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The testing effect (also known as retrieval practice, practice testing, or test-enhanced learning) ^[1]^[2]^[3] suggests long-term memory is increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving information from memory.^[4] This can be done through tests with tools like flashcards and quizzes. The testing effect on memory should be distinguished from more general practice effects, defined in the APA Dictionary of Psychology (2007) as "any change or improvement that results from practice or repetition of task items or activities." ^[5] The term testing effect is also sometimes used in a more general sense; The Oxford Dictionary of Psychology (2003) defines a testing effect as "any effect of taking tests on the respondents, a typical example being test sophistication." Whereas psychologists who develop tests for personality and intelligence want to avoid practice effects, cognitive psychologists working with educators have begun to understand how to take advantage of tests—not as an assessment tool, but as a teaching tool.^[6]

Testing prior knowledge is more beneficial for learning when compared to reading or passively studying material, even more so when the test is more challenging for memory.^[7]

History

Before much experimental evidence had been collected, the utility of testing was already evident to some perceptive observers including Francis Bacon who discussed it as a learning strategy as early as 1620.^[8]

"Hence if you read a piece of text through twenty times, you will not learn it by heart so easily as if you read it ten times while attempting to recite it from time to time and consulting the text when your memory fails."

Towards the end of the 19th century, Harvard psychologist William James described the testing effect in the following section of his 1890 book "The Principles of Psychology"

"A curious peculiarity of our memory is that things are impressed better by active than by passive repetition. I mean that in learning (by heart, for example), when we almost know the piece, it pays better to wait and recollect by an effort from within, than to look at the book again. If we recover the words in the former way, we shall probably know them the next time; if in the latter way, we shall very likely need the book once more." ^[9]

The first documented empirical studies on the testing effect were published in 1909 by Edwina E. Abbott ^[10]^[11] which was followed up by research into the transfer and retrieval of prior learning. ^[12]^[13] In his 1932 book Psychology of Study, C. A. Mace said:

"On the matter of sheer repetitive drill there is another principle of the highest importance: Active repetition is very much more effective than passive repetition. ... there are two ways of introducing further repetitions. We may re-read this list: this is passive repetition. We may recall it to mind without reference to the text before forgetting has begun: this is active repetition. It has been found that when acts of reading and acts of recall alternate, i.e., when every reading is followed by an attempt to recall the items, the efficiency of learning and retention is enormously enhanced."^[14]

Studies in retrieval practice started in 1987 by John. L Richards, who published his findings in a newspaper in New York. ^{[citation needed]} Much of the confusion around early studies could have been due to constrained approaches not accounting for context. ^[15] In more recent research with contributions from Hal Pashler, Henry Roediger and many others, testing knowledge can produce better learning, ^[16]^[17]^[18] transfer, ^[19] and retrieval ^[20] results when compared to other forms of study ^[17] that often use recognition ^[21] like re-reading ^[22] or highlighting. ^[23]

Retrieval practice

In recent research storage strength, (how well an item is learned), and retrieval strength (how well an item can be retrieved) ^[24] have become separate measures for retrieval practice. ^[25] Retrieval strength (also known as recall accuracy) is typically higher for restudied words when tested immediately after practice, whereas tested words were higher as time moves on. ^[26] This suggests using tests are more beneficial for long term memory and retrieval ^[27]^[28] which some authors believe is due to limited retrieval success during practice ^[25]^[26]^[29] supporting the idea that tests are learning opportunities. ^[30]

Functional magnetic resonance imaging suggests that retrieval practice strengthens subsequent retention of learning through a "dual action" affecting the anterior and posterior hippocampus regions of the brain.^[31] This could support findings that individual differences in personality traits or with working memory capacity, don't seem to have any negative impacts of the testing effect, ^[32] with a greater impact for lower ability individuals. ^[33]

Despite some doubting knowledge transfer across a topic when testing ^[34] with some studies showing contradictory evidence ^[35] suggesting recognition was better than recall, ^[36] inferential thinking has been supported ^[37] and the transfer of learning is at its strongest with application of theory to practice, inference questions, medical education,^[38] and problems involving medical diagnosis. ^[39] The transfer can occur across domains, ^[15] paradigms, ^[40] and help retention for material not on a final test. ^[41] Using retrieval practices also produces less forgetting than studying and restudying ^[42] while helping to identify misconceptions and errors ^[43]^[44]^[45] with effects lasting years. ^[46]

Repeated testing

Repeated testing have shown statistical significance ^[47] and results getting better than repeated studying ^[48]^[49] which could be due to testing creating multiple retrieval routes for memory, ^[50]allowing individuals to form lasting connections between items, ^[51] or blocking information together ^[52] which can help with memory retention ^[53] and schema recall. ^[54] Using spaced repetition has shown an increase on the testing effect ^[55]^[56] with a greater impact with a delay in testing, ^[57] but the delay could lead to forgetting ^[58] or retrieval-induced forgetting.

Delaying the test after a session can have a greater impact ^[59] so studying in the day should be tested in the evening with a delay, but studying in the evening should have an immediate test due the effect sleep has on memory. ^[60] Despite divided attention being thought to decrease the testing effect, if it is from a different medium it could enhance the effect. ^[35]

The rate of forgetting is not affected by the speed ^[61] or degree of learning ^[62] but by the type of practice involved. ^[59]

Test difficulty

According to the retrieval effort hypothesis, "difficult but successful retrievals are better for memory than easier successful retrievals" which supports the idea of finding a desirable difficulty within the retrieval practice. ^[24] Learning a language was better when using unfamiliar words compared to familiar words, supporting higher difficulty resulting in greater learning. ^[63] The difficulty relates to the likelihood of forgetting ^[64] as the harder it is to remember, the more likely you are to remember and retain the information ^[65] supporting the notion that more effort is required for longer lasting retention ^[66] similar to the depth of processing at encoding. ^[67] Therefore lack of effort from students studying could be a factor that reduces its efficiency.^[68]

Increased difficulty shows decreased initial performance but increased performance on harder tests in the future, so retention and transfer suffer less when training is difficult. ^[52] Even unsuccessful retrieval can enhance learning, ^[69] as creating the thought helps with retention ^[70] due to the generation effect. ^[71]^[72] Like with processing time, it is the qualitative nature of the information that determines retention. ^[67]

Getting feedback helps with learning ^[73] but finding a desirable difficulty for the test combined with feedback ^[74] is more beneficial than studying or testing without feedback.^[75]^[76] The Read, Recite, Review method ^[77] has been proposed as a method to combine retrieval practice with feedback. ^[78]

Test format

The test format doesn't seem to impact the results as it is the process of retrieval that aids the learning ^[79] but transfer-appropriate processing suggests that if the encoding of information is through a format similar to the retrieval format then the test results are likely to be higher, with a mismatch causing lower results. ^[80] However, when short-answer tests or essays are used ^[81]^[82] greater gains in results are seen when compared to multiple-choice test ^[83]

Cued recall can make retrieval easier ^[84] as it reduces the required retrieval strength from an individual which can help short term results, ^[85] but can hinder long term retrieval overtime due to reduced retrieval demand during practice. ^[86] Quicker learning can reduce the rate of forgetting for a short period of time, but the effect doesn't last as long as more effortful retrieval. ^[87] Cueing can be seen when encoding new information overlaps with prior knowledge making retrieval easier ^[88]^[89] or from a visual or auditory aid.

Prior knowledge seems to increase the impact of retrieval practice ^[90] meaning pre-testing can be used to get greater results, ^[91]^[92] and the post-testing can be used to facilitate learning and memory of newly studied information, known as the forward testing effect. ^[93] Pre-test or practice test accuracy doesn't predict post test results as time affects forgetting ^[94] but pre-testing contributes to learning and prior knowledge and has shown to help in language learning. ^[63]^[95]

Practice methods

When compared to concept mapping alone, retrieval practice is more beneficial, ^[96]^[97] despite students not seeing retrieval practice as a useful learning tool. ^[98] When combined, learner performance was increased, suggesting concept mapping is a tool that should be combined with retrieval practice ^[99] alongside other non-verbal responses. ^[100] Retrieval helps with mental organization ^[101] which can work well with concept mapping. Multimedia testing can be used ^[102] alongside flashcards as a method of retrieval practice but removing cards to early can result in lower long term retention. ^[103] Individuals may not correctly interpret the outcome of practice cards ^[104] contributing to dropped cards which impact future retrieval attempts ^[105] therefore resulting in lower results due to increased forgetting. ^[59]

It is advised that students, ^[106] people in care units ^[107] and teaching professionals ^[108]^[109] use distributed ^[110] retrieval practice ^[111] with feedback to aid their studies.^[112] Interleaved practice, self-explanation, ^[2] and elaborative interrogation ^[113] can be useful but need more research. ^[114] Summarization can be useful for individuals trained how to use to get the most from it. ^[115] Keyword mnemonics and imagery for text have been somewhat helpful but the effects are often short lived. ^[116]^[114] However, if each of these methods are integrated with retrieval elements the testing effect is more likely to occur.

Considerations

Learning using retrieval practice happens through recognizing prior learning and see if it is relevant, recalling knowledge that was previously learned, then using or applying that knowledge to execute task. ^[15]

The cognitive load theory supporters suggest the testing effect may disappear with increasing task difficulty due to increased element interactivity ^[117] which has been addressed in the literature with studies that show complex learning is increased by retrieval practice and positive testing effect.^[118]

For future research most studies were conducted in non-WEIRD which could cause a bias.^[119]

Test benefits

A list of benefits listed. ^[120]

Aids later retention
Identifies knowledge gaps
Aids future related learning
Prevents interference from prior material in future learning
Aids transfer of knowledge to new contexts
Aids knowledge organization
Aids retrieval of untested information
Improves metacognitive monitoring
Provides feedback to instructors
Frequent testing encourages study intentions

Quizzes

A meta-analysis found the following links between frequent low-stakes quizzes in real classes and improved student academic performance: ^[121]

There was an association between the use of quizzes and academic performance.
This association was stronger in psychology classes
This association was stronger in all classes when quiz performance could improve class grades.
Students doing well on quizzes tended to lead to students doing well on final exams
Regular quizzing increased the chances of students passing classes

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-{{Merge from |Active recall|date=December 2021|discuss=Talk:Active recall#Merge into testing effect?, March 2021}}[[File:Anki flashcard question and answer math.gif|thumb|[[Flashcard]]s are an application of the testing effect. Here, [[list of flashcard software|flashcard software]] [[Anki (software)|Anki]] is used to review a mathematical formula through [[active recall]]. First, only the question is displayed. Then the answer is displayed too, for verification.]]The '''testing effect''' (also known as '''retrieval practice''', '''practice testing''', or '''test-enhanced learning)''' <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Roediger|first1=H. L.|last2=Butler|first2=A. C.|date=2011|title=The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention|url=http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF's/Roediger%20&%20Butler%20%282011%29_TCS.pdf|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=15|issue=1|pages=20–27|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003|pmid=20951630|hdl-access=free|hdl=10818/24277|s2cid=11014168}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dunlosky|first1=J.|last2=Rawson|first2=K. A.|last3=Marsh|first3=E. J.|last4=Nathan|first4=M. J.|last5=Willingham|first5=D. T.|date=2013|title=Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/fafd4fb0b8d1c3a11a5a5d0ce70e7e47e7460fe8|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|volume=14|issue=1|pages=4–58|doi=10.1177/1529100612453266|pmid=26173288|s2cid=220053697}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Remember!|url=http://www.retrievalpractice.org|access-date=2016-03-12|website=Retrieval Practice: A Powerful Strategy to Improve Learning}}</ref> suggests [[long-term memory]] is increased when some of the [[learning]] period is devoted to retrieving information from memory.<ref>{{cite book|author=E. Bruce Goldstein|title=Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9TUIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-133-00912-2|page=231|date=2010-06-21}}</ref> This can be done through tests with tools like [[Flashcard|flashcards]] and quizzes. The testing effect on memory should be distinguished from more general '''practice effects''', defined in the APA Dictionary of Psychology (2007) as "any change or improvement that results from practice or repetition of task items or activities." <ref>{{Cite web|title=APA Dictionary of Psychology|url=https://dictionary.apa.org/|access-date=2021-12-04|website=dictionary.apa.org|language=en}}</ref> The term testing effect is also sometimes used in a more general sense; The Oxford Dictionary of Psychology (2003) defines a '''testing effect''' as "any effect of taking tests on the respondents, a typical example being test sophistication." Whereas psychologists who develop tests for personality and intelligence want to avoid practice effects, cognitive psychologists working with educators have begun to understand how to take advantage of tests—not as an assessment tool, but as a [[Education|teaching]] tool.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bae|first1=Christine L.|last2=Therriault|first2=David J.|last3=Redifer|first3=Jenni L.|date=2018|title=Investigating the testing effect: Retrieval as a characteristic of effective study strategies|journal=Learning and Instruction|volume=60|pages=206–214|doi=10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.12.008|issn=0959-4752}}</ref>
+{{Merge from |Active recall|date=December 2021|discuss=Talk:Active recall#Merge into testing effect?, March 2021}}[[File:Anki flashcard question and answer math.gif|thumb|[[Flashcard]]s are an application of the testing effect. Here, [[list of flashcard software|flashcard software]] [[Anki (software)|Anki]] is used to review a mathematical formula through [[active recall]]. First, only the question is displayed. Then the answer is displayed too, for verification.]]The '''testing effect''' (also known as '''retrieval practice''', '''practice testing''', or '''test-enhanced learning)''' <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Roediger|first1=H. L.|last2=Butler|first2=A. C.|date=2011|title=The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention|url=http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF's/Roediger%20&%20Butler%20%282011%29_TCS.pdf|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=15|issue=1|pages=20–27|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003|pmid=20951630|hdl-access=free|hdl=10818/24277|s2cid=11014168}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{cite journal|last1=Dunlosky|first1=J.|last2=Rawson|first2=K. A.|last3=Marsh|first3=E. J.|last4=Nathan|first4=M. J.|last5=Willingham|first5=D. T.|date=2013|title=Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/fafd4fb0b8d1c3a11a5a5d0ce70e7e47e7460fe8|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|volume=14|issue=1|pages=4–58|doi=10.1177/1529100612453266|pmid=26173288|s2cid=220053697}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Remember!|url=http://www.retrievalpractice.org|access-date=2016-03-12|website=Retrieval Practice: A Powerful Strategy to Improve Learning}}</ref> suggests [[long-term memory]] is increased when some of the [[learning]] period is devoted to retrieving information from memory.<ref>{{cite book|author=E. Bruce Goldstein|title=Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9TUIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-133-00912-2|page=231|date=2010-06-21}}</ref> This can be done through tests with tools like [[Flashcard|flashcards]] and quizzes. The testing effect on memory should be distinguished from more general '''practice effects''', defined in the APA Dictionary of Psychology (2007) as "any change or improvement that results from practice or repetition of task items or activities." <ref>{{Cite web|title=APA Dictionary of Psychology|url=https://dictionary.apa.org/|access-date=2021-12-04|website=dictionary.apa.org|language=en}}</ref> The term testing effect is also sometimes used in a more general sense; The Oxford Dictionary of Psychology (2003) defines a '''testing effect''' as "any effect of taking tests on the respondents, a typical example being test sophistication." Whereas psychologists who develop tests for personality and intelligence want to avoid practice effects, cognitive psychologists working with educators have begun to understand how to take advantage of tests—not as an assessment tool, but as a [[Education|teaching]] tool.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bae|first1=Christine L.|last2=Therriault|first2=David J.|last3=Redifer|first3=Jenni L.|date=2018|title=Investigating the testing effect: Retrieval as a characteristic of effective study strategies|journal=Learning and Instruction|volume=60|pages=206–214|doi=10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.12.008|issn=0959-4752}}</ref>
 Testing prior knowledge is more beneficial for learning when compared to reading or passively studying material, even more so when the test is more challenging for memory.<ref>{{cite web|date=9 December 2014|title=The Testing Effect|url=http://www.revunote.com/resources/the-testing-effect/|work=Revunote}}</ref>
@@ Line 6: / Line 6: @@
 Before much experimental evidence had been collected, the utility of testing was already evident to some perceptive observers including [[Francis Bacon]] who discussed it as a learning strategy as early as 1620.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bacon|first=Francis|title=The New Organon|date=2000|publisher=CAMBRIDGE TEXTS IN THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY|year=2000|isbn=0 511 01154 7|editor=Jardine|location=[Place of publication not identified]|pages=143|oclc=|editor2=Scott}}</ref>  <blockquote>
 ''"Hence if you read a piece of text through twenty times, you will not learn it by heart so easily as if you read it ten times while attempting to recite it from time to time and consulting the text when your memory fails."''  </blockquote>
-Towards the end of the 19th century, Harvard psychologist [[William James]] described the testing effect in the following section of his 1890 book "[[The Principles of Psychology]]" <blockquote>''"A curious peculiarity of our memory is that things are impressed better by active than by passive repetition. I mean that in learning (by heart, for example), when we almost know the piece, it pays better to wait and recollect by an effort from within, than to look at the book again. If we recover the words in the former way, we shall probably know them the next time; if in the latter way, we shall very likely need the book once more."'' <ref>{{Cite book|last=James|first=William|title=The Principles of Psychology Vol 1,|publisher=Holt|year=1890|location=New York|pages=Chapter 16 pg 686}}</ref></blockquote>The first documented empirical studies on the testing effect were published in 1909 by Edwina E. Abbott <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Abbott|first1=Edwina|date=1909|title=On the analysis of the factors of recall in the learning process|url=https://insights.ovid.com/psychological-monographs-general-applied/pmga/1909/11/010/analysis-factor-recall-learning-process/5/00006828|journal=Psychological Monographs: General and Applied|volume=11|issue=1|pages=159–177|doi=10.1037/h0093018|via=Ovid}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Larsen|first1=Douglas P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KW2rAAAAQBAJ&q=Test-enhanced+learning&pg=PA443|title=Test-enhanced learning|last2=Butler|first2=Andrew C.|date=2013|journal=In Oxford Textbook of Medical Education|isbn=9780199652679|editor-last=Walsh, K.|pages=443–452}}</ref> which was followed up by research into the transfer and retrieval of prior learning. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Experiments as the relative efficiency of men and women in memory & reasoning.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1926-03355-001|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-06|website=psycnet.apa.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Köhler|first=Wolfgang|date=1943|title=Review of The Psychology of Human Learning; An Introduction|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1417396|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=56|issue=3|pages=455–460|doi=10.2307/1417396|issn=0002-9556}}</ref> In his 1932 book ''Psychology of Study'', [[Cecil Alec Mace|C. A. Mace]] said: <blockquote>''"On the matter of sheer repetitive drill there is another principle of the highest importance: Active repetition is very much more effective than passive repetition. ... there are two ways of introducing further repetitions. We may re-read this list: this is passive repetition. We may recall it to mind without reference to the text before forgetting has begun: this is active repetition. It has been found that when acts of reading and acts of recall alternate, i.e., when every reading is followed by an attempt to recall the items, the efficiency of learning and retention is enormously enhanced."''<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mace|first1=C. A.|title=The Psychology of Study|date=1932|publisher=R.M. McBride & Co.|location=New York|page=39}}</ref> </blockquote>Studies in retrieval practice started in 1987 by John. L Richards, who published his findings in a newspaper in New York. {{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} Much of the confusion around early studies could have been due to constrained approaches not accounting for context. <ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Barnett|first=Susan M.|last2=Ceci|first2=Stephen J.|date=2002|title=When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12081085/|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=128|issue=4|pages=612–637|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612|issn=0033-2909|pmid=12081085}}</ref> In more recent research with contributions from [[Hal Pashler]], [[Henry L. Roediger III|Henry Roediger]] and many others, testing knowledge can produce better learning, <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Alan S.|date=1976|title=Review of Information Processing and Cognition: The Loyola Symposium|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1421430|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=89|issue=2|pages=357–361|doi=10.2307/1421430|issn=0002-9556}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{cite journal|last1=Carrier|first1=M.|last2=Pashler|first2=H.|date=1992|title=The influence of retrieval on retention|url=http://www.pashler.com/Articles/Carrier_Pashler_MemCog1992.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Memory & Cognition|volume=20|issue=6|pages=632–642|doi=10.3758/bf03202713|pmid=1435266|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924064817/http://www.pashler.com/Articles/Carrier_Pashler_MemCog1992.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015|access-date=17 August 2015|doi-access=free|s2cid=15893469}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Izawa|first=Chizuko|date=1971-05-01|title=The test trial potentiating model|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0022249671900125|journal=Journal of Mathematical Psychology|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=200–224|doi=10.1016/0022-2496(71)90012-5|issn=0022-2496}}</ref> transfer, <ref name=":6">{{cite journal|last1=McDaniel|first1=M. A.|last2=Roediger|first2=H. L.|last3=McDermott|first3=K. B.|year=2007|title=Generalizing test-enhanced learning from the laboratory to the classroom|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|volume=14|issue=2|pages=200–206|doi=10.3758/bf03194052|pmid=17694901|doi-access=free}}</ref> and retrieval <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Roediger|first=Henry L.|last2=Karpicke|first2=Jeffrey D.|date=September 2006|title=The Power of Testing Memory: Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=181–210|doi=10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x|issn=1745-6916}}</ref> results when compared to other forms of study <ref name=":10" /> that often use recognition. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kanak|first=N. Jack|last2=Neuner|first2=Sharon D.|date=1970|title=Associative symmetry and item availablity as a function of five methods of paired-associate acquisition.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/h0029975|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|language=en|volume=86|issue=2|pages=288–295|doi=10.1037/h0029975|issn=0022-1015}}</ref>
+Towards the end of the 19th century, Harvard psychologist [[William James]] described the testing effect in the following section of his 1890 book "[[The Principles of Psychology]]" <blockquote>''"A curious peculiarity of our memory is that things are impressed better by active than by passive repetition. I mean that in learning (by heart, for example), when we almost know the piece, it pays better to wait and recollect by an effort from within, than to look at the book again. If we recover the words in the former way, we shall probably know them the next time; if in the latter way, we shall very likely need the book once more."'' <ref>{{Cite book|last=James|first=William|title=The Principles of Psychology Vol 1,|publisher=Holt|year=1890|location=New York|pages=Chapter 16 pg 686}}</ref></blockquote>The first documented empirical studies on the testing effect were published in 1909 by Edwina E. Abbott <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Abbott|first1=Edwina|date=1909|title=On the analysis of the factors of recall in the learning process|url=https://insights.ovid.com/psychological-monographs-general-applied/pmga/1909/11/010/analysis-factor-recall-learning-process/5/00006828|journal=Psychological Monographs: General and Applied|volume=11|issue=1|pages=159–177|doi=10.1037/h0093018|via=Ovid}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Larsen|first1=Douglas P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KW2rAAAAQBAJ&q=Test-enhanced+learning&pg=PA443|title=Test-enhanced learning|last2=Butler|first2=Andrew C.|date=2013|journal=In Oxford Textbook of Medical Education|isbn=9780199652679|editor-last=Walsh, K.|pages=443–452}}</ref> which was followed up by research into the transfer and retrieval of prior learning. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Experiments as the relative efficiency of men and women in memory & reasoning.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1926-03355-001|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-06|website=psycnet.apa.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Köhler|first=Wolfgang|date=1943|title=Review of The Psychology of Human Learning; An Introduction|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1417396|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=56|issue=3|pages=455–460|doi=10.2307/1417396|issn=0002-9556}}</ref> In his 1932 book ''Psychology of Study'', [[Cecil Alec Mace|C. A. Mace]] said: <blockquote>''"On the matter of sheer repetitive drill there is another principle of the highest importance: Active repetition is very much more effective than passive repetition. ... there are two ways of introducing further repetitions. We may re-read this list: this is passive repetition. We may recall it to mind without reference to the text before forgetting has begun: this is active repetition. It has been found that when acts of reading and acts of recall alternate, i.e., when every reading is followed by an attempt to recall the items, the efficiency of learning and retention is enormously enhanced."''<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mace|first1=C. A.|title=The Psychology of Study|date=1932|publisher=R.M. McBride & Co.|location=New York|page=39}}</ref> </blockquote>Studies in retrieval practice started in 1987 by John. L Richards, who published his findings in a newspaper in New York. {{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} Much of the confusion around early studies could have been due to constrained approaches not accounting for context. <ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Barnett|first=Susan M.|last2=Ceci|first2=Stephen J.|date=2002|title=When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12081085/|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=128|issue=4|pages=612–637|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612|issn=0033-2909|pmid=12081085}}</ref> In more recent research with contributions from [[Hal Pashler]], [[Henry L. Roediger III|Henry Roediger]] and many others, testing knowledge can produce better learning, <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Alan S.|date=1976|title=Review of Information Processing and Cognition: The Loyola Symposium|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1421430|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=89|issue=2|pages=357–361|doi=10.2307/1421430|issn=0002-9556}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{cite journal|last1=Carrier|first1=M.|last2=Pashler|first2=H.|date=1992|title=The influence of retrieval on retention|url=http://www.pashler.com/Articles/Carrier_Pashler_MemCog1992.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Memory & Cognition|volume=20|issue=6|pages=632–642|doi=10.3758/bf03202713|pmid=1435266|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924064817/http://www.pashler.com/Articles/Carrier_Pashler_MemCog1992.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015|access-date=17 August 2015|doi-access=free|s2cid=15893469}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Izawa|first=Chizuko|date=1971-05-01|title=The test trial potentiating model|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0022249671900125|journal=Journal of Mathematical Psychology|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=200–224|doi=10.1016/0022-2496(71)90012-5|issn=0022-2496}}</ref> transfer, <ref name=":6">{{cite journal|last1=McDaniel|first1=M. A.|last2=Roediger|first2=H. L.|last3=McDermott|first3=K. B.|year=2007|title=Generalizing test-enhanced learning from the laboratory to the classroom|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|volume=14|issue=2|pages=200–206|doi=10.3758/bf03194052|pmid=17694901|doi-access=free}}</ref> and retrieval <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Roediger|first=Henry L.|last2=Karpicke|first2=Jeffrey D.|date=September 2006|title=The Power of Testing Memory: Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=181–210|doi=10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x|issn=1745-6916}}</ref> results when compared to other forms of study <ref name=":10" /> that often use recognition <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kanak|first=N. Jack|last2=Neuner|first2=Sharon D.|date=1970|title=Associative symmetry and item availablity as a function of five methods of paired-associate acquisition.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/h0029975|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|language=en|volume=86|issue=2|pages=288–295|doi=10.1037/h0029975|issn=0022-1015}}</ref> like re-reading <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karpicke|first=Jeffrey D.|last2=Butler|first2=Andrew C.|last3=Roediger|first3=Henry L.|date=2009|title=Metacognitive strategies in student learning: do students practise retrieval when they study on their own?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19358016/|journal=Memory (Hove, England)|volume=17|issue=4|pages=471–479|doi=10.1080/09658210802647009|issn=1464-0686|pmid=19358016}}</ref> or highlighting. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=Sarah E.|date=1991-12-01|title=The cognitive functions of underlining as a study technique|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/19388079209558078|journal=Reading Research and Instruction|volume=31|issue=2|pages=49–56|doi=10.1080/19388079209558078|issn=0886-0246}}</ref>
 == Retrieval practice ==
@@ Line 40: / Line 40: @@
 === Practice methods ===
 When compared to [[Concept map|concept mapping]] alone, retrieval practice is more beneficial, <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karpicke|first=J. D.|last2=Blunt|first2=J. R.|date=2011-02-11|title=Retrieval Practice Produces More Learning than Elaborative Studying with Concept Mapping|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1199327|journal=Science|language=en|volume=331|issue=6018|pages=772–775|doi=10.1126/science.1199327|issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=A powerful way to improve learning and memory|url=https://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2016/06/learning-memory|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-06|website=www.apa.org}}</ref> despite students not seeing retrieval practice as a useful learning tool. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lechuga|first=M. Teresa|last2=Ortega-Tudela|first2=Juana M.|last3=Gómez-Ariza|first3=Carlos J.|date=December 2015|title=Further evidence that concept mapping is not better than repeated retrieval as a tool for learning from texts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959475215300232|journal=Learning and Instruction|language=en|volume=40|pages=61–68|doi=10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.08.002}}</ref> When combined, learner performance was increased, suggesting concept mapping is a tool that should be combined with retrieval practice <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blunt|first=Janell R.|last2=Karpicke|first2=Jeffrey D.|date=2014|title=Learning with retrieval-based concept mapping.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0035934|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=106|issue=3|pages=849–858|doi=10.1037/a0035934|issn=1939-2176}}</ref> alongside other non-verbal responses. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carpenter|first=Shana K.|last2=Pashler|first2=Harold|date=2007|title=Testing beyond words: using tests to enhance visuospatial map learning|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17874591/|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|volume=14|issue=3|pages=474–478|doi=10.3758/bf03194092|issn=1069-9384|pmid=17874591}}</ref> Retrieval helps with mental organization <ref>{{Cite web|title=Subjective organization in free recall of "unrelated" words.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1964-02036-001|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-07|website=psycnet.apa.org|language=en}}</ref> which can work well with concept mapping. Multimedia testing can be used <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Cheryl I.|last2=Mayer|first2=Richard E.|date=2009|title=A testing effect with multimedia learning.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0015183|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=101|issue=3|pages=621–629|doi=10.1037/a0015183|issn=1939-2176}}</ref> alongside flashcards as a method of retrieval practice but removing cards to early can result in lower long term retention. <ref>{{Cite web|last=Roediger|first=Henry L.|last2=Karpicke|first2=Jeffrey D.|date=2006|title=Repeated retrieval during learning is the key to enhancing long-term retention|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e527352012-265|access-date=2021-12-07|website=PsycEXTRA Dataset}}</ref> Individuals may not correctly interpret the outcome of practice cards <ref>{{Cite web|title=How do we know that we know? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1994-04361-001|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-06|website=psycnet.apa.org|language=en}}</ref> contributing to dropped cards which impact future retrieval attempts <ref name=":72">{{Cite journal|last=Karpicke|first=Jeffrey D.|last2=Roediger|first2=Henry L.|date=2007-08-01|title=Repeated retrieval during learning is the key to long-term retention|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749596X06001367|journal=Journal of Memory and Language|language=en|volume=57|issue=2|pages=151–162|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.09.004|issn=0749-596X}}</ref> therefore resulting in lower results due to increased forgetting. <ref name=":14" />
+It is advised that students, <ref>{{Cite journal|last=McDaniel|first=Mark A.|last2=Agarwal|first2=Pooja K.|last3=Huelser|first3=Barbie J.|last4=McDermott|first4=Kathleen B.|last5=Roediger|first5=Henry L.|date=2011|title=Test-enhanced learning in a middle school science classroom: The effects of quiz frequency and placement.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0021782|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=103|issue=2|pages=399–414|doi=10.1037/a0021782|issn=1939-2176}}</ref> people in care units <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cooper|first=Avraham Z.|last2=Verbeck|first2=Nicole|last3=McCallister|first3=Jennifer W.|last4=Spitzer|first4=Carleen R.|date=2020-12-01|title=Incorporating Retrieval Practice Into Intensive Care Unit Teaching Rounds: A Feasibility Study|url=https://meridian.allenpress.com/jgme/article/12/6/778/447989/Incorporating-Retrieval-Practice-Into-Intensive|journal=Journal of Graduate Medical Education|language=en|volume=12|issue=6|pages=778–781|doi=10.4300/JGME-D-20-00082.1|issn=1949-8357|pmc=7771589|pmid=33391605}}</ref> and teaching professionals <ref>{{Cite book|last=Agarwal|first=Pooja K.|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=OpCWDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Powerful+Teaching:+Unleash+the+Science+of+Learning&ots=7IFr97Di3S&sig=d3sa2jta6nFRbIINSo6dV9UMLGI&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Powerful%20Teaching:%20Unleash%20the%20Science%20of%20Learning&f=false|title=Powerful Teaching: Unleash the Science of Learning|last2=Bain|first2=Patrice M.|date=2019-06-05|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-119-52184-6|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Jones|first=Kate|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CIM7EAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Jones,+Kate+(2020).+Retrieval+Practice:+Resources+and+research+for+every+classroom.+John+Catt+Educational.+ISBN+978-1912906581.&ots=BVLMtq8iei&sig=5epvO6-niY6psgnaECHr_X19V3s&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Retrieval Practice: Research & Resources for every classroom|date=2020-07-27|publisher=John Catt Educational|isbn=978-1-913808-06-8|language=en}}</ref> use distributed <ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCabe|first=Jennifer|date=2011|title=Metacognitive awareness of learning strategies in undergraduates|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21264604/|journal=Memory & Cognition|volume=39|issue=3|pages=462–476|doi=10.3758/s13421-010-0035-2|issn=1532-5946|pmid=21264604}}</ref> retrieval practice <ref>Gurung, R.A., 2005. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Regan-Gurung/publication/228786091_How_Do_Students_Really_Study_and_Does_It_Matter/links/004635140972ab064d000000/How-Do-Students-Really-Study-and-Does-It-Matter.pdf How do students really study (and does it matter]). ''Education'', ''39'', pp.323-340.</ref> with feedback to aid their studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Augustin|first=Marc|date=2014|title=How to learn effectively in medical school: test yourself, learn actively, and repeat in intervals|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24910566/|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=87|issue=2|pages=207–212|issn=1551-4056|pmc=4031794|pmid=24910566}}</ref> Interleaved practice, self-explanation, <ref name=":15" /> and elaborative interrogation <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Berry|first=Dianne C.|date=1983-02-01|title=Metacognitive Experience and Transfer of Logical Reasoning|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14640748308402115|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|language=en|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–49|doi=10.1080/14640748308402115|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> can be useful but need more research. <ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Dunlosky|first=John|date=2013|title=Strengthening the Student Toolbox: Study Strategies to Boost Learning|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1021069|journal=American Educator|language=en|volume=37|issue=3|pages=12–21|issn=0148-432X}}</ref>  Summarization can be useful for individuals trained how to use to get the most from it. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rinehart|first=Steven D.|last2=Stahl|first2=Steven A.|last3=Erickson|first3=Lawrence G.|date=1986|title=Some Effects of Summarization Training on Reading and Studying|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/747614|journal=Reading Research Quarterly|volume=21|issue=4|pages=422–438|doi=10.2307/747614|issn=0034-0553}}</ref> Keyword [[Mnemonic|mnemonics]] and imagery for text have been somewhat helpful but the effects are often short lived. <ref name=":42">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Alvin Y.|last2=Thomas|first2=Margaret H.|last3=Ouellette|first3=Judith A.|date=1992|title=Keyword mnemonic and retention of second-language vocabulary words.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.520|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=84|issue=4|pages=520–528|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.520|issn=1939-2176}}</ref><ref name=":16" /> However, if each of these methods are integrated with retrieval elements the testing effect is more likely to occur.
 ==Considerations==
@@ Line 46: / Line 48: @@
 The [[Cognitive load|cognitive load theory]] supporters suggest the testing effect may disappear with increasing task difficulty due to increased element interactivity <ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Gog|first=Tamara|last2=Sweller|first2=John|date=2015-06-01|title=Not New, but Nearly Forgotten: the Testing Effect Decreases or even Disappears as the Complexity of Learning Materials Increases|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9310-x|journal=Educational Psychology Review|language=en|volume=27|issue=2|pages=247–264|doi=10.1007/s10648-015-9310-x|issn=1573-336X|hdl-access=free|hdl=1765/92178}}</ref> which has been addressed in the literature with studies that show complex learning is increased by retrieval practice and positive testing effect.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karpicke|first=Jeffrey D.|last2=Aue|first2=William R.|date=June 2015|title=The Testing Effect Is Alive and Well with Complex Materials|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10648-015-9309-3|journal=Educational Psychology Review|language=en|volume=27|issue=2|pages=317–326|doi=10.1007/s10648-015-9309-3|issn=1040-726X}}</ref>
 For future research most studies were conducted in non-[[WEIRD]] which could cause a bias.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Agarwal|first=Pooja K.|last2=Nunes|first2=Ludmila D.|last3=Blunt|first3=Janell R.|date=2021-03-14|title=Retrieval Practice Consistently Benefits Student Learning: a Systematic Review of Applied Research in Schools and Classrooms|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10648-021-09595-9|journal=Educational Psychology Review|language=en|doi=10.1007/s10648-021-09595-9|issn=1040-726X}}</ref>
 === Test benefits ===
@@ Line 76: / Line 78: @@
 * [https://www.retrievalpractice.org/ Retrieval Practice.org]
 * [https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/dunlosky.pdf American Educator]
-* Agarwal, P.K. and Bain, P.M., 2019. ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=OpCWDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Powerful+Teaching:+Unleash+the+Science+of+Learning&ots=7IFr97Di3S&sig=d3sa2jta6nFRbIINSo6dV9UMLGI&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Powerful%20Teaching%3A%20Unleash%20the%20Science%20of%20Learning&f=false Powerful teaching: Unleash the science of learning]''. John Wiley & Sons.
-* Jones, K., 2020. ''[https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CIM7EAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Jones,+Kate+(2020).+Retrieval+Practice:+Resources+and+research+for+every+classroom.+John+Catt+Educational.+ISBN+978-1912906581.&ots=BVLMtq8iei&sig=5epvO6-niY6psgnaECHr_X19V3s&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Retrieval Practice: Research & Resources for every classroom]''. John Catt Educational.
 * [[Barbara Oakley]]. Online course [https://www.coursera.org/learn/learning-how-to-learn Learning How to Learn] on [[coursera]]
 * Brown, P.C., 2014. ''[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.4159/9780674419377/html Make it stick]''. Harvard University Press.

v t e Spaced repetition
Concepts	Spaced repetition Spacing effect Testing effect Forgetting curve Flashcard Memory Leitner system Incremental reading
Study software	Anki Cerego Cobocards Course Hero Cram Cram.com Duolingo eSpindle Learning Hello English Kahoot! Lingopie Memrise Mnemosyne OpenCards Quizlet SuperMemo Synap
Practitioners	Hermann Ebbinghaus Paul Pimsleur Sebastian Leitner Piotr Woźniak
Researchers	Hermann Ebbinghaus Thomas Landauer Robert A. Bjork Cecil Alec Mace Hal Pashler

Testing effect: Difference between revisions