjferguson.com/pornography.pdf}}</ref> They stated that the authors of some studies tended to highlight positive findings while deemphasizing null findings, demonstrating [[confirmation bias]] in the published literature.  Ferguson and Hartley concluded that controlled studies, on balance, were not able to support links between pornography and sexual violence.
+An earlier review of this literature by Ferguson and Hartley in 2009 argued that "it is time to discard the hypothesis that pornography contributes to increased sexual assault behavior".<ref name="Ferguson & Hartley (2009)">{{cite journal | last1=Ferguson | first1=Christopher J. | last2=Hartley | first2=Richard D. | title=The pleasure is momentary…the expense damnable? | journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=14 | issue=5 | year=2009 | issn=1359-1789 | doi=10.1016/j.avb.2009.04.008 | pages=323–329 | url=https://www.christopherjferguson.com/pornography.pdf}}</ref> They stated that the authors of some studies tended to highlight positive findings while de-emphasizing null findings and concluded that controlled studies, on balance, were not able to support links between pornography and sexual violence.
 Ferguson and Hartley updated their review with a 2020 meta-analysis. This meta-analysis concluded that mainstream pornography could not be linked to sexual violence and was associated with reductions in societal violence at the societal level. Small correlations were found between violent porn viewing and sexual aggression, but evidence was unable to differentiate whether this was a causal or selection effect (i.e. sexual offenders seeking out violent porn).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ferguson |first1=Christopher J. |last2=Hartley |first2=Richard D. |title=Pornography and Sexual Aggression: Can Meta-Analysis Find a Link? |journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse |date=21 July 2020 |doi=10.1177/1524838020942754 |pmid=32691692 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1524838020942754?journalCode=tvaa |access-date=22 October 2020 |language=en |issn=1524-8380}}</ref>
-===Epidemiological studies===
+====Epidemiological studies====
 An [[epidemiological]] study describes the association between given behaviors or environmental conditions, and physical or psychological health by means of observation of real-world phenomena through statistical data. Epidemiological studies generally have high levels of [[external validity]], insofar as they accurately describe events as they occur outside of a laboratory setting, but low levels of [[internal validity]], since they do not strongly establish cause-and-effect relationships between the behaviors or conditions under study, and the health consequences observed.<ref name=psychtextbooks>*Mitchell, M. and Jolley, J. (2001). Research Design Explained (4th Ed) New York:Harcourt.
 *Brewer, M. (2000). Research Design and Issues of Validity. In Reis, H. and Judd, C. (eds.) Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
@@ Line 71: / Line 122: @@
 Some researchers argue that there is a correlation between pornography and a decrease of sex crimes,<ref name="JSI-Summer1973">{{cite journal|last=Kutchinsky|first=Berl|author-link=Berl Kutchinsky|date=Summer 1973|title=The Effect of Easy Availability of Pornography on the Incidence of Sex Crimes: The Danish Experience|journal=[[Journal of Social Issues]]|volume=29|issue=3|pages=163–181|doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.1973.tb00094.x}}</ref><ref name="PDF-200707" /> including Diamond (author of a review from 2009).<ref name="MD-2009">{{cite journal|last=Diamond|first=Milton|date=September–October 2009|title=Pornography, public acceptance and sex related crime: A review|journal=Journal of Law and Psychiatry|volume=32|issue=5|pages=304–314|doi=10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.06.004|pmid=19665229}}</ref> ''The effects of Pornography: An International Perspective'' was an epidemiological study which found that the massive growth of the pornography industry in the United States between 1975 and 1995 was accompanied by a substantial decrease in the number of sexual assaults per capita - and reported similar results for Japan - but not for Denmark and Sweden.<ref name="intern">{{cite web|url=http://www.hawaii.edu/PCSS/online_artcls/pornography/prngrphy_ovrvw.html|title=The effects of Pornography: An International Perspective|last=Diamond|first=Milton|website=University of Hawaii System|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115001619/http://www.hawaii.edu/PCSS/online_artcls/pornography/prngrphy_ovrvw.html|archive-date=2008-01-15}}</ref> Findings of this nature have been critiqued by Robert Peters, president of [[Morality in Media]], on the grounds that the results are better explained by factors other than the increased prevalence of pornography: "a more plausible explanation is that if there is a decline in "forcible rape," it is the result of a tremendous effort to curb rape through community and school-based programs, media coverage, aggressive law enforcement, DNA evidence, longer prison sentences, and more."<ref name="OC-20060804">{{cite web |last=Peters |first=Robert |title=Could it be that pornography prevents rape? |url=http://www.obscenitycrimes.org/noprevent.cfm |date=4 August 2006 |website=ObscenityCrimes.org |url-status=dead |archive-date=2006-10-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001185806/http://www.obscenitycrimes.org/noprevent.cfm }}</ref>
-In 1986, a review of epidemiological studies by Neil M. Malamuth found that the quantity of pornographic material viewed by men was positively correlated with degree to which they endorsed sexual assault.<ref name="Malamuth">{{cite book|last=Malamuth|first=Neil M.|title=Do Sexually Violent Media Indirectly Contribute to Antisocial Behavior?|publisher=Public Health Service of United States|date=August 4, 1986|pages=38|url=http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/NN/B/C/K/W/}}</ref> Malamuth's work describes Check (1984), who found among a diverse sample of [[Canadians|Canadian]] men that more exposure to pornography led to higher acceptance of [[rape myth]]s, violence against women, and general sexual callousness. In another study, Briere, Corne, Runtz and Neil M. Malamuth, (1984) reported similar correlations in a sample involving college males. On the other hand, the failure to find a statistically significant correlation in another previous study led Malamuth to examine other interesting correlations, which took into account the information about [[Human sexuality|sexuality]] the samples obtained in their childhood, and pornography emerged as the second most important source of information.<ref name="Malamuth" />  Malamuth's work has been criticized by other authors, however, such as Ferguson and Hartley (2009) who argue Malamuth has exaggerated positive findings and has not always properly discussed null findings.<ref name="Ferguson & Hartley (2009)"/> In a  [[Quartz (publication)|''Quartz'']] publication, Malamuth argued that porn is like alcohol: "whether it's bad for you depends on who you are" (stating that it increases violence in a few people, not in most people; it makes most people more relaxed).<ref name="Goldhill Goldhill 2016">{{cite web | last1=Goldhill | first1=Olivia | title=Porn is like alcohol—whether it's bad for you depends on who you are | website=Quartz | date=7 March 2016 | url=https://qz.com/632305/porn-is-like-alcohol-whether-its-bad-for-you-depends-on-who-you-are/ | access-date=18 February 2019}}</ref>
+In 1986, a review of epidemiological studies by Neil M. Malamuth found that the quantity of pornographic material viewed by men was positively correlated with degree to which they endorsed sexual assault.<ref name="Malamuth">{{cite book|last=Malamuth|first=Neil M.|title=Do Sexually Violent Media Indirectly Contribute to Antisocial Behavior?|publisher=Public Health Service of United States|date=August 4, 1986|pages=38|url=http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/NN/B/C/K/W/}}</ref> Malamuth's work describes Check (1984), who found among a diverse sample of [[Canadians|Canadian]] men that more exposure to pornography led to higher acceptance of [[rape myth]]s, violence against women, and general sexual callousness. In another study, Briere, Corne, Runtz and Neil M. Malamuth, (1984) reported similar correlations in a sample involving college males. On the other hand, the failure to find a statistically significant correlation in another previous study led Malamuth to examine other interesting correlations, which took into account the information about [[Human sexuality|sexuality]] the samples obtained in their childhood, and pornography emerged as the second most important source of information.<ref name="Malamuth" />  Malamuth's work has been criticized by other authors, however, such as Ferguson and Hartley (2009) who argue Malamuth has exaggerated positive findings and has not always properly discussed null findings.<ref name="Ferguson & Hartley (2009)"/> In a [[Quartz (publication)|''Quartz'']] publication, Malamuth argued that porn is like alcohol: "whether it's bad for you depends on who you are" (stating that it increases violence in a few people, not in most people; it makes most people more relaxed).<ref name="Goldhill Goldhill 2016">{{cite web | last1=Goldhill | first1=Olivia | title=Porn is like alcohol—whether it's bad for you depends on who you are | website=Quartz | date=7 March 2016 | url=https://qz.com/632305/porn-is-like-alcohol-whether-its-bad-for-you-depends-on-who-you-are/ | access-date=18 February 2019}}</ref>
+== Effects on relationships ==
+The consumption of pornography has a large reach across various areas of relationships in life. Pornography can influence an individual's relationship and intimacy through a number of channels, including overall level of satisfaction in their relationships, communication within a relationship, and setting boundaries for infidelity within a relationship.
+Pornography's impact on relationship satisfaction comes under scrutiny, as findings range from negative correlations, to positive relationships. Pornography consumption is correlated with less relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and in men, less sexual desire for their partner.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Dan J.|last2=McBain|first2=Kerry A.|last3=Li|first3=Wendy W.|last4=Raggatt|first4=Peter T. F.|date=March 2019|title=Pornography, preference for porn‐like sex, masturbation, and men's sexual and relationship satisfaction|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/pere.12267|journal=Personal Relationships|language=en|volume=26|issue=1|pages=93–113|doi=10.1111/pere.12267|issn=1350-4126|s2cid=151269401}}</ref><ref name=":52" /><ref name=":72">{{Cite journal|last=Morgan|first=Elizabeth M.|date=November 2011|title=Associations between Young Adults' Use of Sexually Explicit Materials and Their Sexual Preferences, Behaviors, and Satisfaction|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224499.2010.543960|journal=Journal of Sex Research|language=en|volume=48|issue=6|pages=520–530|doi=10.1080/00224499.2010.543960|issn=0022-4499|pmid=21259151|s2cid=854388}}</ref> Couples who regularly consume pornography together frequently report feeling closer to their partners, expressing more open communication, and feel more comfortable discussing sexual topics like fantasies and kinks. In addition, some research reports positive findings for women who consume pornography more regularly, including increased relationship satisfaction and decreased distress.<ref name=":63" /><ref name=":52" />
+=== Relationship satisfaction ===
+The research on the relationship between pornography use and relationship satisfaction is vast and mixed. While some believe pornography consumption leads people to become less satisfied in their relationships, others believe it can have the direct opposite effect. Pornography consumption tends to accompany lower levels of satisfaction in long-term, heterosexual relationships. Most of the current research is correlational, indicating a connection but not a cause; however, one major trend is the rate of divorce. Couples who consume pornography are nearly twice as likely to divorce than couples who do not, with the rate rising from 5% to 11%.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Researchers Explore Pornography's Effect On Long-Term Relationships|url=https://www.npr.org/2017/10/09/556606108/research-explores-the-effect-pornography-has-on-long-term-relationships|access-date=2020-11-28|website=NPR.org|language=en}}</ref> One mitigator is the frequency of pornography consumption. More frequent pornography consumption is negatively associated with relationship satisfaction. Individuals who report more frequent use of pornography within a relationship also report low levels of satisfaction in their relationships.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Dan J.|last2=McBain|first2=Kerry A.|last3=Li|first3=Wendy W.|last4=Raggatt|first4=Peter T. F.|date=March 2019|title=Pornography, preference for porn‐like sex, masturbation, and men's sexual and relationship satisfaction|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/pere.12267|journal=Personal Relationships|language=en|volume=26|issue=1|pages=93–113|doi=10.1111/pere.12267|issn=1350-4126|s2cid=151269401}}</ref>
+However, many reject the idea that pornography is inherently harmful to relationship satisfaction. Joint pornography consumption within a relationship has been connected to increased levels of relationship satisfaction for both partners. Couples who consumed pornography together expressed more satisfaction with their relationships than couples in which only one individual used pornography.<ref name=":43">{{Cite journal|last1=Kohut|first1=Taylor|last2=Balzarini|first2=Rhonda N.|last3=Fisher|first3=William A.|last4=Campbell|first4=Lorne|date=May 2018|title=Pornography's associations with open sexual communication and relationship closeness vary as a function of dyadic patterns of pornography use within heterosexual relationships|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0265407517743096|journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships|language=en|volume=35|issue=4|pages=655–676|doi=10.1177/0265407517743096|issn=0265-4075|s2cid=148998219}}</ref> This suggests that there is more at play than simply the consumption of pornography, such as the role of honesty and partner perception. Individuals whose partners are honest about their own pornography consumption tend to feel more satisfied in their relationships, to a point. There is evidence for an "honesty threshold," indicating that the relationship between honesty and pornography is not linear, and partners do not want to hear every detail about the other's pornography habits.<ref name=":132">{{Cite journal|last1=Resch|first1=Marley N.|last2=Alderson|first2=Kevin G.|date=2014-09-03|title=Female Partners of Men Who Use Pornography: Are Honesty and Mutual Use Associated With Relationship Satisfaction?|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0092623X.2012.751077|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|language=en|volume=40|issue=5|pages=410–424|doi=10.1080/0092623X.2012.751077|issn=0092-623X|pmid=23898992|s2cid=205472183}}</ref> This indicates that, although honesty and disclosure is important for pornography consumption, there seems to be a threshold of helpful honesty that, once surpassed, may cause more harm. In addition, when women consume pornography, they report lower levels of distress than their counterparts.<ref name=":43" /> While women often consume pornography less often than men, men are fairly accurate at perceiving their partner's pornography consumption. Women, on the other hand, are less accurate at perceiving their male partner's pornography use.<ref name=":64">{{Cite journal|last1=Carroll|first1=Jason S.|last2=Busby|first2=Dean M.|last3=Willoughby|first3=Brian J.|last4=Brown|first4=Cameron C.|date=2017-04-03|title=The Porn Gap: Differences in Men's and Women's Pornography Patterns in Couple Relationships|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796|journal=Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=146–163|doi=10.1080/15332691.2016.1238796|issn=1533-2691|s2cid=151873457}}</ref>
+Some research suggests that there is no connection between relationship satisfaction and pornography use, whether individually or jointly. Although finding evidence in their second study for a negative correlation, a study of two independent male samples found no relationship between pornography and relationship satisfaction in their first sample.<ref name=":33" /> Conversely, other studies found no relationship whatsoever between joint pornography use and satisfaction. When analyzing couples and their pornography consumption over the course of one month, researchers found no correlation between relationship satisfaction and pornography use.<ref name=":53">{{Cite web|title=How Porn Affects Relationships|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/talking-apes/202008/how-porn-affects-relationships|access-date=2020-11-28|website=Psychology Today|language=en-US}}</ref>
+=== Communication ===
+Communication is a vital component of any healthy relationship, and many researchers question how pornography may impact the ability of a couple to communicate openly. Honesty has been shown to be a mitigator in relationship effects of pornography consumption. Couples in which partners are honest about their pornography consumption report greater satisfaction than couples dealing with concealment, or dishonesty, surrounding pornography use.<ref name=":132" /> Pornography consumption among couples leads to improved communication about sexual desires, and increased openness in communication.<ref name=":43" /> Conversely, active concealment of pornography use habits can lead to less openness in communication and trust.<ref name=":43" /><ref name=":132" />
+Another important aspect is the communication of affection within relationships. Affection Exchange Theory establishes the inherent role of affection within romantic relationships, and even in the role of survival, reproduction, and sexual selection.<ref name=":22">Floyd, K. (2015). Affection exchange theory. In C. R. Berger & M. E. Roloff (Eds.), ''The international encyclopedia of interpersonal communication'' (pp. 24–31). Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. {{doi|10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic139}}</ref> Trait attachment is positively associated with relationship satisfaction. Individuals who score higher in trait attachment report feeling and expressing greater sexual desire for their partners, compared to individuals who score lower in trait attachment.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last1=Bennett|first1=Margaret|last2=LoPresti|first2=Brittny J.|last3=McGloin|first3=Rory|last4=Denes|first4=Amanda|date=2019-10-20|title=The Desire for Porn and Partner?: Investigating the Role of Scripts in Affectionate Communication, Sexual Desire, and Pornography Consumption and Guilt in Young Adults' Romantic Relationships|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10570314.2018.1564934|journal=Western Journal of Communication|language=en|volume=83|issue=5|pages=647–667|doi=10.1080/10570314.2018.1564934|issn=1057-0314|s2cid=150401852}}</ref><ref name=":22" /> Some evidence indicates that the connection between Affection Exchange Theory and sexual desire is, in fact, stronger than the connection to relationship satisfaction, suggesting that sexual desire may have a crucial moderating role between the two.<ref name=":22" /> While this study found no correlation between pornography consumption and trait affection, researchers noted that increased feelings of guilt were related to lower levels of sexual desire for one's partner. This is somewhat indicative of partner-imposed or communicated guilt, or possibly reflecting an effect of the sexual scripts of pornography creating unrealistic expectations that lead to magnified dissatisfaction.<ref name=":03" />
-==Occupational safety and health==
+==Occupational safety and health in the industry==
 {{main|STDs in the porn industry}}
 Because the creation of pornography involves [[unsimulated sex]], usually without [[condom]]s ([[Bareback (sex)|barebacking]]), pornographic actors have been found to be particularly vulnerable to [[sexually transmitted disease]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rodriguez-Hart|first1=C|last2=Chitale|first2=RA|last3=Rigg|first3=R|last4=Goldstein|first4=BY|last5=Kerndt|first5=PR|last6=Tavrow|first6=P|s2cid=11721333|title=Sexually transmitted infection testing of adult film performers: is disease being missed?|journal=Sexually Transmitted Diseases|date=December 2012|volume=39|issue=12|pages=989–94|doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3182716e6e|pmid=23191956}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grudzen|first1=CR|last2=Meeker|first2=D|last3=Torres|first3=J|last4=Du|first4=Q|last5=Andersen|first5=RM|last6=Gelberg|first6=L|title=HIV and STI risk behaviors, knowledge, and testing among female adult film performers as compared to other California women|journal=AIDS and Behavior|date=February 2013|volume=17|issue=2|pages=517–22|doi=10.1007/s10461-011-0090-0|pmid=22101890|s2cid=6446061}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Goldstein|first1=BY|last2=Steinberg|first2=JK|last3=Aynalem|first3=G|last4=Kerndt|first4=PR|title=High Chlamydia and gonorrhea incidence and reinfection among performers in the adult film industry|journal=Sexually Transmitted Diseases|date=July 2011|volume=38|issue=7|pages=644–8|doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e318214e408|pmid=21844714|s2cid=2855793}}</ref>
@@ Line 79: / Line 147: @@
 The [[AIDS Healthcare Foundation]] tried several times to have California's Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Occupational Safety and Health's Appeals Board force companies in the pornography industry to treat actors and actresses as employees subject to [[occupational safety and health]] regulation. In a 2014 case brought against [[Treasure Island Media]], an administrative judge ruled that the company did have to comply with regulations.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fitz-Gerald|first1=Sean|title=Condoms Required for CA Porn Performers: Judge|url=http://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/local/California-Judge-Issues-Landmark-Ruling-on-Unprotected-Porn-242117921.html|work=NBC Southern California|date=January 27, 2014}}</ref>
+==Effect on adolescents==
-==School-age juveniles==
 In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Association of Teachers and Lecturers]] feels schoolchildren need to be educated about pornography and warned what is reasonable and what is not acceptable.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-21938823 |first=Katherine |last=Sellgren |title=BBC News - Pupils 'should be taught about risks of pornography' |date=26 March 2013 |newspaper=BBC News |access-date=13 March 2014}}</ref> The UK children's commissioner initiated a meta-study conducted by researchers at [[Middlesex University]] which concluded that pornography is linked to unrealistic attitudes about sex, beliefs that women are sex objects, more frequent thoughts about sex, and found that children and [[effects of pornography on young people|young people who view pornography]] tend to hold less progressive gender role attitudes.<ref name="middlesexstudy" /> Miranda Horvath stated about this: "But it is not possible to establish causation from correlational studies, and to say whether pornography is changing or reinforcing attitudes."<ref name="middlesexstudy" />
@@ Line 86: / Line 154: @@
 The Journal of Adolescence concluded in 2019 that the adolescent brain, due to its immature development, may be more sensitive to sexually explicit material, but due to a lack of empirical research, no firm conclusions can be drawn.<ref name="Brown Wisco 2019 pp. 10–13">{{cite journal | last1=Brown | first1=Jennifer A. | last2=Wisco | first2=Jonathan J. | title=The components of the adolescent brain and its unique sensitivity to sexually explicit material | journal=Journal of Adolescence | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=72 | year=2019 | issn=0140-1971 | pmid=30754014 | doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.01.006 | pages=10–13}}</ref>  In 2017, a research report conducted by the Australian government found that early onset pornography use can cause porn to "become the preferred sexual script for men, thus influencing their real-world expectations".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Alissar|first=El-Murr|date=December 2017|title=The effects of pornography on children and young people: An evidence scan|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332031643_The_effects_of_pornography_on_children_and_young_people_An_evidence_scan|url-status=live|website=ResearchGate}}</ref>
-There are considerable ethical problems with performing some kinds of research on the effects of pornography use on minors.<ref name="Binik Mah Kiesler 1999 pp. 82–90">{{cite journal | last1=Binik | first1=Yitzchak M. | last2=Mah | first2=Kenneth | last3=Kiesler | first3=Sara | title=Ethical issues in conducting sex research on the internet | journal=Journal of Sex Research | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=36 | issue=1 | year=1999 | issn=0022-4499 | doi=10.1080/00224499909551971 | pages=82–90}}</ref>  For example, Rory Reid ([[UCLA]]) declared "Universities don't want their name on the front page of a newspaper for an unethical study exposing minors to porn."<ref name="Dallas News 2014">{{cite web|last=Segal|first=David|author-link=David Segal (reporter)|date=4 April 2014|title=Does porn harm children?|url=https://www.dallasnews.com/opinion/commentary/2014/04/04/does-porn-harm-children/|access-date=14 April 2021|website=Dallas News}}</ref><ref name="The New York Times 2014">{{cite web|last=Segal|first=David|date=28 March 2014|title=Opinion - Does Porn Hurt Children?|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/sunday-review/does-porn-hurt-children.html|access-date=18 April 2021|website=The New York Times}}</ref>
+There are considerable ethical problems with performing some kinds of research on the effects of pornography use on minors.<ref name="Binik Mah Kiesler 1999 pp. 82–90">{{cite journal | last1=Binik | first1=Yitzchak M. | last2=Mah | first2=Kenneth | last3=Kiesler | first3=Sara | title=Ethical issues in conducting sex research on the internet | journal=Journal of Sex Research | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=36 | issue=1 | year=1999 | issn=0022-4499 | doi=10.1080/00224499909551971 | pages=82–90}}</ref>  For example, Rory Reid ([[UCLA]]) declared, "Universities don't want their name on the front page of a newspaper for an unethical study exposing minors to porn."<ref name="Dallas News 2014">{{cite web|last=Segal|first=David|author-link=David Segal (reporter)|date=4 April 2014|title=Does porn harm children?|url=https://www.dallasnews.com/opinion/commentary/2014/04/04/does-porn-harm-children/|access-date=14 April 2021|website=Dallas News}}</ref><ref name="The New York Times 2014">{{cite web|last=Segal|first=David|date=28 March 2014|title=Opinion - Does Porn Hurt Children?|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/sunday-review/does-porn-hurt-children.html|access-date=18 April 2021|website=The New York Times}}</ref>
 ==See also==
@@ Line 113: / Line 181: @@
 {{Pornography}}
+{{Authority control}}
+{{DEFAULTSORT:Effects of pornography}}
-[[Category:Research on the effects of pornography]]
+[[Category:Research on the effects of pornography| ]]
 [[Category:Sexual misconduct]]
+[[Category:Interpersonal relationships]]
+[[Category:Pornography|*]]
+[[Category:Psychology]]
+[[Category:Sexology]]
+[[Category:Sexuality]]