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====Other conditions====
EMDR has been found to reduce suicidal ideation,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fereidouni |first1=Zhila |last2=Behnammoghadam |first2=Mohammad |last3=Jahanfar |first3=Abdolhadi |last4=Dehghan |first4=Azizallah |title=The Effect of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) on the severity of suicidal thoughts in patients with major depressive disorder: a randomized controlled trial |journal=Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment |date=August 2019 |volume=15 |pages=2459–2466 |doi=10.2147/NDT.S210757 |pmid=31695382 |pmc=6717728 }}</ref> and help low self-esteem.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Griffioen |first1=Brecht T. |last2=van der Vegt |first2=Anna A. |last3=de Groot |first3=Izaäk W. |last4=de Jongh |first4=Ad |title=The Effect of EMDR and CBT on Low Self-esteem in a General Psychiatric Population: A Randomized Controlled Trial |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=8 November 2017 |volume=8 |pages=1910 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01910 |pmid=29167649 |pmc=5682328 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Other studies focus on effectiveness in substance craving<ref name="Are addiction-related memories mall"/> and pain management.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tesarz |first1=Jonas |last2=Wicking |first2=Manon |last3=Bernardy |first3=Kathrin |last4=Seidler |first4=Günter H. |s2cid=213240106 |title=EMDR Therapy's Efficacy in the Treatment of Pain |journal=Journal of EMDR Practice and Research |date=1 November 2019 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=337–344 |doi=10.1891/1933-3196.13.4.337 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


There is only weak evidence that EMDR might be of benefit in treating [[depression]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Carletto S, Malandrone F, Berchialla P, Oliva F, Colombi N, Hase M, Hofmann A, Ostacoli L |title=Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Eur J Psychotraumatol |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1894736 |date=April 2021 |pmid=33889310 |pmc=8043524 |doi=10.1080/20008198.2021.1894736 |url=}}</ref>
There is only weak evidence that EMDR might be of benefit in treating [[depression]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Carletto S, Malandrone F, Berchialla P, Oliva F, Colombi N, Hase M, Hofmann A, Ostacoli L |title=Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Eur J Psychotraumatol |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1894736 |date=April 2021 |pmid=33889310 |pmc=8043524 |doi=10.1080/20008198.2021.1894736 |url=}}</ref>

Revision as of 09:19, 21 March 2023

"EMDR" redirects here. For the materials characterisation technique, see Electrically detected magnetic resonance.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is a form of psychotherapy developed by Francine Shapiro in the 1980s that was originally designed to alleviate the distress associated with traumatic memories such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). EMDR adds a number of non-scientific practices, like finger tapping, to exposure therapy and has been aggressively promoted for the treatment of PTSD. It has been characterized as a pseudoscience and is only as effective as its underlying therapeutic methods without EMDR's distinctive add-ons.[1][2]

The 2013 World Health Organization (WHO) practice guideline states that EMDR "is based on the idea that negative thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are the result of unprocessed memories. The treatment involves standardized procedures that include focusing simultaneously on spontaneous associations of traumatic images, thoughts, emotions and bodily sensations and bilateral stimulation that is most commonly in the form of repeated eye movements."[3]

EMDR is included in several evidence-based guidelines for the treatment of PTSD, with varying levels of recommendation and evidence (very low to moderate per WHO stress guidelines).[3][4][5]

Technique

EMDR adds a number of non-scientific practices to exposure therapy and is provided over the course of several sessions.[2]

Formal EMDR therapy consists of eight phases. The first phase includes history taking and treatment planning. The second phase includes preparation. The third phase is an assessment phase followed by the fourth phase of desensitization. Phases 5 and 6 involve installing positive cognitions and 'body scan"[clarification needed]. The last phase is the reevaluation phase.[3] EMDR is typically undertaken in a series of sessions with a trained therapist.[6] The number of sessions can vary depending on the progress made. A typical EMDR therapy session lasts from 60 to 90 minutes.[7]

Trauma and PTSD

The person being treated is asked to recall an image, phrase, and emotions that represent a level of distress related to a trigger while generating one of several types of bilateral sensory input, such as side-to-side eye movements or hand tapping.[8][4] The 2013 World Health Organization practice guideline says that "Like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) with a trauma focus, EMDR aims to reduce subjective distress and strengthen adaptive beliefs related to the traumatic event. Unlike CBT with a trauma focus, EMDR does not involve (a) detailed descriptions of the event, (b) direct challenging of beliefs, (c) extended exposure or (d) homework."[3]

Excessive training

Shapiro has been criticized for repeatedly increasing the length and expense of training and certification, allegedly in response to the results of controlled trials that cast doubt on EMDR's efficacy.[9][10] This included requiring the completion of an EMDR training program in order to be qualified to administer EMDR properly after researchers using the initial written instructions found no difference between no-eye-movement control groups and EMDR-as-written experimental groups. Further changes in training requirements and/or the definition of EMDR included requiring level II training when researchers with level I training still found no difference between eye-movement experimental groups and no-eye-movement controls and deeming "alternate forms of bilateral stimulation" (such as finger-tapping) as variants of EMDR by the time a study found no difference between EMDR and a finger-tapping control group.[9] Such changes in definition and training for EMDR have been described as "ad hoc moves [made] when confronted by embarrassing data".[11]

Medical uses

EMDR is controversial within the psychological community.[12][13][14] It is used for trauma therapy and a number of other conditions.

Effectiveness

Unusually for interventions that are considered pseudoscientific, EMDR has been subject to a number of randomized controlled trials.[1] It has been called a purple hat therapy because any effectiveness stems from the underlying therapy, not from the therapy's distinctive features.[15]

There is some evidence EMDR can be as effective as trauma focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT) for treating PTSD. Concerns have been raised about the poor quality of EMDR research.[16][17] Client had mixed perceptions of the effectiveness of therapy they had receieved.[18]

Medical guidelines

The 2009 International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies practice guidelines categorized EMDR as an evidence-based level A treatment for PTSD in adults.[19] Other guidelines recommending EMDR therapy – as well as CBT and exposure therapy – for treating trauma have included NICE starting in 2005,[5][20][21] Australian Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health in 2007,[22] the Dutch National Steering Committee Guidelines Mental Health and Care in 2003,[23][page needed] the American Psychiatric Association in 2004,[24] the Departments of Veterans Affairs and Defense in 2010,[25] SAMHSA in 2011,[26] the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies in 2009,[27][page needed] and the World Health Organization in 2013 (only for PTSD, not for acute stress treatment).[3] The American Psychological Association "conditionally recommends" EMDR for the treatment of PTSD.[28]

EMDR is included in a 2009 practice guideline for helping children who have experienced trauma.[19][page needed] EMDR is often cited as a component in the treatment of complex post-traumatic stress disorder.[29][page needed][30]

Mental health

It is unclear whether EMDR is of any benefit for treating mental health conditions and the evidence is insufficient to justify such use.[16]

Dissociative identity disorder

EMDR has been found to cause strong effects on dissociative identity disorder patients, causing recommendations for adjusted use.[31][32]

Other conditions

There is only weak evidence that EMDR might be of benefit in treating depression.[33]

Possible mechanisms

Incomplete processing of experiences in trauma

Many proposals of EMDR efficacy share an assumption that, as Shapiro posited, when a traumatic or very negative event occurs, information processing of the experience in memory may be incomplete. The trauma causes a disruption of normal adaptive information processing, which results in unprocessed information being dysfunctionally held in memory networks.[34] According to the 2013 World Health Organization practice guideline: "This therapy [EMDR] is based on the idea that negative thoughts, feelings and behaviours are the result of unprocessed memories."[3]

EMDR allowing correct processing of memories

EMDR is posited to help in the correct processing of the components of the contributing distressing memories.[35][36] EMDR may allow the client to access and reprocess negative memories (leading to decreased psychological arousal associated with the memory).[37] This is sometimes known as the Adaptive Information Processing (AIP) model.[38][39][unreliable medical source]

Proposed mechanisms by which EMDR achieves efficacy

The mechanism EMDR proposes are non science-based.[2] Several possible mechanisms have been posited;

  • EMDR may impact working memory.[40] If a patient performs bilateral stimulation task while remembering the trauma, the amount of information they can recall is reduced, which makes the resulting negative emotions less intense, and more bearable.[41] This is seen by some as a 'distancing effect'. The client is then able to re-evaluate the trauma and to process it correctly.[42]
  • EMDR may enable ‘dual attention’ in which the trauma is recalled while also remaining aware of the present.[42]
  • Horizontal eye movement triggers an evolutionary 'orienting response' in the brain, used in scanning the environment for threats and opportunities.[43]
  • EMDR gives an effect similar to the effects of sleep,[44][unreliable medical source] and posit that traumatic experiences are processed during sleep.
  • Trauma can be overcome or mastered, and EMDR facilitates a form of mindfulness or other forms of mastery over the trauma.[42]

A 2013 meta-analysis focused on two mechanisms: (1) taxing working memory and (2) orienting response/REM sleep.[45]

It may be that several mechanisms are at work in EMDR.[42]

Bilateral stimulation, including eye movement

Bilateral stimulation is a generalization of the left and right repetitive eye movement technique first used by Shapiro. Alternative stimuli include auditory stimuli that alternate between left and right speakers or headphones and physical stimuli such as tapping of the therapist's hands or tapping devices.[46] Research has attempted to correlate other types of rhythmic side-to-side stimuli, such as sound and touch, with mood, memory, and cerebral hemispheric interaction. Francine Shapiro noticed that eye movements appeared to decrease the negative emotion associated with her own distressing memories.[47][48][49] Bilateral stimulation seems to cause dissipation of emotions.[50][51] Research results and opinions have been mixed on the effectiveness and importance of the technique;

  • A 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis including nine dismantling[clarification needed] randomized controlled trials of EMDR with or without bilateral eye-movements found that the efficacy between EMDR with and without eye-movements were negligible to non-existent.[52]
  • A 2020 review questioned the consistency and generalizability of the technique.[53]

Pseudoscience

EMDR has been characterized as pseudoscience, because the underlying theory is unfalsifiable. Also, the results of the therapy are non-specific, especially if the eye movement component is irrelevant to the results. What remains is a broadly therapeutic interaction and deceptive marketing.[10][54] According to Yale neurologist Steven Novella:

[T]he false specificity of these treatments is a massive clinical distraction. Time and effort are wasted clinically in studying, perfecting, and using these methods, rather than focusing on the components of the interaction that actually work.[55]

History

EMDR was invented by Francine Shapiro (1948 – 2019) in the late 1980s.

In a workshop, Shapiro related how the idea of the therapy came to her while she was taking a walk in the woods, and discerned she had been able to cope better with disturbing thoughts when also experiencing saccadic eye movements.[56] Psychologist Gerald Rosen has expressed doubt about this description, saying that people are normally not aware of this type of eye movement.[56] Gerald Rosen and Bruce Grimley suggest that it is more likely that she developed EMDR out of her experience with neuro-linguistic programming.[57][58][59]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Thyer BA, Pignotti MG (2015). "Chapter 4: Pseudoscience in Treating Adults Who Experienced Trauma". Science and Pseudoscience in Social Work Practice. Springer. p. 146. doi:10.1891/9780826177698.0004. ISBN 9780826177681.
  2. ^ a b c Lohr JM, Gist R, Deacon B, Devilly GJ, Varker T (2015). "Chapter 10: Science- and Non-Science-Based Treatments for Trauma-Related Stress Disorders". In Lilienfeld SO, Lynn SJ, Lohr JM (eds.). Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 292. ISBN 9781462517893.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Guidelines for the Management of Conditions that are Specifically Related to Stress (Report). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2013. p. Glossary page 1. PMID 24049868. Archived from the original on November 29, 2013.
  4. ^ a b Shapiro, Francine; Laliotis, Deany (2015). "EMDR Therapy for Trauma-Related Disorders". Evidence Based Treatments for Trauma-Related Psychological Disorders: A Practical Guide for Clinicians. Springer International Publishing. pp. 205–228. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-07109-1_11. ISBN 978-3-319-07109-1.
  5. ^ a b "Post-traumatic stress disorder – NICE Pathways". NICE pathways – (2005) NICE guideline CG26. 2005.
  6. ^ "Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder". National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2018-12-05. Retrieved 2021-12-03. 1.6.20 EMDR for adults should: be based on a validated manual; typically be provided over 8 to 12 sessions, but more if clinically indicated, for example if they have experienced multiple traumas; be delivered by trained practitioners with ongoing supervision; be delivered in a phased manner and include psychoeducation about reactions to trauma, managing distressing memories and situations, identifying and treating target memories (often visual images), and promoting alternative positive beliefs about the self; use repeated in-session bilateral stimulation (normally with eye movements) for specific target memories until the memories are no longer distressing; include the teaching of self-calming techniques and techniques for managing flashbacks, for use within and between sessions.
  7. ^ "Experiencing EMDR Therapy".
  8. ^ Feske, Ulrike (June 1998). "Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 5 (2): 171–181. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.1998.tb00142.x.
  9. ^ a b Rosen, Gerald M; Mcnally, Richard J; Lilienfeld, Scott O (1999). "Eye Movement Magic: Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing". Skeptic. 7 (4).
  10. ^ a b Herbert JD, Lilienfeld SO, Lohr JM, Montgomery RW, O'Donohue WT, Rosen GM, Tolin DF (November 2000). "Science and pseudoscience in the development of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: implications for clinical psychology". Clinical Psychology Review. 20 (8): 945–71. doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(99)00017-3. PMID 11098395. S2CID 14519988.
  11. ^ McNally, R. J. (2003). "The demise of pseudoscience". The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice. 2 (2): 97–101.
  12. ^ McNally, Richard J. (1999). "Research on eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) as a treatment for PTSD". PTSD Research Quarterly. 10 (1): 1–7.
  13. ^ Sikes, Charlotte; Sikes, Victoria (2003). "EMDR: Why the controversy?". Traumatology. 9 (3): 169–182. doi:10.1177/153476560300900304.
  14. ^ Hasandedić-Đapo L (February 2021). "How Psychologists Experience and Perceive EMDR?". Psychiatr Danub. 33 (Suppl 1): 18–23. PMID 33638952.
  15. ^ Rosquist (2005). Exposure Treatments for Anxiety Disorders: A Practitioner's Guide to Concepts, Methods, and Evidence-Based Practice. Routledge. p. 94. ISBN 9781136915772.
  16. ^ a b Cuijpers, Pim; Veen, Suzanne C. van; Sijbrandij, Marit; Yoder, Whitney; Cristea, Ioana A. (11 February 2020). "Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for mental health problems: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. 49 (3): 165–180. doi:10.1080/16506073.2019.1703801. PMID 32043428.
  17. ^ Bisson JI, Roberts NP, Andrew M, Cooper R, Lewis C (December 2013). "Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Systematic review). 2013 (12): CD003388. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003388.pub4. PMC 6991463. PMID 24338345.
  18. ^ Shipley, Gemma; Wilde, Sarah; Hudson, Mark (April 2021). "What do clients say about their experiences of Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing therapy? A systematic review of the literature". European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation. 6 (2): 100226. doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2021.100226. ISSN 2468-7499. S2CID 235544895.
  19. ^ a b Foa EB, Keane TM, Friedman MJ, Cohen JA, eds. (2009). Effective treatments for PTSD: practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-001-5.
  20. ^ National Institute for Clinical Excellence (2005). Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): The management of adults and children in primary and secondary care (Report). London: NICE Guidelines.
  21. ^ Post-traumatic stress disorder overview: Interventions for symptoms present for more than 3 months after a trauma (Report). National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2016.
  22. ^ Australian Centre for Posttraumatic Mental Health. (2007). Australian guidelines for the treatment of adults with acute stress disorder and post traumatic stress disorder. Melbourne, Victoria: ACPTMH. ISBN 978-0-9752246-6-3.
  23. ^ Dutch National Steering Committee Guidelines Mental Health and Care (2003). Guidelines for the diagnosis treatment and management of adult clients with an anxiety disorder (Report). Utrecht, Netherlands: The Dutch Institute for Healthcare Improvement.
  24. ^ Ursano, RJ; Bell, C; Eth, S; Friedman, M; Norwood, A; Pfefferbaum, B; Pynoos, JD; Zatzick, DF; Benedek, DM; McIntyre, JS; Charles, SC; Altshuler, K; Cook, I; Cross, CD; Mellman, L; Moench, LA; Norquist, G; Twemlow, SW; Woods, S; Yager, J (November 2004). "Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 161 (11 Suppl): 3–31. PMID 15617511.
  25. ^ Department of Veterans Affairs & Department of Defense (2010). VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Post-Traumatic Stress. Washington, DC: Veterans Health Administration, Department of Veterans Affairs and Health Affairs, Department of Defense
  26. ^ SAMHSA’s National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (2011)
  27. ^ Foa, E.B., Keane, T.M., Friedman, M.J., & Cohen, J.A. (2009). Effective Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. New York: Guilford Press.
  28. ^ "Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Therapy". American Psychological Association.
  29. ^ Adler-Tapia R; Settle C (2008). EMDR and The Art of Psychotherapy With Children. New York: Springer Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0-8261-1117-3.
  30. ^ Scott CV; Briere J (2006). Principles of Trauma Therapy: A Guide to Symptoms, Evaluation, and Treatment. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. p. 312. ISBN 978-0-7619-2921-5.
  31. ^ Recommended Guidelines: A General Guide to EMDR’s Use in the Dissociative Disorders (authored by the EMDR Dissociative Disorders Task Force and published in Shapiro, 1995, 2001)
  32. ^ p159, Guidelines for Treating Dissociative Identity Disorder in Adults, Third Revision, International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation Available online: 03 Mar 2011
  33. ^ Carletto S, Malandrone F, Berchialla P, Oliva F, Colombi N, Hase M, Hofmann A, Ostacoli L (April 2021). "Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Eur J Psychotraumatol. 12 (1): 1894736. doi:10.1080/20008198.2021.1894736. PMC 8043524. PMID 33889310.
  34. ^ Solomon, Roger M.; Shapiro, Francine (November 2008). "EMDR and the Adaptive Information Processing ModelPotential Mechanisms of Change". Journal of EMDR Practice and Research. 2 (4): 315–325. doi:10.1891/1933-3196.2.4.315. S2CID 7109228.
  35. ^ "Theory - EMDR Institute - Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Therapy".
  36. ^ "Mel B is watching flashing lights to help with trauma. But does EMDR therapy really work?". TheGuardian.com. 10 September 2018.
  37. ^ Boccia, Maddalena; Piccardi, Laura; Cordellieri, Pierluigi; Guariglia, Cecilia; Giannini, Anna Maria (21 April 2015). "EMDR therapy for PTSD after motor vehicle accidents: meta-analytic evidence for specific treatment". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 9: 213. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00213. PMC 4404810. PMID 25954183.
  38. ^ Shapiro, Francine (October 2007). "EMDR, Adaptive Information Processing, and Case Conceptualization". Journal of EMDR Practice and Research. 1 (2): 68–87. doi:10.1891/1933-3196.1.2.68. S2CID 145457423.
  39. ^ Hase M, Balmaceda UM, Ostacoli L, Liebermann P, Hofmann A (2017-09-21). "The AIP Model of EMDR Therapy and Pathogenic Memories". Frontiers in Psychology. 8: 1578. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01578. PMC 5613256. PMID 28983265.
  40. ^ van den Hout, Marcel A.; Engelhard, Iris M.; Beetsma, Daniel; Slofstra, Christien; Hornsveld, Hellen; Houtveen, Jan; Leer, Arne (1 December 2011). "EMDR and mindfulness. Eye movements and attentional breathing tax working memory and reduce vividness and emotionality of aversive ideation". Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 42 (4): 423–431. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.03.004. PMID 21570931.
  41. ^ Chen, Ling; Zhang, Guiqing; Hu, Min; Liang, Xia (June 2015). "Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Versus Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Adult Posttraumatic Stress Disorder". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 203 (6): 443–451. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000306. PMID 25974059. S2CID 34850645.
  42. ^ a b c d Logie, Robin (July 2014). "EMDR - more than just a therapy for PTSD?". The Psychologist. 27 (7): 512–517.
  43. ^ Jeffries, Fiona W.; Davis, Paul (29 October 2012). "What is the Role of Eye Movements in Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)? A Review". Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy. 41 (3): 290–300. doi:10.1017/S1352465812000793. PMID 23102050. S2CID 33309479.
  44. ^ A slowing of brain waves has been seen during bilateral stimulation (eye movement), somewhat similar to what occurs during sleep.Pagani, Marco; Amann, Benedikt L.; Landin-Romero, Ramon; Carletto, Sara (7 November 2017). "Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing and Slow Wave Sleep: A Putative Mechanism of Action". Frontiers in Psychology. 8: 1935. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01935. PMC 5681964. PMID 29163309.[unreliable medical source] A possibly related finding is that brain waves during EMDR treatment shows changes in brain activity, specifically the limbic system showed its highest level of activity prior to commencing EMDR treatment.Pagani M, Di Lorenzo G, Verardo AR, Nicolais G, Monaco L, Lauretti G, Russo R, Niolu C, Ammaniti M, Fernandez I, Siracusano A (2012-09-26). "Neurobiological correlates of EMDR monitoring – an EEG study". PLOS ONE. 7 (9): e45753. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...745753P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045753. PMC 3458957. PMID 23049852.
  45. ^ Lee CW, Cuijpers P (2013). "A meta-analysis of the contribution of eye movements in processing emotional memories" (PDF). Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 44 (2): 231–239. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.11.001. PMID 23266601.
  46. ^ Rodenburg, Roos; Benjamin, Anja; de Roos, Carlijn; Meijer, Ann Marie; Stams, Geert Jan (November 2009). "Efficacy of EMDR in children: A meta-analysis". Clinical Psychology Review. 29 (7): 599–606. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.06.008. PMID 19616353.
  47. ^ Shapiro, F. (1989). Efficacy of the eye movement desensitization procedure in the treatment of traumatic memories. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2, 199-223.
  48. ^ Shapiro, F. & Forrest, M. (1997). EMDR The Breakthrough Therapy for Overcoming Anxiety, Stress and Trauma. New York: Basic Books
  49. ^ "History of EMDR - EMDR Institute - Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Therapy".
  50. ^ Armstrong, Michael S; Vaughan, Kevin (March 1996). "An orienting response model of eye movement desensitization". Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 27 (1): 21–32. doi:10.1016/0005-7916(95)00056-9. PMID 8814518.
  51. ^ "Francine Shapiro EMDR Interview". www.psychotherapy.net. Retrieved 2023-01-12.
  52. ^ Cuijpers, Pim; Veen, Suzanne C. van; Sijbrandij, Marit; Yoder, Whitney; Cristea, Ioana A. (2020-05-03). "Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for mental health problems: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. 49 (3): 165–180. doi:10.1080/16506073.2019.1703801. ISSN 1650-6073. PMID 32043428. S2CID 202289231.
  53. ^ Roberts, Brady R. T.; Fernandes, Myra A.; MacLeod, Colin M.; Manelis, Anna (27 January 2020). "Re-evaluating whether bilateral eye movements influence memory retrieval". PLOS ONE. 15 (1): e0227790. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1527790R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0227790. PMC 6984731. PMID 31986171. No evidence of a SIRE effect was found: Bayesian statistical analyses demonstrated significant evidence for a null effect. Taken together, these experiments suggest that the SIRE effect is inconsistent. The current experiments call into question the generalizability of the SIRE effect and suggest that its presence is very sensitive to experimental design. Future work should further assess the robustness of the effect before exploring related theories or underlying mechanisms.
  54. ^ Devilly, Grant (2002). "Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: a chronology of its development and scientific standing" (PDF). The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice. 1 (2): 132.
  55. ^ Novella, Steven (March 30, 2011). "EMDR and Acupuncture – Selling Non-specific Effects". Science Based Medicine. Society for SBM. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
  56. ^ a b Rosen GM (June 1995). "On the origin of eye movement desensitization". J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 26 (2): 121–2. doi:10.1016/0005-7916(95)00014-q. PMID 7593684.
  57. ^ M. Rosen, Gerald (2023-05-23). "Revisiting the Origins of EMDR". Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy. doi:10.1007/s10879-023-09582-x. ISSN 1573-3564.
  58. ^ Grimley, Bruce (2014). "Origins of EMDR- a question of integrity?". The Psychologist.
  59. ^ Grimley, Bruce. "What is Neurolinguistic Programming, (NLP)".
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