List of ecoregions affected by woody plant encroachment: Difference between revisions

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This list provides information on woody plant encroachment that is specific to different ecoregions of the world. The list is further subdivided into countries. Although political boundaries usually have limited influence on the occurance of woody plant encroachment in an ecosystem, this structure provides insides into country-specific scientific research and responses.

Ecoregions

Northern Europe

Woody encroachment is common in the Alpine tundra of Norway and Sweden^[1]^[2] Also in the Coastal meadows of Estonia woody plant encroachment is observed, resulting from land abandonment.^[3] In Ireland and Denmark, dry grasslands are affected by woody encroachment. In Ireland extensive low input farming helps to prevent further encroachment by Blackthorn and Hazel, while high density stands are actively thinned out.^[4]

Central Europe and European Alps

Areas that formerly were forests require continuous maintenance to avoid woody plant encroachment. When active land cultivation ends, fallow land is the result and gradual spread of shrubs and bushes can follow. Animal species once native to Central Europe effectively countered this natural process. These include herbivores such as European bison, auerochs (extinct), red deer and feral horse. Grassland and heath are considered to require protection due to their biodiversity as well as to preserve cultural landscapes. Woody plant encroachment is therefore frequently countered with selective removal of woody biomass or through the seasonal or year-round introduction of grazing animal species, such as sheep, goats, heck cattle or horses. Bush encroachment occurs in the Alps, where structural change in agriculture leads to the abandonment of land. Alnus viridis is the most widely distributed shrub species in the sub-alpine zone and is found to severely impair species richness and beta diversity when encroaching grassland.^[5] Woody encroachment in the alpine tundra is associated with aboveground carbon storage and a slowdown of the biogeochemical cycle.^[6] 70 percent of cultivated land in the Eastern Alps are affected by woody encroachment.^[7] Also in Hungary bush encroachment is linked to the abandonment of formerly cultivated land. Moderate encroachment is found to have no negative impact on biodiversity and suppression of woody plants is considered an effective restoration approach.^[8]

Mediterranean Basin

The Mediterranean region is widely reported to be affected by bush encroachment, which is often a transition into the establishment of trees in former grasslands.^[9] This is found to have negative effects on biodiversity and to magnify climate and related droughts.^[10] Further, it adversely affects soil organic matter.^[11] At the same time encroaching shrubs are also found to have a positive effect, reversing the desertification process.^[12]^[13] Areas experiencing woody encroachment have more extended droughts and higher usage of deep water and this is expected to increase under future climate scenarios.^[14] In the Spanish Pyrenees, woody encroachment is connected to land abandonment^[15] and affects around 80 percent of cultivated land.^[16]^[17]

North American grasslands

North American grasslands have been found to be affected by woody plant encroachment. Documentation of shrub encroachment caused by fire exclusion was documented as early as 1968.^[18]

United States of America

In the United States, affected ecosystems include the Chihuahuan Desert, the Sonoran Desert, the northern and southern Rocky Mountains, the sagebrush steppe, as well as the Southern and Central Great Plains. Poor grazing management and fire suppression are among the documented causes.^[19]^[20] Woody plant expansion is considered one of the greatest contemporary threats to mesic grasslands of the central United States.^[21] Woody encroachment is estimated to lead to a loss of 75% of potential grass biomass in the Great Plains.^[22] In the western US, woody plants have increased on around 44 million hectares since 1999.^[23] Among encroaching species is Piñon-juniper which mostly encroaches in shrubland adjacent to wooded areas. Up to 350 sagebrush-associated plant and animal species are threatened as a result. In the northern Great Basin piñon-juniper has encroached 0.45 million hectares since 2001 alone.^[24] The rate at which grassland is lost to woody encroachment is found to equal the rate of conversion of grassland to agricultural land.^[25] Also the tundra ecosystems of Colorado and Alaska areaffected by the rapid expansion of woody shrubs.^[26]^[27] In coastal fen ecosystems, woody plant encroachment leads to the reduction of herbaceous species richness and loss of rare species.^[28]

Negative impacts on forage production and an interrelation with carbon sequestration are documented.^[29] At the same time in the semiarid karst savanna of Texas, USA, woody plant encroachment has been found to improve soil infiltrability and therewith groundwater recharge.^[30] Over a period of 69 years, woody encroachment in Texas has increase aboveground carbon stocks by 32%.^[31] Bird population decline as a result of woody encroachment has been identified as a critical conservation concern,^[32] with bird populations found to have decreased by nearly two-thirds over the last half-century.^[33]

Through government funded conservation programmes, shrubs and trees are thinned out systematically in affected ecosystems. This is found to revive habitat for birds and improve other ecosystem services.^[34] There is evidence that selective thinning with post-treatment has successfully reversed the effects of conifer encroachment in studied areas.^[35] At the same time study areas in Nebraska, where Juniperus virginiana encroachment was treated with fire, showed that woody cover stayed low and stable for 8-10 years after fire treatment, but rapid re-encroachment then followed.^[36]

Asian temperate savanna and steppe

China

Temperate savanna-like ecosystems in Northern China are found to be affected by shrub encroachment, linked to unsustainable grazing and climate change.^[37] In the Inner Mongolia steppe shrub encroaches steppe.^[38] Woody plant encroachment is found to lead to the reduction of biodiversity and decreased forage quality.^{[citation needed]}

India

Semi-arid Banni grasslands of western India are found to be affected by bush encroachment, with affects both species composition and behaviour of nocturnal rodents.^[39]

Australian lowland woodlands

In Australia woody encroachment is observed across all lowland grassy woodland as well as semi-arid floodplain wetlands and coastal ecosystems, with substantial implications for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services.^[40]^[41]

Latin American grasslands

Argentina

In the Gran Chaco intense shrub encroachment has detrimental impact on livestock economies, especially in the Formosa Province. Livestock pressure and the lack of wildfires have been main causes.^[42]

Brazil

Wide-ranging woody encroachment is found in the Cerrado, a savannah ecosystem in central Brazil. Studies found that 19% of its area, approximately 17 million hectares, show significant bush encroachment. Among the researched causes are fire suppression and land use abandonment.^[43] Fire suppression is linked to Brazil's conservation policy that aims to deforestation in the Amazon, but achieves the limitation of fires also in the Cerrado.^[44] This ecological change is linked to the disturbance of ecohydrological processes.^[45] In some areas of the Cerrado, open grassland and wetlands has largely disappeared.^[46] A contributing factor to the loss of the natural Cerrado savanna ecosystem is the planting of monocultures, such as pine, for wood production. When pine is removed and plantations abandoned, areas turn into low-diversity forests lacking savanna species.^[47] Also in the highland grassland of Southern Brazil, bush encroachment caused by land management changes is seen as a significant threat biodiversity, human wellbeing and cultural heritage in grassland ecosystems.^[48]^[49]

Nicaragua

In Nicaragua Vachellia pennatula is known to encroach due to land intensification as well as land abandonment.^[50]

Eastern African grasslands

Across Eastern Africa, including protected areas, woody encroachment has been noted as a challenge.^[51] It has first been documented in the 1970s, with scientists indicating that woody encroachment is the rule rather than the exception in East Africa.^[52]

Ethiopia

Grasslands in the Borana Zone in southern Ethiopia are found to be effected by bush encroachment, specifically by Senegalia mellifera, Vachellia reficiens and Vachellia oerfota.^[53]^[54] Woody plants constitute 52% of vegetation cover.^[55] This negatively affects species richness and diversity of plant species.^[56] Experiments have shown the effectiveness of bush control of different woody species by cutting and stem-burning, cutting with fire-browse combination, cutting and fire as well as cutting and browsing. Post-management techniques were effective in sustaining savanna ecology.^[57] In the Bale lowlands, woody encroachment is found to have increased by 546% between 1990 and 2020, transforming grassland into bushland.^[58]

Woody encroachment has been found to reduce herbage yield and therewith rangeland productivity.^[59] Under woody encroachment, less meat and milk is produced per head of cattle, which challenges traditional pastoral diets.^[60]^[61]

Also the invasive species Prosopis juliflora has expanded rapidly since it was introduced in the 1970s, with direct negative consequences on pasture availability and therewith agriculture. Prosopis is native to Central America and was introduced in an attempt to halt land degradation and provide a source of firewood and animal fodder, but has since then encroached into various ecosystems and become a main driver of degradation.^[62] The Afar Region is most severely affected. The wood of the invasive species is commonly used as household fuel in the form of firewood and charcoal.^[63]^[64]^[65]^[66]

Shrub encroachment in forest areas of Ethiopia, such as the Desa’a Forest, reduces carbon stocks.^[67]

Kenya

In Kenya, woody encroachment has been identified as a main type of land-cover change in grasslands, reducing the grazing availability for pastoralists.^[68] Studied areas show an increase of woodland by 39% and a decrease of grassland by 74%, with Vachellia reficiens and Vachellia nubica as a dominant species. Observed causes include overgrazing, suppression of wildfires, the reduction of rain as well as the introduction of bush seeds through smallstock^[69]^[70] Older studies had suggested that an increase in bush cover by 10% reduces grazing by 7%, and grazing is eliminated completely by 90% bush cover.^[71] Also Euclea divinorum is a dominant encroaching species.^[72] Adaptation strategies include the integration of browsers into the livestock mix, for example goats and camels.^[73]^[74] In areas where Acacia mellifera encroaches, manual bush thinning during the late dry season combined with reseeding of native grasses and soil conservation measures, proved to be an effective restoration measure with 34% improvement in perennial grass cover.^[75]

In the Baringo County of Kenya, up to 30% of grasslands have disappeared due to the invasion of Prosopis juliflora.^[76]^[77] Clearing Prosopis juliflora to restore grasslands can increase soil organic carbon and generate value through carbon credit schemes.^[78]

Tanzania

In Tanzania woody encroachment has been studied in the savanna ecosystem of the Maswa Game Reserve, with detected shrub growth rates of up to 2.6% per annum. Vachellia drepanolobium is dominant species.^[79]

Uganda

Bush encroachment in Uganda is found to have negative impacts on livestock farming. In selected study areas farm income was twice as high on farm that implemented bush control, compared to farms with high bush densities.^[80]^[81]

West African Guinean and Sudanian savannas

Bush encroachment is observed across several West African countries, especially in the Guinean savanna and the Sudanian savanna.

Ivory Coast

In Ivory Coast late dry season fires were found to reduce bush encroachment in the Guinean savanna.^[82]

Cameroon

In Cameroon, among the regions affected by bush encroachment is Adamawa Region, near the Nigerian border. It has been labelled "pastoral thickets" due to the suspected relation to livestock grazing pressure.^[83]

Central African Republic

In the 1960s pastoral land in the Central African Republic was mapped and bush encroachment attributed to livestock pressure as well as reduced fire intensity. ^[83]

Southern African Savanna

Namibia

Bush encroachment is estimated to affect up to 45 million hectares of savanna in Namibia. As a result, agricultural productivity in Namibia has declined by two-thirds throughout the past decades. The phenomenon affects both commercial and communal farming in Namibia, mostly the central, eastern and north-eastern regions.^[84]^[85] Common encroacher species include Dichrostachys cinerea, which is most dominant in areas with higher precipitation.^[86]

The government of Namibia has recognised bush encroachment as a key challenge for the national economy and food safety. In its current National Development Plan 5, it stipulates that bush shall be thinned on a total of 82.200 hectares per annum.^[87] The reduction of bush encroachment on 1.9 million hectares until 2040 is one of Namibia's primary Land Degradation Neutrality Targets under the UNCCD framework.^[88] The Government of Namibia pursues a value addition strategy, promoting the sustainable use of bush biomass, which in turn is expected to finance bush harvesting operations. Existing value chains include wood briquettes for household use, woodchips for thermal and electrical energy generation (currently used at Ohorongo Cement factory and at Namibia Breweries Limited), export charcoal, biochar as soil enhancer and animal feed supplement, animal feed, flooring and decking material, predominantly using the invasive genus Prosopis, wood carvings, firewood and construction material, i.e. wood composite material.^[89]

Increasingly, the encroaching bush is seen as a resource for a biomass industry. Economic assessments were conducted to quantify and value various key ecosystem services and land use options that are threatened by bush encroachment. The evaluation was part of the Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) Initiative, a global initiative established in 2011 by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, and the European Commission. Based on a national study, cost-benefit analysis suggests a programme of bush control to generate an estimated and aggregated potential net benefit of around N$48.0 billion (USD 3.8 billion) (2015 prices, discounted) over 25 years when compared with a scenario of no bush thinning. This implies a net benefit of around N$2 billion (USD 0.2 billion) (2015 prices, discounted) per annum in the initial round of 25 years.^[90]

Namibia has a well-established charcoal sector, which currently comprises approximately 1,200 producers, which employ a total of 10,000 workers. Most producers are farmers, who venture into charcoal production as a means to combat bush encroachment on their land. However, increasingly small enterprises also venture into charcoal making. As per national forestry regulations, charcoal can only be produced from encroaching species. In practice, it however proves difficult to ensure full compliance with these regulations, as the charcoal production is highly decentralised and the inspection capacities of the Directorate of Forestry are low. Voluntary FSC certification has sharply increased in recent years, due to respective demand in many off-take countries, such as the United Kingdom, France and Germany. Due to exclusive use of encroacher bush for charcoal production, rendering the value chain free from deforestation, Namibian charcoal has been dubbed the "greenest charcoal" in an international comparison.^[91] In 2016 the Namibia Charcoal Association (NCA) emerged as a legal entity through a restructuring process of the Namibia Charcoal Producers Association, previously attached to Namibia Agricultural Union. It is a non-profit entity and the official industry representation, currently representing an estimated two-thirds of all charcoal producers in the country.

Namibia Biomass Industry Group is a non-profit association under Section 21 of the Companies Act (Act 28 of 2004) of Namibia, founded in 2016. It functions as the umbrella representative body of the emerging bush-based biomass sector in the country with voluntary paid membership. The core objectives, as enlisted in the Articles of Association, include to develop market opportunities for biomass from harvested encroacher bush as well as to address industry bottlenecks, such as skills shortages and research and development needs. The De-bushing Advisory Service is a division of the association, mandated with the dissemination of knowledge on the topics of bush encroachment, bush control and biomass use. Services are provided upon inquiry and are considered a public service and therefore not charged. According to its websites, services include technical advice on bush control and biomass use, environmental advice, the strengthening of existing agricultural outreach services and linkage with service providers.^[92] ^[93]

In 2019, the three Namibian farmers' unions (NNFU, NAU/NLU, NECFU) together with the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry published a best strategy document called "Reviving Namibia's Livestock Industry".^[94] The document states that the Namibian livestock industry is in decline due to the loss of palatable perennial grasses and the increase in bush encroachment. Namibia's rangelands show higher levels of bare ground, lower levels of herbaceous cover, lower perennial grass cover, and higher bush densities over large areas. Bush thickening leads to direct competition for moisture with desirable forage species and detrimentally influences the health of the soil. The best practice document identifies tried and tested practices of both emerging and established farmers from communal and title deed farms. These practices include the Split Ranch Approach, several Holistic Management approaches and the Mara Fodder Bank Approach. Other best practices include bush thinning, landscape re-hydration and fodder production. The unions state that there is major scope for enhancing livelihoods through the sustainable use of bush products. In addition, increased profitability and productivity of the sector will have a major impact on the 70% of the Namibian population that depends directly or indirectly on the rangeland resource for their economic well-being and food security.

Both the Forestry Act and the Environmental Act of Namibia govern bush control. Special harvesting permits as well as Environmental Clearance Certificates are applicable to all bush harvesting activities. Responsible Authority is the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism. Effective April 2020 the Forest Stewardship Council introduced a national Namibian FSC standard (National Forest Stewardship Standard) that is closely aligned to the global FSC certification standard, but takes into consideration context specific parameters, such as bush encroachment.^[95] In early 2020, the total land area certified under the FSC standard for the purpose of bush thinning and biomass processing was reported to amount to 1.6 million hectares.^[96]

Botswana

Bush encroachment in Botswana has been documented from as far back as 1971.^[97]^[98] Around 3.7 million hectares of land in Botswana is affected by bush encroachment, that is over 6% of the total land area. Encroaching species include Acacia tortilis, Acacia erubescens, Acacia mellifera, Dichrostachys cinerea, Grewia flava, and Terminalia sericea.^[99] Ecological surveys found bush encroachment affecting both communal grazing areas and private farmland, with particular prevalence in semi-arid ecosystems.^[100]^[101] Encroachment is considered a key form of land degradation, mainly because of the country's significant dependence on agricultural productivity.^[102] In selected areas, charcoal production has been introduced as a measure to reduce bush densities.^[103]^[104]^[97]^[105]

South Africa

In South Africa bush encroachment entails the abundance of indigenous woody vegetation in grassland and savanna biomes.^[106] These biomes make up 27.9% and 32.5% of the land surface area. About 7.3 million hectares are directly affected by bush encroachment, impacting rural communities socio-economically.^[107]^[108] Common encroaching species include Vachellia karoo, Senegalia mellifera, Dichrostachys cinera, Rhus undulata and Rhigozum trichotomum.^[109]

Through the public works and conservation programme Working for Water, the government of South Africa allocated approximately 100 million USD per annum for the management of native encroaching species.^[110] Land users in South Africa commonly combat woody encroachment through clear felling, burning, intensive browsing or chemical control in the form of herbicide application.^[109] Studies have found a positive effect of bush thinning on grass biomass production over short periods of time.^[111]

In communal areas, woody plant encroachment is a key catalyst of land degradation.^[112] The Kruger National Park is largely affected by bush encroachment, which highlights that global drivers cause encroachment also outside typical rangeland settings.^[113]

Lesotho

In 1998, around 16% of Lesotho's rangelands where estimated to be affected by woody encroachment, linked to grazing pressure.^[114] Encroaching species include Leucosidea sericea and Chrysocoma and a negative impact of water catchment areas is suspected.^[115]

Eswatini

Studies in the Lowveld savannas of Eswatini confirm different heavy woody plant encroachment, especially by Dichrostachys cinerea, among other factors related to grazing pressure. In selected study areas the shrub encroachment increased from 2% in 1947 to 31% in 1990. In some affected areas, frequent fires, coupled with drought, reduced bush densities over time.^[116]^[117]

Zambia

Woody encroachment has been recorded in southern Zambia. Between 1986 and 2010 woody cover increased from 26% to 45% in Kafue Flats and Lochinvar National Park. A common encroacher species is Dichrostachys cinerea.^[118]

Zimbabwe

There is evidence of woody plant encroachment in Zimbabwe, among others by Vachellia karroo.^[119] Document notions of woody encroachment in Zimbabwe and its impact on land use date back to 1945.^[120]^[121]

Other ecoregions

There is evidence of woody encroachment by Acacia leata, Acacia mellifera, Acacia polyacantha, Acacia senegal and Vachellia seyal in Sudan.^[122]

Reference map

The following map displays the countries that are addressed in this article, i.e. countries that feature ecosystems with woody encroachment.

Purple – Countries with evidence of woody plant encroachment after land intensification
Yellow – Countries with evidence of woody plant encroachment after land abandonment

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@@ Line 13: / Line 13: @@
 === Mediterranean Basin ===
-The [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean region]] is widely reported to be affected by bush encroachment, which is often a transition into the establishment of trees in former grasslands.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chauchard|first1=Sandrine|last2=Beilhe|first2=Fabien|last3=Denis|first3=Nicole|last4=Carcaillet|first4=Christopher|date=March 2010|title=An increase in the upper tree-limit of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) in the Alps since the mid-20th century: A land-use change phenomenon|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378112710000150|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|language=en|volume=259|issue=8|pages=1406–1415|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2010.01.009}}</ref> This is found to have negative effects on biodiversity and to magnify climate and related droughts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henkin|first=Zalmen|date=2021-08-09|title=The role of brush encroachment in Mediterranean ecosystems: a review|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ijps/aop/article-10.1163-22238980-bja10039/article-10.1163-22238980-bja10039.xml|journal=Israel Journal of Plant Sciences|pages=1–12|doi=10.1163/22238980-bja10039|s2cid=238726811|issn=0792-9978}}</ref> Further, it adversely affects [[soil organic matter]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ortiz|first1=Carlos|last2=Fernández-Alonso|first2=María José|last3=Kitzler|first3=Barbara|last4=Díaz-Pinés|first4=Eugenio|last5=Saiz|first5=Gustavo|last6=Rubio|first6=Agustín|last7=Benito|first7=Marta|date=January 2022|title=Variations in soil aggregation, microbial community structure and soil organic matter cycling associated to long-term afforestation and woody encroachment in a Mediterranean alpine ecotone|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016706121005309|journal=Geoderma|language=en|volume=405|pages=115450|doi=10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115450|bibcode=2022Geode.405k5450O|s2cid=239131081}}</ref> At the same time encroaching shrubs are also found to have a positive effect, reversing the [[desertification]] process.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Hongwei Zeng |author2=Bingfang Wu |author3=Miao Zhang |author4=Ning Zhang |author5=Abdelrazek Elnashar |author6=Liang Zhu |author7=Weiwei Zhu |author8=Fangming Wu |author9=Nana Yan |author10=Wenjun Liu|date=2021|title=Dryland ecosystem dynamic change and its drivers in Mediterranean region.|journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability|volume=48|pages=59–67|doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2020.10.013|s2cid=229411318 }}</ref><ref name=":35" /> Areas experiencing woody encroachment have more extended droughts and higher usage of deep water and this is expected to increase under future climate scenarios.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rolo|first1=Victor|last2=Moreno|first2=Gerardo|date=April 2019|title=Shrub encroachment and climate change increase the exposure to drought of Mediterranean wood-pastures|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S004896971930035X|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=660|pages=550–558|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.029|pmid=30641382|bibcode=2019ScTEn.660..550R|s2cid=58609029}}</ref> In the Spanish Pyrenees, woody encroachment is connected to land abandonment<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nadal-Romero|first1=Estela|last2=Rubio|first2=Pablo|last3=Kremyda|first3=Vasiliki|last4=Absalah|first4=Samira|last5=Cammeraat|first5=Erik|last6=Jansen|first6=Boris|last7=Lasanta|first7=Teodoro|date=October 2021|title=Effects of agricultural land abandonment on soil organic carbon stocks and composition of soil organic matter in the Central Spanish Pyrenees|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S034181622100299X|journal=CATENA|language=en|volume=205|pages=105441|doi=10.1016/j.catena.2021.105441}}</ref> and affects around 80 percent of cultivated land.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lasanta|first1=Teodoro|last2=Nadal-Romero|first2=Estela|last3=Errea|first3=Paz|last4=Arnáez|first4=José|date=February 2016|title=The Effect of Landscape Conservation Measures in Changing Landscape Patterns: A Case Study in Mediterranean Mountains: The Effect of Landscape Conservation in Chaning Landscape Patterns|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/ldr.2359|journal=Land Degradation & Development|language=en|volume=27|issue=2|pages=373–386|doi=10.1002/ldr.2359}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gelabert|first1=P.J.|last2=Rodrigues|first2=M.|last3=de la Riva|first3=J.|last4=Ameztegui|first4=A.|last5=Sebastià|first5=M.T.|last6=Vega-Garcia|first6=C.|date=September 2021|title=LandTrendr smoothed spectral profiles enhance woody encroachment monitoring|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0034425721002418|journal=Remote Sensing of Environment|language=en|volume=262|pages=112521|doi=10.1016/j.rse.2021.112521|bibcode=2021RSEnv.262k2521G}}</ref>
+The [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean region]] is widely reported to be affected by bush encroachment, which is often a transition into the establishment of trees in former grasslands.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chauchard|first1=Sandrine|last2=Beilhe|first2=Fabien|last3=Denis|first3=Nicole|last4=Carcaillet|first4=Christopher|date=March 2010|title=An increase in the upper tree-limit of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) in the Alps since the mid-20th century: A land-use change phenomenon|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378112710000150|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|language=en|volume=259|issue=8|pages=1406–1415|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2010.01.009}}</ref> This is found to have negative effects on biodiversity and to magnify climate and related droughts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henkin|first=Zalmen|date=2021-08-09|title=The role of brush encroachment in Mediterranean ecosystems: a review|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ijps/aop/article-10.1163-22238980-bja10039/article-10.1163-22238980-bja10039.xml|journal=Israel Journal of Plant Sciences|pages=1–12|doi=10.1163/22238980-bja10039|s2cid=238726811|issn=0792-9978}}</ref> Further, it adversely affects [[soil organic matter]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ortiz|first1=Carlos|last2=Fernández-Alonso|first2=María José|last3=Kitzler|first3=Barbara|last4=Díaz-Pinés|first4=Eugenio|last5=Saiz|first5=Gustavo|last6=Rubio|first6=Agustín|last7=Benito|first7=Marta|date=January 2022|title=Variations in soil aggregation, microbial community structure and soil organic matter cycling associated to long-term afforestation and woody encroachment in a Mediterranean alpine ecotone|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016706121005309|journal=Geoderma|language=en|volume=405|pages=115450|doi=10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115450|bibcode=2022Geode.405k5450O|s2cid=239131081}}</ref> At the same time encroaching shrubs are also found to have a positive effect, reversing the [[desertification]] process.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Hongwei Zeng |author2=Bingfang Wu |author3=Miao Zhang |author4=Ning Zhang |author5=Abdelrazek Elnashar |author6=Liang Zhu |author7=Weiwei Zhu |author8=Fangming Wu |author9=Nana Yan |author10=Wenjun Liu|date=2021|title=Dryland ecosystem dynamic change and its drivers in Mediterranean region.|journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability|volume=48|pages=59–67|doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2020.10.013|s2cid=229411318 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maestre|first=Fernando T.|last2=Bowker|first2=Matthew A.|last3=Puche|first3=María D.|last4=Belén Hinojosa|first4=M.|last5=Martínez|first5=Isabel|last6=García-Palacios|first6=Pablo|last7=Castillo|first7=Andrea P.|last8=Soliveres|first8=Santiago|last9=Luzuriaga|first9=Arántzazu L.|last10=Sánchez|first10=Ana M.|last11=Carreira|first11=José A.|date=September 2009|title=Shrub encroachment can reverse desertification in semi-arid Mediterranean grasslands|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01352.x|journal=Ecology Letters|language=en|volume=12|issue=9|pages=930–941|doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01352.x}}</ref> Areas experiencing woody encroachment have more extended droughts and higher usage of deep water and this is expected to increase under future climate scenarios.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rolo|first1=Victor|last2=Moreno|first2=Gerardo|date=April 2019|title=Shrub encroachment and climate change increase the exposure to drought of Mediterranean wood-pastures|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S004896971930035X|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=660|pages=550–558|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.029|pmid=30641382|bibcode=2019ScTEn.660..550R|s2cid=58609029}}</ref> In the Spanish Pyrenees, woody encroachment is connected to land abandonment<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nadal-Romero|first1=Estela|last2=Rubio|first2=Pablo|last3=Kremyda|first3=Vasiliki|last4=Absalah|first4=Samira|last5=Cammeraat|first5=Erik|last6=Jansen|first6=Boris|last7=Lasanta|first7=Teodoro|date=October 2021|title=Effects of agricultural land abandonment on soil organic carbon stocks and composition of soil organic matter in the Central Spanish Pyrenees|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S034181622100299X|journal=CATENA|language=en|volume=205|pages=105441|doi=10.1016/j.catena.2021.105441}}</ref> and affects around 80 percent of cultivated land.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lasanta|first1=Teodoro|last2=Nadal-Romero|first2=Estela|last3=Errea|first3=Paz|last4=Arnáez|first4=José|date=February 2016|title=The Effect of Landscape Conservation Measures in Changing Landscape Patterns: A Case Study in Mediterranean Mountains: The Effect of Landscape Conservation in Chaning Landscape Patterns|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/ldr.2359|journal=Land Degradation & Development|language=en|volume=27|issue=2|pages=373–386|doi=10.1002/ldr.2359}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gelabert|first1=P.J.|last2=Rodrigues|first2=M.|last3=de la Riva|first3=J.|last4=Ameztegui|first4=A.|last5=Sebastià|first5=M.T.|last6=Vega-Garcia|first6=C.|date=September 2021|title=LandTrendr smoothed spectral profiles enhance woody encroachment monitoring|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0034425721002418|journal=Remote Sensing of Environment|language=en|volume=262|pages=112521|doi=10.1016/j.rse.2021.112521|bibcode=2021RSEnv.262k2521G}}</ref>
 === North American grasslands ===
@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 ==== United States of America ====
-In the United States, affected ecosystems include the [[Chihuahuan Desert]], the [[Sonoran Desert]], the northern and southern [[Rocky Mountains]], the [[sagebrush steppe]], as well as the Southern and Central [[Great Plains]]. Poor grazing management and fire suppression are among the documented causes.<ref name=":32">IPCC, 2019: [https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/ Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems], P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, E. Calvo Buendia, V. Masson-Delmotte, H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, P. Zhai, R. Slade, S. Connors, R. van Diemen, M. Ferrat, E. Haughey, S. Luz, S. Neogi, M. Pathak, J. Petzold, J. Portugal Pereira, P. Vyas, E. Huntley, K. Kissick, M. Belkacemi, J. Malley, (eds.). In press.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hamilton |first1=W. T. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/605342910|title=Brush management: past, present, future|last2=Ueckert |first2=D. N. |publisher=Texas A & M University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-60344-628-0 |pages=3–13|oclc=605342910}}</ref> Woody plant expansion is considered one of the greatest contemporary threats to mesic grasslands of the central United States.<ref name=":13"/> Woody encroachment is estimated to lead to a loss of 75% of potential grass biomass in the Great Plains.<ref>{{Citation|title=The Combined Influence of Grazing, Fire, and Herbaceous Productivity on Tree–Grass Interactions|date=2008|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-34003-6_12|work=Western North American Juniperus Communities|pages=219–238|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer New York|isbn=978-0-387-34002-9|access-date=12 March 2021|last1=Fuhlendorf|first1=Samuel D. |last2=Archer|first2=Steven A. |last3=Smeins|first3=Fred |last4=Engle|first4=David M. |last5=Taylor|first5=Charles A. |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-34003-6_12}}</ref> In the western US, woody plants have increased on around 44 million hectares since 1999.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=Matthew O. |last2=Naugle|first2=David E. |last3=Twidwell|first3=Dirac |last4=Uden|first4=Daniel R. |last5=Maestas|first5=Jeremy D. |last6=Allred|first6=Brady W. |date=2020|title=Beyond Inventories: Emergence of a New Era in Rangeland Monitoring|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rama.2020.06.009 |journal=Rangeland Ecology & Management |volume=73 |issue=5 |pages=577–583 |doi=10.1016/j.rama.2020.06.009 |s2cid=221472237|issn=1550-7424}}</ref> Among encroaching species is [[Pinyon–juniper woodland|''Piñon-juniper'']] which mostly encroaches in shrubland adjacent to wooded areas. Up to 350 sagebrush-associated plant and animal species are threatened as a result. In the northern Great Basin piñon-juniper has encroached 0.45 million hectares since 2001 alone.<ref name=":38" /> The rate at which grassland is lost to woody encroachment is found to equal the rate of conversion of grassland to agricultural land.<ref name=":18"/> Also the [[tundra]] ecosystems of Colorado and Alaska areaffected by the rapid expansion of woody shrubs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scharnagl|first1=Klara|last2=Johnson|first2=David|last3=Ebert-May|first3=Diane|date=3 September 2019|title=Shrub expansion and alpine plant community change: 40-year record from Niwot Ridge, Colorado|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17550874.2019.1641757|journal=Plant Ecology & Diversity|language=en|volume=12|issue=5|pages=407–416|doi=10.1080/17550874.2019.1641757|s2cid=199635665|issn=1755-0874}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brodie|first1=Jedediah F.|last2=Roland|first2=Carl A.|last3=Stehn|first3=Sarah E.|last4=Smirnova|first4=Ekaterina|date=May 2019|title=Variability in the expansion of trees and shrubs in boreal Alaska|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ecy.2660|journal=Ecology|language=en|volume=100|issue=5|pages=e02660|doi=10.1002/ecy.2660|pmid=30770560|s2cid=73486971|issn=0012-9658}}</ref> In coastal [[fen]] ecosystems, woody plant encroachment leads to the reduction of herbaceous species richness and loss of rare species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Saler|first1=J. L.|last2=Jules|first2=E. S.|date=September 2021|title=Woody vegetation encroachment: A driver of herbaceous species diversity loss in a coastal fen|url=https://bioone.org/journals/madroño/volume-68/issue-1/0024-9637-68.1.9/WOODY-VEGETATION-ENCROACHMENT--A-DRIVER-OF-HERBACEOUS-SPECIES-DIVERSITY/10.3120/0024-9637-68.1.9.full|journal=Madroño|volume=68|issue=1|pages=9–19|doi=10.3120/0024-9637-68.1.9|s2cid=237548265|issn=0024-9637}}</ref>
+In the United States, affected ecosystems include the [[Chihuahuan Desert]], the [[Sonoran Desert]], the northern and southern [[Rocky Mountains]], the [[sagebrush steppe]], as well as the Southern and Central [[Great Plains]]. Poor grazing management and fire suppression are among the documented causes.<ref name=":32">IPCC, 2019: [https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/ Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems], P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, E. Calvo Buendia, V. Masson-Delmotte, H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, P. Zhai, R. Slade, S. Connors, R. van Diemen, M. Ferrat, E. Haughey, S. Luz, S. Neogi, M. Pathak, J. Petzold, J. Portugal Pereira, P. Vyas, E. Huntley, K. Kissick, M. Belkacemi, J. Malley, (eds.). In press.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hamilton |first1=W. T. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/605342910|title=Brush management: past, present, future|last2=Ueckert |first2=D. N. |publisher=Texas A & M University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-60344-628-0 |pages=3–13|oclc=605342910}}</ref> Woody plant expansion is considered one of the greatest contemporary threats to mesic grasslands of the central United States.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Briggs|first=John M.|last2=Knapp|first2=Alan K.|last3=Blair|first3=John M.|last4=Heisler|first4=Jana L.|last5=Hoch|first5=Greg A.|last6=Lett|first6=Michelle S.|last7=McCARRON|first7=James K.|date=2005|title=An Ecosystem in Transition: Causes and Consequences of the Conversion of Mesic Grassland to Shrubland|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/55/3/243-254/249711|journal=BioScience|language=en|volume=55|issue=3|pages=243|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0243:AEITCA]2.0.CO;2|issn=0006-3568}}</ref> Woody encroachment is estimated to lead to a loss of 75% of potential grass biomass in the Great Plains.<ref>{{Citation|title=The Combined Influence of Grazing, Fire, and Herbaceous Productivity on Tree–Grass Interactions|date=2008|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-34003-6_12|work=Western North American Juniperus Communities|pages=219–238|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer New York|isbn=978-0-387-34002-9|access-date=12 March 2021|last1=Fuhlendorf|first1=Samuel D. |last2=Archer|first2=Steven A. |last3=Smeins|first3=Fred |last4=Engle|first4=David M. |last5=Taylor|first5=Charles A. |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-34003-6_12}}</ref> In the western US, woody plants have increased on around 44 million hectares since 1999.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=Matthew O. |last2=Naugle|first2=David E. |last3=Twidwell|first3=Dirac |last4=Uden|first4=Daniel R. |last5=Maestas|first5=Jeremy D. |last6=Allred|first6=Brady W. |date=2020|title=Beyond Inventories: Emergence of a New Era in Rangeland Monitoring|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rama.2020.06.009 |journal=Rangeland Ecology & Management |volume=73 |issue=5 |pages=577–583 |doi=10.1016/j.rama.2020.06.009 |s2cid=221472237|issn=1550-7424}}</ref> Among encroaching species is [[Pinyon–juniper woodland|''Piñon-juniper'']] which mostly encroaches in shrubland adjacent to wooded areas. Up to 350 sagebrush-associated plant and animal species are threatened as a result. In the northern Great Basin piñon-juniper has encroached 0.45 million hectares since 2001 alone.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-10|title=Cutting Trees Gives Sage-Grouse Populations a Boost, Scientists Find|url=https://www.audubon.org/news/cutting-trees-gives-sage-grouse-populations-boost-scientists-find|access-date=2021-11-20|website=Audubon|language=en}}</ref> The rate at which grassland is lost to woody encroachment is found to equal the rate of conversion of grassland to agricultural land.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=D. Twidwell, D. Fogarty|title=A guide to reducing risk and vulnerability to woody encroachment in rangelands|url=https://agronomy.unl.edu/faculty/Twidwell/WPE-vulnerability-guide-preprint.pdf|journal=University of Nebraska-Lincoln}}</ref> Also the [[tundra]] ecosystems of Colorado and Alaska areaffected by the rapid expansion of woody shrubs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scharnagl|first1=Klara|last2=Johnson|first2=David|last3=Ebert-May|first3=Diane|date=3 September 2019|title=Shrub expansion and alpine plant community change: 40-year record from Niwot Ridge, Colorado|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17550874.2019.1641757|journal=Plant Ecology & Diversity|language=en|volume=12|issue=5|pages=407–416|doi=10.1080/17550874.2019.1641757|s2cid=199635665|issn=1755-0874}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brodie|first1=Jedediah F.|last2=Roland|first2=Carl A.|last3=Stehn|first3=Sarah E.|last4=Smirnova|first4=Ekaterina|date=May 2019|title=Variability in the expansion of trees and shrubs in boreal Alaska|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ecy.2660|journal=Ecology|language=en|volume=100|issue=5|pages=e02660|doi=10.1002/ecy.2660|pmid=30770560|s2cid=73486971|issn=0012-9658}}</ref> In coastal [[fen]] ecosystems, woody plant encroachment leads to the reduction of herbaceous species richness and loss of rare species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Saler|first1=J. L.|last2=Jules|first2=E. S.|date=September 2021|title=Woody vegetation encroachment: A driver of herbaceous species diversity loss in a coastal fen|url=https://bioone.org/journals/madroño/volume-68/issue-1/0024-9637-68.1.9/WOODY-VEGETATION-ENCROACHMENT--A-DRIVER-OF-HERBACEOUS-SPECIES-DIVERSITY/10.3120/0024-9637-68.1.9.full|journal=Madroño|volume=68|issue=1|pages=9–19|doi=10.3120/0024-9637-68.1.9|s2cid=237548265|issn=0024-9637}}</ref>
-Negative impacts on forage production and an interrelation with carbon sequestration are documented.<ref name=":6"/> At the same time in the semiarid karst savanna of Texas, USA, woody plant encroachment has been found to improve soil infiltrability and therewith groundwater recharge.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Leite PA, Wilcox BP, McInnes KJ|date=2020|title=Woody plant encroachment enhances soil infiltrability of a semiarid karst savanna|journal=Environmental Research Communications|volume=2 |issue=11|page=115005|doi=10.1088/2515-7620/abc92f|bibcode=2020ERCom...2k5005L |doi-access=free}}</ref> Over a period of 69 years, woody encroachment in Texas has increase aboveground carbon stocks by 32%.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Asner|first1=Gregory P.|last2=Archer|first2=Steve|last3=Hughes|first3=R. Flint|last4=Ansley|first4=R. James|last5=Wessman|first5=Carol A.|date=March 2003|title=Net changes in regional woody vegetation cover and carbon storage in Texas Drylands, 1937–1999: Net Changes in Woody Plants and Carbon Storage|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00594.x|journal=Global Change Biology|language=en|volume=9|issue=3|pages=316–335|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00594.x}}</ref> Bird population decline as a result of woody encroachment has been identified as a critical conservation concern,<ref name=":2" /> with bird populations found to have decreased by nearly two-thirds over the last half-century.<ref name=":16" />
+Negative impacts on forage production and an interrelation with carbon sequestration are documented.<ref>{{Citation|last=Archer|first=Steven R.|title=Woody Plant Encroachment: Causes and Consequences|date=2017|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-46709-2_2|work=Rangeland Systems|pages=25–84|editor-last=Briske|editor-first=David D.|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-46709-2_2|isbn=978-3-319-46707-8|access-date=2021-11-20|last2=Andersen|first2=Erik M.|last3=Predick|first3=Katharine I.|last4=Schwinning|first4=Susanne|last5=Steidl|first5=Robert J.|last6=Woods|first6=Steven R.}}</ref> At the same time in the semiarid karst savanna of Texas, USA, woody plant encroachment has been found to improve soil infiltrability and therewith groundwater recharge.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Leite PA, Wilcox BP, McInnes KJ|date=2020|title=Woody plant encroachment enhances soil infiltrability of a semiarid karst savanna|journal=Environmental Research Communications|volume=2 |issue=11|page=115005|doi=10.1088/2515-7620/abc92f|bibcode=2020ERCom...2k5005L |doi-access=free}}</ref> Over a period of 69 years, woody encroachment in Texas has increase aboveground carbon stocks by 32%.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Asner|first1=Gregory P.|last2=Archer|first2=Steve|last3=Hughes|first3=R. Flint|last4=Ansley|first4=R. James|last5=Wessman|first5=Carol A.|date=March 2003|title=Net changes in regional woody vegetation cover and carbon storage in Texas Drylands, 1937–1999: Net Changes in Woody Plants and Carbon Storage|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00594.x|journal=Global Change Biology|language=en|volume=9|issue=3|pages=316–335|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00594.x}}</ref> Bird population decline as a result of woody encroachment has been identified as a critical conservation concern,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Austin|first=J. E.|last2=Buhl|first2=D. A.|date=2021|title=Breeding Bird Occurrence Across a Gradient of Graminoid- to Shrub-Dominated Fens and Fire Histories|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Breeding-Bird-Occurrence-Across-a-Gradient-of-to-Austin-Buhl/220bba2a9abd75948b4ab3cb4c2bde0643a81dd8|journal=The American Midland Naturalist|doi=10.1637/0003-0031-185.1.77}}</ref> with bird populations found to have decreased by nearly two-thirds over the last half-century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosenberg|first=Kenneth V.|last2=Dokter|first2=Adriaan M.|last3=Blancher|first3=Peter J.|last4=Sauer|first4=John R.|last5=Smith|first5=Adam C.|last6=Smith|first6=Paul A.|last7=Stanton|first7=Jessica C.|last8=Panjabi|first8=Arvind|last9=Helft|first9=Laura|last10=Parr|first10=Michael|last11=Marra|first11=Peter P.|date=2019-10-04|title=Decline of the North American avifauna|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaw1313|journal=Science|language=en|volume=366|issue=6461|pages=120–124|doi=10.1126/science.aaw1313|issn=0036-8075}}</ref>
-Through government funded conservation programmes, shrubs and trees are thinned out systematically in affected ecosystems. This is found to revive habitat for birds and improve other ecosystem services.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kennedy|first=Tony|date=12 March 2018|title=Conservation groups make point: Sometimes trees have to go|url=https://www.startribune.com/conservation-groups-make-point-sometimes-trees-have-to-go/476464583/|url-status=live|access-date=23 February 2021|website=Star Tribune}}</ref> There is evidence that selective thinning with post-treatment has successfully reversed the effects of [[conifer]] encroachment in studied areas.<ref name=":19"/> At the same time study areas in [[Nebraska]], where [[Juniperus virginiana]] encroachment was treated with fire, showed that woody cover stayed low and stable for 8-10 years after fire treatment, but rapid re-encroachment then followed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fogarty|first1=Dillon T.|last2=de Vries|first2=Caitlin|last3=Bielski|first3=Christine|last4=Twidwell|first4=Dirac|date=September 2021|title=Rapid Re-encroachment by Juniperus virginiana After a Single Restoration Treatment|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1550742421000701|journal=Rangeland Ecology & Management|language=en|volume=78|pages=112–116|doi=10.1016/j.rama.2021.06.002}}</ref>
+Through government funded conservation programmes, shrubs and trees are thinned out systematically in affected ecosystems. This is found to revive habitat for birds and improve other ecosystem services.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kennedy|first=Tony|date=12 March 2018|title=Conservation groups make point: Sometimes trees have to go|url=https://www.startribune.com/conservation-groups-make-point-sometimes-trees-have-to-go/476464583/|url-status=live|access-date=23 February 2021|website=Star Tribune}}</ref> There is evidence that selective thinning with post-treatment has successfully reversed the effects of [[conifer]] encroachment in studied areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Halpern|first=Charles B.|last2=Antos|first2=Joseph A.|date=July 2021|title=Rates, patterns, and drivers of tree reinvasion 15 years after large‐scale meadow‐restoration treatments|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec.13377|journal=Restoration Ecology|language=en|volume=29|issue=5|doi=10.1111/rec.13377|issn=1061-2971}}</ref> At the same time study areas in [[Nebraska]], where [[Juniperus virginiana]] encroachment was treated with fire, showed that woody cover stayed low and stable for 8-10 years after fire treatment, but rapid re-encroachment then followed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fogarty|first1=Dillon T.|last2=de Vries|first2=Caitlin|last3=Bielski|first3=Christine|last4=Twidwell|first4=Dirac|date=September 2021|title=Rapid Re-encroachment by Juniperus virginiana After a Single Restoration Treatment|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1550742421000701|journal=Rangeland Ecology & Management|language=en|volume=78|pages=112–116|doi=10.1016/j.rama.2021.06.002}}</ref>
 === Asian temperate savanna and steppe ===
@@ Line 44: / Line 44: @@
 [[File:Ecoregion NT0704.svg|thumb|right|250px|upright=2|alt=Cerrad|Map of the Cerrado ecoregion in Brazil as delineated by the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]]]]
-Wide-ranging woody encroachment is found in the [[Cerrado]], a savannah ecosystem in central Brazil. Studies found that 19% of its area, approximately 17 million hectares, show significant bush encroachment. Among the researched causes are [[Wildfire suppression|fire suppression]] and land use abandonment.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Rosan, T. M. |author2=Aragão, L. E. O. C. |author3=Oliveras, I. |author4=Phillips, O. L. |author5=Malhi, Y. |author6=Gloor, E. |author7=Wagner, F. H.|date=2019|title=Extensive 21st‐century woody encroachment in South America's savanna.|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|volume=46|issue=12|pages=6594–6603|doi=10.1029/2019GL082327|bibcode=2019GeoRL..46.6594R|doi-access=free}}</ref> Fire suppression is linked to Brazil's conservation policy that aims to deforestation in the Amazon, but achieves the limitation of fires also in the Cerrado.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-28|title=Can tree campaigns curb climate change without harming grasslands?|url=https://scienceline.org/2021/05/can-tree-campaigns-curb-climate-change-without-harming-grasslands/|access-date=2021-06-01|website=Scienceline|language=en-US}}</ref> This ecological change is linked to the disturbance of [[Hydrology|ecohydrological]] processes.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honda E. A.|author2=Durigan G.|date=2016|title=Woody encroachment and its consequences on hydrological processes in the savannah|journal=Phil. Trans. R. Soc.|volume=B37120150313|issue=1703|doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0313|pmc=4978871|pmid=27502378|doi-access=free}}</ref> In some areas of the Cerrado, open grassland and wetlands has largely disappeared.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gonçalves|first1=Rogério Victor S.|last2=Cardoso|first2=João Custódio F.|last3=Oliveira|first3=Paulo Eugênio|last4=Oliveira|first4=Denis Coelho|date=30 March 2021|title=Changes in the Cerrado vegetation structure: insights from more than three decades of ecological succession|url=https://we.copernicus.org/articles/21/55/2021/|journal=Web Ecology|volume=21|issue=1|pages=55–64|doi=10.5194/we-21-55-2021|s2cid=233417795|issn=1399-1183}}</ref> A contributing factor to the loss of the natural Cerrado savanna ecosystem is the planting of monocultures, such as pine, for wood production. When pine is removed and plantations abandoned, areas turn into low-diversity forests lacking savanna species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haddad|first1=Thaís Mazzafera|last2=Pilon|first2=Natashi Aparecida Lima|last3=Durigan|first3=Giselda|last4=Viani|first4=Ricardo Augusto Gorne|date=2021|title=Restoration of the Brazilian savanna after pine silviculture: Pine clearcutting is effective but not enough|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378112721002462|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=491|page=119158|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119158|s2cid=233541920}}</ref> Also in the highland grassland of Southern Brazil, bush encroachment caused by land management changes is seen as a significant threat biodiversity, human wellbeing and cultural heritage in grassland ecosystems.<ref name=":21"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Overbeck|first1=G|last2=Muller|first2=S|last3=Fidelis|first3=A|last4=Pfadenhauer|first4=J|last5=Pillar|first5=V|last6=Blanco|first6=C|last7=Boldrini|first7=I|last8=Both|first8=R|last9=Forneck|first9=E|date=11 December 2007|title=Brazil's neglected biome: The South Brazilian Campos|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1433831907000303|journal=Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics|volume=9|issue=2|pages=101–116|doi=10.1016/j.ppees.2007.07.005}}</ref>
+Wide-ranging woody encroachment is found in the [[Cerrado]], a savannah ecosystem in central Brazil. Studies found that 19% of its area, approximately 17 million hectares, show significant bush encroachment. Among the researched causes are [[Wildfire suppression|fire suppression]] and land use abandonment.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Rosan, T. M. |author2=Aragão, L. E. O. C. |author3=Oliveras, I. |author4=Phillips, O. L. |author5=Malhi, Y. |author6=Gloor, E. |author7=Wagner, F. H.|date=2019|title=Extensive 21st‐century woody encroachment in South America's savanna.|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|volume=46|issue=12|pages=6594–6603|doi=10.1029/2019GL082327|bibcode=2019GeoRL..46.6594R|doi-access=free}}</ref> Fire suppression is linked to Brazil's conservation policy that aims to deforestation in the Amazon, but achieves the limitation of fires also in the Cerrado.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-28|title=Can tree campaigns curb climate change without harming grasslands?|url=https://scienceline.org/2021/05/can-tree-campaigns-curb-climate-change-without-harming-grasslands/|access-date=2021-06-01|website=Scienceline|language=en-US}}</ref> This ecological change is linked to the disturbance of [[Hydrology|ecohydrological]] processes.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honda E. A.|author2=Durigan G.|date=2016|title=Woody encroachment and its consequences on hydrological processes in the savannah|journal=Phil. Trans. R. Soc.|volume=B37120150313|issue=1703|doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0313|pmc=4978871|pmid=27502378|doi-access=free}}</ref> In some areas of the Cerrado, open grassland and wetlands has largely disappeared.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gonçalves|first1=Rogério Victor S.|last2=Cardoso|first2=João Custódio F.|last3=Oliveira|first3=Paulo Eugênio|last4=Oliveira|first4=Denis Coelho|date=30 March 2021|title=Changes in the Cerrado vegetation structure: insights from more than three decades of ecological succession|url=https://we.copernicus.org/articles/21/55/2021/|journal=Web Ecology|volume=21|issue=1|pages=55–64|doi=10.5194/we-21-55-2021|s2cid=233417795|issn=1399-1183}}</ref> A contributing factor to the loss of the natural Cerrado savanna ecosystem is the planting of monocultures, such as pine, for wood production. When pine is removed and plantations abandoned, areas turn into low-diversity forests lacking savanna species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haddad|first1=Thaís Mazzafera|last2=Pilon|first2=Natashi Aparecida Lima|last3=Durigan|first3=Giselda|last4=Viani|first4=Ricardo Augusto Gorne|date=2021|title=Restoration of the Brazilian savanna after pine silviculture: Pine clearcutting is effective but not enough|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378112721002462|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=491|page=119158|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119158|s2cid=233541920}}</ref> Also in the highland grassland of Southern Brazil, bush encroachment caused by land management changes is seen as a significant threat biodiversity, human wellbeing and cultural heritage in grassland ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sühs|first=Rafael Barbizan|last2=Giehl|first2=Eduardo Luís Hettwer|last3=Peroni|first3=Nivaldo|date=December 2020|title=Preventing traditional management can cause grassland loss within 30 years in southern Brazil|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-57564-z|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=783|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-57564-z|issn=2045-2322|pmc=PMC6972928|pmid=31964935}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Overbeck|first1=G|last2=Muller|first2=S|last3=Fidelis|first3=A|last4=Pfadenhauer|first4=J|last5=Pillar|first5=V|last6=Blanco|first6=C|last7=Boldrini|first7=I|last8=Both|first8=R|last9=Forneck|first9=E|date=11 December 2007|title=Brazil's neglected biome: The South Brazilian Campos|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1433831907000303|journal=Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics|volume=9|issue=2|pages=101–116|doi=10.1016/j.ppees.2007.07.005}}</ref>
 ==== Nicaragua ====
@@ Line 55: / Line 55: @@
 [[File:Starr 070404-6610 Prosopis juliflora.jpg|thumb|right|250px|upright=2|alt= |Flowers of the [[Prosopis juliflora|''Prosopis juliflora'']] plant that is a common invasive species in [[Ethiopia]] and other countries]]
-Grasslands in the [[Borena Zone|Borana Zone]] in southern [[Ethiopia]] are found to be effected by bush encroachment, specifically by [[Senegalia mellifera|''Senegalia mellifera'']], [[Vachellia reficiens|''Vachellia reficiens'']] and [[Vachellia oerfota|''Vachellia oerfota'']].<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Fenetahun, Y. |author2=Yong-dong, W. |author3=You, Y.|date=2020|title=Dynamics of forage and land cover changes in Teltele district of Borana rangelands, southern Ethiopia: using geospatial and field survey data |title-link=doi |journal=BMC Ecol|volume=20, 55|issue=1|page=55|doi=10.1186/s12898-020-00320-8|pmid=33028276|pmc=7539436 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Coppock|first1=D. L.|last2=Gebru|first2=G.|last3=Mesele|first3=S.|last4=Desta|first4=S.|date=2008|title=Are Drought-Related Crashes in Pastoral Cattle Herds Predictable? More Evidence of Equilibrium Dynamics from Southern Ethiopian Rangelands|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Are-Drought-Related-Crashes-in-Pastoral-Cattle-More-Coppock-Gebru/cc14eaf3df39360934cbb95bde5ee96c115b306b|access-date=24 May 2021|website=undefined|s2cid=129766182|language=en}}</ref> Woody plants constitute 52% of vegetation cover.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dalle|first1=Gemedo|last2=Maass|first2=Brigitte L.|last3=Isselstein|first3=Johannes|date=June 2006|title=Encroachment of woody plants and its impact on pastoral livestock production in the Borana lowlands, southern Oromia, Ethiopia|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00638.x|journal=African Journal of Ecology|language=en|volume=44|issue=2|pages=237–246|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00638.x|issn=0141-6707}}</ref> This negatively affects species richness and diversity of plant species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haile|first1=Mebrahtu|last2=Birhane|first2=Emiru|last3=Rannestad|first3=Meley Mekonen|last4=Adaramola|first4=Muyiwa S.|date=1 June 2021|title=Expansive shrubs: Expansion factors and ecological impacts in northern Ethiopia|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1617138121000431|journal=Journal for Nature Conservation|volume=61|page=125996|doi=10.1016/j.jnc.2021.125996|issn=1617-1381}}</ref> Experiments have shown the effectiveness of bush control of different woody species by cutting and stem-burning, cutting with fire-browse combination, cutting and fire as well as cutting and browsing. Post-management techniques were effective in sustaining savanna ecology.<ref name=":31" /> In the Bale lowlands, woody encroachment is found to have increased by 546% between 1990 and 2020, transforming grassland into bushland.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Legese|first1=Behailu|last2=Balew|first2=Abel|date=July 2021|title=Land-use and land-cover change in the lowlands of Bale Zone, Ethiopia: its driving factors and impacts of rangeland dynamics in livestock mobility|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10661-021-09222-8|journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment|language=en|volume=193|issue=7|pages=453|doi=10.1007/s10661-021-09222-8|pmid=34181091|s2cid=235656444|issn=0167-6369}}</ref>
+Grasslands in the [[Borena Zone|Borana Zone]] in southern [[Ethiopia]] are found to be effected by bush encroachment, specifically by [[Senegalia mellifera|''Senegalia mellifera'']], [[Vachellia reficiens|''Vachellia reficiens'']] and [[Vachellia oerfota|''Vachellia oerfota'']].<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Fenetahun, Y. |author2=Yong-dong, W. |author3=You, Y.|date=2020|title=Dynamics of forage and land cover changes in Teltele district of Borana rangelands, southern Ethiopia: using geospatial and field survey data |title-link=doi |journal=BMC Ecol|volume=20, 55|issue=1|page=55|doi=10.1186/s12898-020-00320-8|pmid=33028276|pmc=7539436 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Coppock|first1=D. L.|last2=Gebru|first2=G.|last3=Mesele|first3=S.|last4=Desta|first4=S.|date=2008|title=Are Drought-Related Crashes in Pastoral Cattle Herds Predictable? More Evidence of Equilibrium Dynamics from Southern Ethiopian Rangelands|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Are-Drought-Related-Crashes-in-Pastoral-Cattle-More-Coppock-Gebru/cc14eaf3df39360934cbb95bde5ee96c115b306b|access-date=24 May 2021|website=undefined|s2cid=129766182|language=en}}</ref> Woody plants constitute 52% of vegetation cover.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dalle|first1=Gemedo|last2=Maass|first2=Brigitte L.|last3=Isselstein|first3=Johannes|date=June 2006|title=Encroachment of woody plants and its impact on pastoral livestock production in the Borana lowlands, southern Oromia, Ethiopia|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00638.x|journal=African Journal of Ecology|language=en|volume=44|issue=2|pages=237–246|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00638.x|issn=0141-6707}}</ref> This negatively affects species richness and diversity of plant species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haile|first1=Mebrahtu|last2=Birhane|first2=Emiru|last3=Rannestad|first3=Meley Mekonen|last4=Adaramola|first4=Muyiwa S.|date=1 June 2021|title=Expansive shrubs: Expansion factors and ecological impacts in northern Ethiopia|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1617138121000431|journal=Journal for Nature Conservation|volume=61|page=125996|doi=10.1016/j.jnc.2021.125996|issn=1617-1381}}</ref> Experiments have shown the effectiveness of bush control of different woody species by cutting and stem-burning, cutting with fire-browse combination, cutting and fire as well as cutting and browsing. Post-management techniques were effective in sustaining savanna ecology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hare|first=Malicha Loje|last2=Xu|first2=Xinwen|last3=Wang|first3=Yongdong|last4=Gedda|first4=Abule Ibro|date=December 2020|title=The effects of bush control methods on encroaching woody plants in terms of die-off and survival in Borana rangelands, southern Ethiopia|url=https://pastoralismjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13570-020-00171-4|journal=Pastoralism|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=16|doi=10.1186/s13570-020-00171-4|issn=2041-7136}}</ref> In the Bale lowlands, woody encroachment is found to have increased by 546% between 1990 and 2020, transforming grassland into bushland.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Legese|first1=Behailu|last2=Balew|first2=Abel|date=July 2021|title=Land-use and land-cover change in the lowlands of Bale Zone, Ethiopia: its driving factors and impacts of rangeland dynamics in livestock mobility|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10661-021-09222-8|journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment|language=en|volume=193|issue=7|pages=453|doi=10.1007/s10661-021-09222-8|pmid=34181091|s2cid=235656444|issn=0167-6369}}</ref>
 Woody encroachment has been found to reduce herbage yield and therewith rangeland productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Angassa|first=Ayana|date=2005|title=The ecological impact of bush encroachment on the yield of grasses in Borana rangeland ecosystem|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00429.x|journal=African Journal of Ecology|volume=43|issue=1|pages=14–20|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00429.x|issn=0141-6707}}</ref> Under woody encroachment, less meat and milk is produced per head of cattle, which challenges traditional pastoral diets.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Megersa|first1=Bekele|last2=Markemann|first2=André|last3=Angassa|first3=Ayana|last4=Valle Zárate|first4=Anne|date=February 2014|title=The role of livestock diversification in ensuring household food security under a changing climate in Borana, Ethiopia|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12571-013-0314-4|journal=Food Security|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=15–28|doi=10.1007/s12571-013-0314-4|s2cid=2064196|issn=1876-4517}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Forrest|first1=Brigham W.|last2=Coppock|first2=D. Layne|last3=Bailey|first3=DeeVon|last4=Ward|first4=Ruby A.|date=March 2016|title=Economic Analysis of Land and Livestock Management Interventions to Improve Resilience of a Pastoral Community in Southern Ethiopia|url=https://academic.oup.com/jae/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/jae/ejv021|journal=Journal of African Economies|language=en|volume=25|issue=2|pages=233–266|doi=10.1093/jae/ejv021|issn=0963-8024}}</ref>
@@ Line 64: / Line 64: @@
 ==== Kenya ====
-In Kenya, woody encroachment has been identified as a main type of land-cover change in grasslands, reducing the grazing availability for pastoralists.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becker|first1=Mathias|last2=Alvarez|first2=Miguel|last3=Heller|first3=Gereon|last4=Leparmarai|first4=Paul|last5=Maina|first5=Damaris|last6=Malombe|first6=Itambo|last7=Bollig|first7=Michael|last8=Vehrs|first8=Hauke|date=2 January 2016|title=Land-use changes and the invasion dynamics of shrubs in Baringo|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17531055.2016.1138664|journal=Journal of Eastern African Studies|volume=10|issue=1|pages=111–129|doi=10.1080/17531055.2016.1138664|s2cid=147128387|issn=1753-1055}}</ref> Studied areas show an increase of woodland by 39% and a decrease of grassland by 74%, with ''[[Vachellia reficiens]]'' and ''[[Vachellia nubica]]'' as a dominant species. Observed causes include overgrazing, suppression of wildfires, the reduction of rain as well as the introduction of bush seeds through smallstock<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Petersen|first1=Maike|last2=Bergmann|first2=Christoph|last3=Roden|first3=Paul|last4=Nüsser|first4=Marcus|date=6 April 2021|title=Contextualizing land‐use and land‐cover change with local knowledge: a case study from Pokot Central, Kenya|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ldr.3961|journal=Land Degradation & Development|volume=32|issue=10|pages=2992–3007|doi=10.1002/ldr.3961|s2cid=233558265|issn=1085-3278}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kibet|first1=Staline|last2=Nyangito|first2=Moses|last3=MacOpiyo|first3=Laban|last4=Kenfack|first4=David|date=July 2021|title=Savanna woody plants responses to mammalian herbivory and implications for management of livestock–wildlife landscape|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2688-8319.12083|journal=Ecological Solutions and Evidence|language=en|volume=2|issue=3|doi=10.1002/2688-8319.12083|s2cid=237743041|issn=2688-8319}}</ref> Older studies had suggested that an increase in bush cover by 10% reduces grazing by 7%, and grazing is eliminated completely by 90% bush cover.<ref name=":30" /> Also [[Euclea divinorum]] is a dominant encroaching species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wahungu|first1=Geoffrey M.|last2=Gichohi|first2=Nathan W.|last3=Onyango|first3=Irene A.|last4=Mureu|first4=Lucy K.|last5=Kamaru|first5=Douglas|last6=Mutisya|first6=Samuel|last7=Mulama|first7=Martin|last8=Makau|first8=Joseph K.|last9=Kimuyu|first9=Duncan M.|date=March 2013|title=Encroachment of open grasslands and Acacia drepanolobium Harms ex B.Y.Sjöstedt habitats by Euclea divinorum Hiern in Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Kenya|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aje.12017|journal=African Journal of Ecology|language=en|volume=51|issue=1|pages=130–138|doi=10.1111/aje.12017}}</ref> Adaptation strategies include the integration of browsers into the livestock mix, for example goats and camels.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kagunyu|first1=Anastasia W|last2=Wanjohi|first2=Joseph|date=December 2014|title=Camel rearing replacing cattle production among the Borana community in Isiolo County of Northern Kenya, as climate variability bites|url=http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/4/1/13|journal=Pastoralism|volume=4|issue=1|page=13|doi=10.1186/s13570-014-0013-6|s2cid=54071088|issn=2041-7136}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vehrs|first=Hauke-Peter|date=2 January 2016|title=Changes in landscape vegetation, forage plant composition and herding structure in the pastoralist livelihoods of East Pokot, Kenya|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17531055.2015.1134401|journal=Journal of Eastern African Studies|volume=10|issue=1|pages=88–110|doi=10.1080/17531055.2015.1134401|s2cid=147067911|issn=1753-1055}}</ref> In areas where [[Acacia mellifera|''Acacia mellifera'']] encroaches, manual bush thinning during the late dry season combined with reseeding of native grasses and soil conservation measures, proved to be an effective restoration measure with 34% improvement in perennial grass cover.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kimiti|first1=David W.|last2=Ganguli|first2=Amy C.|last3=Herrick|first3=Jeffrey E.|last4=Bailey|first4=Derek W.|date=June 2020|title=Evaluation of Restoration Success to Inform Future Restoration Efforts in Acacia reficiens Invaded Rangelands in Northern Kenya|url=http://er.uwpress.org/lookup/doi/10.3368/er.38.2.105|journal=Ecological Restoration|language=en|volume=38|issue=2|pages=105–113|doi=10.3368/er.38.2.105|s2cid=219223577|issn=1543-4060}}</ref>
+In Kenya, woody encroachment has been identified as a main type of land-cover change in grasslands, reducing the grazing availability for pastoralists.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becker|first1=Mathias|last2=Alvarez|first2=Miguel|last3=Heller|first3=Gereon|last4=Leparmarai|first4=Paul|last5=Maina|first5=Damaris|last6=Malombe|first6=Itambo|last7=Bollig|first7=Michael|last8=Vehrs|first8=Hauke|date=2 January 2016|title=Land-use changes and the invasion dynamics of shrubs in Baringo|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17531055.2016.1138664|journal=Journal of Eastern African Studies|volume=10|issue=1|pages=111–129|doi=10.1080/17531055.2016.1138664|s2cid=147128387|issn=1753-1055}}</ref> Studied areas show an increase of woodland by 39% and a decrease of grassland by 74%, with ''[[Vachellia reficiens]]'' and ''[[Vachellia nubica]]'' as a dominant species. Observed causes include overgrazing, suppression of wildfires, the reduction of rain as well as the introduction of bush seeds through smallstock<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Petersen|first1=Maike|last2=Bergmann|first2=Christoph|last3=Roden|first3=Paul|last4=Nüsser|first4=Marcus|date=6 April 2021|title=Contextualizing land‐use and land‐cover change with local knowledge: a case study from Pokot Central, Kenya|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ldr.3961|journal=Land Degradation & Development|volume=32|issue=10|pages=2992–3007|doi=10.1002/ldr.3961|s2cid=233558265|issn=1085-3278}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kibet|first1=Staline|last2=Nyangito|first2=Moses|last3=MacOpiyo|first3=Laban|last4=Kenfack|first4=David|date=July 2021|title=Savanna woody plants responses to mammalian herbivory and implications for management of livestock–wildlife landscape|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2688-8319.12083|journal=Ecological Solutions and Evidence|language=en|volume=2|issue=3|doi=10.1002/2688-8319.12083|s2cid=237743041|issn=2688-8319}}</ref> Older studies had suggested that an increase in bush cover by 10% reduces grazing by 7%, and grazing is eliminated completely by 90% bush cover.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wijngaarden|first=Willem van|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/14337257|title=Elephants, trees, grass, grazers : relationships between climate, soils, vegetation, and large herbivores in a semi-arid savanna ecosystem (Tsavo, Kenya)|date=1985|publisher=International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences|isbn=90-6164-048-2|location=[Enschede, Netherlands]|oclc=14337257}}</ref> Also [[Euclea divinorum]] is a dominant encroaching species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wahungu|first1=Geoffrey M.|last2=Gichohi|first2=Nathan W.|last3=Onyango|first3=Irene A.|last4=Mureu|first4=Lucy K.|last5=Kamaru|first5=Douglas|last6=Mutisya|first6=Samuel|last7=Mulama|first7=Martin|last8=Makau|first8=Joseph K.|last9=Kimuyu|first9=Duncan M.|date=March 2013|title=Encroachment of open grasslands and Acacia drepanolobium Harms ex B.Y.Sjöstedt habitats by Euclea divinorum Hiern in Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Kenya|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aje.12017|journal=African Journal of Ecology|language=en|volume=51|issue=1|pages=130–138|doi=10.1111/aje.12017}}</ref> Adaptation strategies include the integration of browsers into the livestock mix, for example goats and camels.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kagunyu|first1=Anastasia W|last2=Wanjohi|first2=Joseph|date=December 2014|title=Camel rearing replacing cattle production among the Borana community in Isiolo County of Northern Kenya, as climate variability bites|url=http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/4/1/13|journal=Pastoralism|volume=4|issue=1|page=13|doi=10.1186/s13570-014-0013-6|s2cid=54071088|issn=2041-7136}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vehrs|first=Hauke-Peter|date=2 January 2016|title=Changes in landscape vegetation, forage plant composition and herding structure in the pastoralist livelihoods of East Pokot, Kenya|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17531055.2015.1134401|journal=Journal of Eastern African Studies|volume=10|issue=1|pages=88–110|doi=10.1080/17531055.2015.1134401|s2cid=147067911|issn=1753-1055}}</ref> In areas where [[Acacia mellifera|''Acacia mellifera'']] encroaches, manual bush thinning during the late dry season combined with reseeding of native grasses and soil conservation measures, proved to be an effective restoration measure with 34% improvement in perennial grass cover.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kimiti|first1=David W.|last2=Ganguli|first2=Amy C.|last3=Herrick|first3=Jeffrey E.|last4=Bailey|first4=Derek W.|date=June 2020|title=Evaluation of Restoration Success to Inform Future Restoration Efforts in Acacia reficiens Invaded Rangelands in Northern Kenya|url=http://er.uwpress.org/lookup/doi/10.3368/er.38.2.105|journal=Ecological Restoration|language=en|volume=38|issue=2|pages=105–113|doi=10.3368/er.38.2.105|s2cid=219223577|issn=1543-4060}}</ref>
-In the [[Baringo County]] of Kenya, up to 30% of grasslands have disappeared due to the invasion of ''[[Prosopis juliflora]]''.<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mbaabu|first1=Purity Rima|last2=Ng|first2=Wai-Tim|last3=Schaffner|first3=Urs|last4=Gichaba|first4=Maina|last5=Olago|first5=Daniel|last6=Choge|first6=Simon|last7=Oriaso|first7=Silas|last8=Eckert|first8=Sandra|date=22 May 2019|title=Spatial Evolution of Prosopis Invasion and its Effects on LULC and Livelihoods in Baringo, Kenya|journal=Remote Sensing|volume=11|issue=10|page=1217|doi=10.3390/rs11101217|bibcode=2019RemS...11.1217M|issn=2072-4292|doi-access=free}}</ref> Clearing ''Prosopis'' ''juliflora'' to restore grasslands can increase soil organic carbon and generate value through carbon credit schemes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eschen|first1=René|last2=Bekele|first2=Ketema|last3=Mbaabu|first3=Purity Rima|last4=Kilawe|first4=Charles Joseph|last5=Eckert|first5=Sandra|date=28 March 2021|editor-last=Zenni|editor-first=Rafael|title=Prosopis juliflora management and grassland restoration in Baringo County, Kenya: Opportunities for soil carbon sequestration and local livelihoods|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13854|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=58|issue=6|pages=1365–2664.13854|doi=10.1111/1365-2664.13854|s2cid=233683243|issn=0021-8901}}</ref>
+In the [[Baringo County]] of Kenya, up to 30% of grasslands have disappeared due to the invasion of ''[[Prosopis juliflora]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mbaabu|first=Purity Rima|last2=Olago|first2=Daniel|last3=Gichaba|first3=Maina|last4=Eckert|first4=Sandra|last5=Eschen|first5=René|last6=Oriaso|first6=Silas|last7=Choge|first7=Simon Kosgei|last8=Linders|first8=Theo Edmund Werner|last9=Schaffner|first9=Urs|date=December 2020|title=Restoration of degraded grasslands, but not invasion by Prosopis juliflora, avoids trade-offs between climate change mitigation and other ecosystem services|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-77126-7|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20391|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-77126-7|issn=2045-2322|pmc=PMC7686326|pmid=33235254}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mbaabu|first1=Purity Rima|last2=Ng|first2=Wai-Tim|last3=Schaffner|first3=Urs|last4=Gichaba|first4=Maina|last5=Olago|first5=Daniel|last6=Choge|first6=Simon|last7=Oriaso|first7=Silas|last8=Eckert|first8=Sandra|date=22 May 2019|title=Spatial Evolution of Prosopis Invasion and its Effects on LULC and Livelihoods in Baringo, Kenya|journal=Remote Sensing|volume=11|issue=10|page=1217|doi=10.3390/rs11101217|bibcode=2019RemS...11.1217M|issn=2072-4292|doi-access=free}}</ref> Clearing ''Prosopis'' ''juliflora'' to restore grasslands can increase soil organic carbon and generate value through carbon credit schemes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eschen|first1=René|last2=Bekele|first2=Ketema|last3=Mbaabu|first3=Purity Rima|last4=Kilawe|first4=Charles Joseph|last5=Eckert|first5=Sandra|date=28 March 2021|editor-last=Zenni|editor-first=Rafael|title=Prosopis juliflora management and grassland restoration in Baringo County, Kenya: Opportunities for soil carbon sequestration and local livelihoods|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.13854|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=58|issue=6|pages=1365–2664.13854|doi=10.1111/1365-2664.13854|s2cid=233683243|issn=0021-8901}}</ref>
 ==== Tanzania ====
@@ Line 121: / Line 121: @@
 [[File:Late afternoon in the Okavango savanna.jpg|thumb|right|250px|upright=2|alt= |Healthy savanna landscape in Botswana]]
-Bush encroachment in Botswana has been documented from as far back as 1971.<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vegten|first=J. A.|date=April 1984|title=Thornbush invasion in a savanna ecosystem in eastern Botswana|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00036129|journal=Vegetatio|volume=56|issue=1|pages=3–7|doi=10.1007/bf00036129|issn=0042-3106|s2cid=29215146}}</ref> Around 3.7&nbsp;million hectares of land in [[Botswana]] is affected by bush encroachment, that is over 6% of the total land area. Encroaching species include [[Vachellia tortilis|''Acacia tortilis'']], ''Acacia erubescens'', ''[[Senegalia mellifera|Acacia mellifera]]'', ''[[Dichrostachys cinerea]]'', ''Grewia flava'', and ''[[Terminalia sericea]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moleele|first1=N.M.|last2=Ringrose|first2=S.|last3=Matheson|first3=W.|last4=Vanderpost|first4=C.|date=January 2002|title=More woody plants? the status of bush encroachment in Botswana's grazing areas|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301479701904864|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|volume=64|issue=1|pages=3–11|doi=10.1006/jema.2001.0486|pmid=11876072}}</ref> Ecological surveys found bush encroachment affecting both communal grazing areas and private farmland, with particular prevalence in semi-arid ecosystems.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dougill|first1=Andrew J.|last2=Akanyang|first2=Lawrence|last3=Perkins|first3=Jeremy S.|last4=Eckardt|first4=Frank D.|last5=Stringer|first5=Lindsay C.|last6=Favretto|first6=Nicola|last7=Atlhopheng|first7=Julius|last8=Mulale|first8=Kutlwano|date=March 2016|title=Land use, rangeland degradation and ecological changes in the southern Kalahari, Botswana|journal=African Journal of Ecology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=59–67|doi=10.1111/aje.12265|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ringrose|first1=Susan|last2=Vanderpost|first2=Cornelis|last3=Matheson|first3=Wilma|date=July 1996|title=The use of integrated remotely sensed and GIS data to determine causes of vegetation cover change in southern Botswana|journal=Applied Geography|volume=16|issue=3|pages=225–242|doi=10.1016/0143-6228(96)00005-7}}</ref> Encroachment is considered a key form of land degradation, mainly because of the country's significant dependence on agricultural productivity.<ref name=":36" /> In selected areas, [[charcoal]] production has been introduced as a measure to reduce bush densities.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mmolai|first=Esther|date=23 January 2018|title=Botswana: Savannah Degradation Threatens Country|work=AllAfrica|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201801240243.html|access-date=8 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Keakabetse|first=Boniface|date=5 December 2017|title=North-West communities pilot climate smart projects|work=Mmegi Online|url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?aid=73490&dir=2017/december/0|access-date=8 June 2020}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{cite journal|last1=Charis|first1=Gratitude|last2=Danha|first2=Gwiranai|last3=Muzenda|first3=Edison|date=1 January 2019|title=Waste valorisation opportunities for bush encroacher biomass in savannah ecosystems: A comparative case analysis of Botswana and Namibia|journal=Procedia Manufacturing|volume=35|pages=974–979|doi=10.1016/j.promfg.2019.06.044|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Motsamai|first=Mmoniemang|date=23 March 2021|title=Botswana: Kereng Outlines Projects|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/202103230428.html|access-date=29 March 2021|website=allAfrica.com}}</ref>
+Bush encroachment in Botswana has been documented from as far back as 1971.<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vegten|first=J. A.|date=April 1984|title=Thornbush invasion in a savanna ecosystem in eastern Botswana|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00036129|journal=Vegetatio|volume=56|issue=1|pages=3–7|doi=10.1007/bf00036129|issn=0042-3106|s2cid=29215146}}</ref> Around 3.7&nbsp;million hectares of land in [[Botswana]] is affected by bush encroachment, that is over 6% of the total land area. Encroaching species include [[Vachellia tortilis|''Acacia tortilis'']], ''Acacia erubescens'', ''[[Senegalia mellifera|Acacia mellifera]]'', ''[[Dichrostachys cinerea]]'', ''Grewia flava'', and ''[[Terminalia sericea]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moleele|first1=N.M.|last2=Ringrose|first2=S.|last3=Matheson|first3=W.|last4=Vanderpost|first4=C.|date=January 2002|title=More woody plants? the status of bush encroachment in Botswana's grazing areas|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301479701904864|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|volume=64|issue=1|pages=3–11|doi=10.1006/jema.2001.0486|pmid=11876072}}</ref> Ecological surveys found bush encroachment affecting both communal grazing areas and private farmland, with particular prevalence in semi-arid ecosystems.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dougill|first1=Andrew J.|last2=Akanyang|first2=Lawrence|last3=Perkins|first3=Jeremy S.|last4=Eckardt|first4=Frank D.|last5=Stringer|first5=Lindsay C.|last6=Favretto|first6=Nicola|last7=Atlhopheng|first7=Julius|last8=Mulale|first8=Kutlwano|date=March 2016|title=Land use, rangeland degradation and ecological changes in the southern Kalahari, Botswana|journal=African Journal of Ecology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=59–67|doi=10.1111/aje.12265|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ringrose|first1=Susan|last2=Vanderpost|first2=Cornelis|last3=Matheson|first3=Wilma|date=July 1996|title=The use of integrated remotely sensed and GIS data to determine causes of vegetation cover change in southern Botswana|journal=Applied Geography|volume=16|issue=3|pages=225–242|doi=10.1016/0143-6228(96)00005-7}}</ref> Encroachment is considered a key form of land degradation, mainly because of the country's significant dependence on agricultural productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reed|first=M.S.|last2=Stringer|first2=L.C.|last3=Dougill|first3=A.J.|last4=Perkins|first4=J.S.|last5=Atlhopheng|first5=J.R.|last6=Mulale|first6=K.|last7=Favretto|first7=N.|date=March 2015|title=Reorienting land degradation towards sustainable land management: Linking sustainable livelihoods with ecosystem services in rangeland systems|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301479714005362|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|language=en|volume=151|pages=472–485|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.11.010}}</ref> In selected areas, [[charcoal]] production has been introduced as a measure to reduce bush densities.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mmolai|first=Esther|date=23 January 2018|title=Botswana: Savannah Degradation Threatens Country|work=AllAfrica|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201801240243.html|access-date=8 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Keakabetse|first=Boniface|date=5 December 2017|title=North-West communities pilot climate smart projects|work=Mmegi Online|url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?aid=73490&dir=2017/december/0|access-date=8 June 2020}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{cite journal|last1=Charis|first1=Gratitude|last2=Danha|first2=Gwiranai|last3=Muzenda|first3=Edison|date=1 January 2019|title=Waste valorisation opportunities for bush encroacher biomass in savannah ecosystems: A comparative case analysis of Botswana and Namibia|journal=Procedia Manufacturing|volume=35|pages=974–979|doi=10.1016/j.promfg.2019.06.044|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Motsamai|first=Mmoniemang|date=23 March 2021|title=Botswana: Kereng Outlines Projects|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/202103230428.html|access-date=29 March 2021|website=allAfrica.com}}</ref>
 ==== South Africa ====
-In South Africa bush encroachment entails the abundance of indigenous woody vegetation in [[grassland]] and [[savanna]] biomes.<ref name=":10"/> These biomes make up 27.9% and 32.5% of the land surface area. About 7.3&nbsp;million hectares are directly affected by bush encroachment, impacting rural communities socio-economically.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Jane Turpie |author2=Pieter Botha |author3=Kevin Coldrey |author4=Katherine Forsythe |author5=Tony Knowles |author6=Gwyneth Letley |author7=Jessica Allen |author8=Ruan de Wet |website=Department of Environmental Affairs |title=Towards a Policy on Indigenous Bush Encroachment in South Africa|year=2019|url=https://www.environment.gov.za/sites/default/files/reports/indigenousbushencroachment_policybrief.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=T.K.J. Sebitloane |author2=H. Coetzee |author3=K. Kellner |author4=P. Malan|date=2020|title=The socio-economic impacts of bush encroachment in Manthestad, Taung, South Africa |journal=Environmental & Socio-economic Studies|volume= 8: Issue 3|issue=3|pages=1–11|doi=10.2478/environ-2020-0013 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Common encroaching species include [[Vachellia karroo|''Vachellia karoo'']], [[Senegalia mellifera|''Senegalia mellifera'']], [[Dichrostachys cinerea|''Dichrostachys cinera'']], ''Rhus undulata'' and ''[[Rhigozum]] trichotomum''.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61697614|title=Grasslands of the world|date=2005|publisher=Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations|others=Suttie, J. M., Reynolds, Stephen G., Batello, Caterina., Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.|isbn=92-5-105337-5|location=Rome|oclc=61697614}}</ref>
+In South Africa bush encroachment entails the abundance of indigenous woody vegetation in [[grassland]] and [[savanna]] biomes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hottman|first=M.T.|last2=O'Connor|first2=T.G.|date=July 1999|title=Vegetation change over 40 years in the Weenen/Muden area, KwaZulu-Natal: evidence from photo-panoramas|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2989/10220119909485721|journal=African Journal of Range & Forage Science|language=en|volume=16|issue=2-3|pages=71–88|doi=10.2989/10220119909485721|issn=1022-0119}}</ref> These biomes make up 27.9% and 32.5% of the land surface area. About 7.3&nbsp;million hectares are directly affected by bush encroachment, impacting rural communities socio-economically.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Jane Turpie |author2=Pieter Botha |author3=Kevin Coldrey |author4=Katherine Forsythe |author5=Tony Knowles |author6=Gwyneth Letley |author7=Jessica Allen |author8=Ruan de Wet |website=Department of Environmental Affairs |title=Towards a Policy on Indigenous Bush Encroachment in South Africa|year=2019|url=https://www.environment.gov.za/sites/default/files/reports/indigenousbushencroachment_policybrief.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=T.K.J. Sebitloane |author2=H. Coetzee |author3=K. Kellner |author4=P. Malan|date=2020|title=The socio-economic impacts of bush encroachment in Manthestad, Taung, South Africa |journal=Environmental & Socio-economic Studies|volume= 8: Issue 3|issue=3|pages=1–11|doi=10.2478/environ-2020-0013 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Common encroaching species include [[Vachellia karroo|''Vachellia karoo'']], [[Senegalia mellifera|''Senegalia mellifera'']], [[Dichrostachys cinerea|''Dichrostachys cinera'']], ''Rhus undulata'' and ''[[Rhigozum]] trichotomum''.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61697614|title=Grasslands of the world|date=2005|publisher=Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations|others=Suttie, J. M., Reynolds, Stephen G., Batello, Caterina., Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.|isbn=92-5-105337-5|location=Rome|oclc=61697614}}</ref>
 Through the public works and conservation programme Working for Water, the government of South Africa allocated approximately 100 million USD per annum for the management of native encroaching species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van Wilgen|first1=Brian W|last2=Wannenburgh|first2=Andrew|date=2016|title=Co-facilitating invasive species control, water conservation and poverty relief: achievements and challenges in South Africa's Working for Water programme|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877343515000962|journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability|volume=19|pages=7–17|doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2015.08.012|hdl=10019.1/112990}}</ref> Land users in South Africa commonly combat woody encroachment through clear felling, burning, intensive browsing or chemical control in the form of [[herbicide]] application.<ref name=":11"/> Studies have found a positive effect of bush thinning on grass biomass production over short periods of time.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kellner, Klaus, Mangani, Reletile T., Sebitloane, Tshegofatso J.K., Chirima, Johannes G., Meyer, Nadine, Coetzee, Hendri C., Malan, Pieter W., & Koch, Jaco|date=2021|title=Restoration after bush control in selected range-land areas of semi-arid savannas in South Africa|url=http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0006-82412021000100007|journal=African Biodiversity & Conservation|volume=51|issue=1|pages=1–13|doi=10.38201/btha.abc.v51.i1.7|s2cid=232410555}}</ref>
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 ==== Eswatini ====
-Studies in the [[Lowveld]] savannas of [[Eswatini]] confirm different heavy woody plant encroachment, especially by [[Dichrostachys cinerea|''Dichrostachys cinerea'']], among other factors related to grazing pressure. In selected study areas the shrub encroachment increased from 2% in 1947 to 31% in 1990. In some affected areas, frequent fires, coupled with drought, reduced bush densities over time.<ref name=":8"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Beyene, S. T.|date=2015|title=Rangeland Degradation in a Semi‐Arid Communal Savannah of Swaziland: Long–Term DIP‐Tank Use Effects on Woody Plant Structure, Cover and their Indigenous Use in Three Soil Types|journal=Land Degrad. Develop.|volume=26|issue=4|pages=311–323|doi=10.1002/ldr.2203}}</ref>
+Studies in the [[Lowveld]] savannas of [[Eswatini]] confirm different heavy woody plant encroachment, especially by [[Dichrostachys cinerea|''Dichrostachys cinerea'']], among other factors related to grazing pressure. In selected study areas the shrub encroachment increased from 2% in 1947 to 31% in 1990. In some affected areas, frequent fires, coupled with drought, reduced bush densities over time.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roques|first=K.G.|last2=O'Connor|first2=T.G.|last3=Watkinson|first3=A.R.|date=April 2001|title=Dynamics of shrub encroachment in an African savanna: relative influences of fire, herbivory, rainfall and density dependence: Dynamics and causes of shrub encroachment|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1046/j.1365-2664.2001.00567.x|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|language=en|volume=38|issue=2|pages=268–280|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2664.2001.00567.x}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Beyene, S. T.|date=2015|title=Rangeland Degradation in a Semi‐Arid Communal Savannah of Swaziland: Long–Term DIP‐Tank Use Effects on Woody Plant Structure, Cover and their Indigenous Use in Three Soil Types|journal=Land Degrad. Develop.|volume=26|issue=4|pages=311–323|doi=10.1002/ldr.2203}}</ref>
 ==== Zambia ====
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 ==== Zimbabwe ====
-There is evidence of woody plant encroachment in Zimbabwe, among others by [[Vachellia karroo|''Vachellia karroo'']].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mzezewa, J. and J. Gotosa.|date=2009|title=Bush encroachment in Zimbabwe: a preliminary observation on soil properties.|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Bush-encroachment-in-Zimbabwe%3A-a-preliminary-on-Mzezewa-Gotosa/a96b505236dc0a22c63dbcbb619bd6a21809929f|journal=Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa|volume=11|pages=298–318|s2cid=127911174}}</ref> Document notions of woody encroachment in Zimbabwe and its impact on land use date back to 1945.<ref name=":39" /><ref name=":40" />
+There is evidence of woody plant encroachment in Zimbabwe, among others by [[Vachellia karroo|''Vachellia karroo'']].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mzezewa, J. and J. Gotosa.|date=2009|title=Bush encroachment in Zimbabwe: a preliminary observation on soil properties.|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Bush-encroachment-in-Zimbabwe%3A-a-preliminary-on-Mzezewa-Gotosa/a96b505236dc0a22c63dbcbb619bd6a21809929f|journal=Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa|volume=11|pages=298–318|s2cid=127911174}}</ref> Document notions of woody encroachment in Zimbabwe and its impact on land use date back to 1945.<ref>Staples, R.R. 1945. Veld Burning. Rhodesian Agricultural Journal 42, 44-52.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=West|first=O|date=1947|title=Thorn bush encroachment in relation to the management of veld grazing.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/thorn-bush-encroachment-in-relation-to-the-management-of-veld-grazing/oclc/709537921|journal=The Rhodesia Agricultural Journal|language=English|volume=44|issue=5|pages=488–497|oclc=709537921}}</ref>
 === Other ecoregions ===