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Coordinates: 2°38′S 28°40′E / 2.633°S 28.667°E / -2.633; 28.667
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It was the site of a plane crash on May 25, 2005<ref>[http://www.congoplanet.com/article.jsp?id=4526133 Congo Planet news article on plane crash]</ref> when a chartered Maniema Union Antonov An-28 aircraft, owned by Victoria Air, crashed into a mountain near Walungu, about 30 minutes after takeoff. All of the 22 passengers and 5 crew members were killed (see [[2005 in aviation]]). [[United Nations peacekeeping|United Nations Peacekeeping Force]] has also been employed to counter foreign armed groups and local militias which are committing [[Human Rights Violations|HRVs]] (Human Rights Violations)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/legacy/backgrounder/africa/drc1204/2.htm|title=Democratic Republic of Congo: Civilians at Risk During Disarmament Operations – Human Rights Abuses of Civilians by Armed Groups in Walungu|date=December 29, 2004|work=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> while exploring minerals from the area.
It was the site of a plane crash on May 25, 2005<ref>[http://www.congoplanet.com/article.jsp?id=4526133 Congo Planet news article on plane crash]</ref> when a chartered Maniema Union Antonov An-28 aircraft, owned by Victoria Air, crashed into a mountain near Walungu, about 30 minutes after takeoff. All of the 22 passengers and 5 crew members were killed (see [[2005 in aviation]]). [[United Nations peacekeeping|United Nations Peacekeeping Force]] has also been employed to counter foreign armed groups and local militias which are committing [[Human Rights Violations|HRVs]] (Human Rights Violations)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/legacy/backgrounder/africa/drc1204/2.htm|title=Democratic Republic of Congo: Civilians at Risk During Disarmament Operations – Human Rights Abuses of Civilians by Armed Groups in Walungu|date=December 29, 2004|work=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> while exploring minerals from the area.

== Geography ==
Walungu Territory is located between 28.44 and 28.758° E (longitude) and 2.692 and 2.625° S (latitude). It sits at an elevation between 1000 meters (at [[Kamanyola]]) and 3000 meters [[Height above mean sea level|above sea level]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ndeko |first=Adrien Byamungu |last2=Géant |first2=Chuma Basimine |last3=Chokola |first3=Gloire Musafiri |last4=Zihalirwa |first4=Parent Kulimushi |date=October 24, 2022 |title=Soil properties shape the arbuscular mycorrhizal status of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and soil mycorhizal potential in Kabare and Walungu territories, Eastern DR Congo |url=https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1967533/v1/a346b94f-77ba-40ec-9d14-58454c746ac8.pdf?c=1666637520 |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Research Square |page=4 |language=English |publication-place=Durham, North Carolina, United States}}</ref> Covering a [[surface area]] of 1800 km<sup>2</sup>, it is a large region that encompasses a diverse range of [[Geographical feature|natural features]], such as [[Mountain|mountains]], [[Lake|lakes]], [[River|rivers]], [[Forest|forests]], and [[Arable land|fertile plains]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bisimwa |first=Patrick |last2=Birindwa |first2=Bwihangane A. |last3=Banswe |first3=Gédéon |last4=Shukuru |first4=Wasso |date=April 13, 2018 |title=Prevalence of Gastro-Intestinal Helminths in Slaughtered Cattle in Walungu Territory, South Kivu Province, Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo |url=https://austinpublishinggroup.com/veterinary-science-research/fulltext/avsah-v5-id1039.pdf |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Austin Publishing Group |page=2 |language=English |publication-place=Monroe Township, New Jersey, United States}}</ref> Roughly half of its terrain is situated within the [[Ruzizi Plain]], a vast lowland area known for its [[Soil fertility|fertile soils]] and favorable [[Agriculture|agricultural]] conditions. With its flat topography and favorable climate, the territory is ideal for various agricultural activities, supporting the cultivation of a wide range of crops, including [[maize]], [[Bean|beans]], [[cassava]], [[rice]], [[Potato|potatoes]], [[Sweet potato|sweet potatoes]], [[Soybean|soybeans]], [[coffee]], [[Banana|bananas]], [[Tomato|tomatoes]], [[Onion|onions]], and other [[Cash crop|cash crops]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mondo |first=Jean M. |last2=Chuma |first2=Géant B. |last3=Kwalya |first3=Pecos B. |last4=Balagizi |first4=Sébastien A. |last5=Ndjadi |first5=Serge S. |last6=Mugumaarhahama |first6=Yannick |last7=Balezi |first7=Alphonse Z. |last8=Karume |first8=Katcho |last9=Mushagalusa |first9=Gustave N. |last10=Civava |first10=René M. |date=2021-12-01 |title=Neglected and underutilized crop species in Kabare and Walungu territories, Eastern D.R. Congo: Identification, uses and socio-economic importance |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666154321001368 |journal=Journal of Agriculture and Food Research |language=en |volume=6 |pages=100234 |doi=10.1016/j.jafr.2021.100234 |issn=2666-1543}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Overbeek |first=Fons van |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Shaping_Claims_to_Urban_Land/YAmKEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 |title=Shaping Claims to Urban Land: An Ethnographic Guide to Governmentality in Bukavu's Hybrid Spaces |publisher=De Gruyter |year=October 3, 2022 |isbn=9783110734539 |location=Berlin, Germany |pages=31 |language=English}}</ref> Notable mountain ranges in the territory include [[Mount Kahuzi]] and the [[Mitumba Mountains]], which provide habitats for various [[flora]] and [[fauna]], including the endangered [[Eastern lowland gorilla|Eastern lowland gorillas]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-13 |title=Ethnic Tribes in Bukavu {{!}} Bukavu City |url=https://www.kahuzibieganationalparkcongo.org/ethnic-tribes-in-bukavu-kahuzi-biega-national-park/ |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Kahuzi Biega National Park |language=en-US}}</ref> The territory is also crossed by expansive forests and lush vegetation, forming part of the larger [[Congo Basin|Congo Basin rainforest]]—the largest rainforest in [[Africa]] and second in size only to the [[Amazon rainforest]]. These forests support a vast array of plant and animal species, including rare and endemic species, and play a vital role in climate regulation, [[carbon sequestration]], and the [[Biodiversity|preservation of biodiversity]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pandolfi |first=Massimo |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Equatorial_Africa/3a9VG2y8n4AC?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=walungu%20congo%20basin |title=Equatorial Africa |publisher=Raintree Publishers |year=1989 |isbn=9780817233402 |location=Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom |pages=115 |language=English}}</ref>

=== Hydrology ===
The region boasts a rich [[Hydrology|hydrological network]], with numerous major rivers coursing through its landscape. Among these rivers, the [[Ruzizi River]], [[Luvinvi River]], [[Ulindi River]], and [[Ludubo River]] are significant waterways in the territory that support diverse [[Aquatic ecosystem|aquatic life]], provide [[water resources]] for local communities, and contribute to the overall [[water balance]] of the region. The Ruzizi River serves as a [[natural border]] between the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Rwanda]], and [[Burundi]]. It originates from [[Lake Kivu]] and flows northward, passing through the [[Ruzizi Plain]] within the territory. Additionally, the territory is home to several smaller rivers, such as Nshesha, Mugaba, Lunzinzi, and Mayi-Mingi. These rivers may change names as they traverse different [[Plain|plains]] or [[Marsh|marshes]]. Although less extensively documented, these smaller rivers likely contribute to the local [[water supply]] and play a role in maintaining the [[Balance of nature|ecological balance]] within their respective regions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2004 |title=Rapport final des consultations participatives de la base pour l’élaboration du Document de Stratégies de Réduction de la Pauvreté (DSRP) Territoire de Walungu - Province du Sud Kivu |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4916/4023.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=University of Texas Libraries {{!}} The University of Texas at Austin |pages=18–19}}</ref>

=== Vegetation ===
Walungu Territory is a diverse landscape consisting of [[Savanna|grassy savannahs]], [[Woodlot|state woodlots]], and [[Nature reserve|forest reserves]].<ref name=":0" /> The savannahs are home to a range of [[wildlife]] such as [[Antelope|antelopes]], [[Zebra|zebras]], [[Wildebeest|wildebeests]], [[Lion|lions]], and [[Cheetah|cheetahs]]. These grassy plains play a key role in natural processes such as [[Nutrient cycle|nutrient cycling]], [[soil formation]], and [[Infiltration (hydrology)|water infiltration]]. The state woodlots and forest reserves are crucial for the [[Conservation management system|conservation]] and [[sustainable management]] of forest resources. They provide [[Lumber|timber]], [[firewood]], and non-[[Lumber|timber]] [[Forest product|forest products]] for [[Local community|local communities]] while also harboring various [[flora]] and [[fauna]]. However, the forest reserves and woodlots face significant challenges from [[Human behavior|human activities]]. The population surrounding these areas relies heavily on [[Natural resource|natural resources]] for their daily needs, leading to frequent [[deforestation]] and [[Environmental degradation|degradation]]. The relentless quest for firewood and construction materials has resulted in the destruction of these forested areas.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |first=Karamage |last2=Shao |first2=Hua |last3=Chen |first3=Xi |last4=Ndayisaba |first4=Felix |last5=Nahayo |first5=Lamek |last6=Kayiranga |first6=Alphonse |last7=Omifolaji |first7=James Kehinde |last8=Liu |first8=Tong |last9=Zhang |first9=Chi |date=Fidele |title=Deforestation Effects on Soil Erosion in the Lake Kivu Basin, D.R. Congo-Rwanda |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3892/2a4d97d6ea82afc589f1d920f413ce9684d3.pdf?_gl=1*r1ubvg*_ga*NDc5MTkzNTY0LjE2ODk0Njg2NzA.*_ga_H7P4ZT52H5*MTY4OTc4MTMyMS4zLjEuMTY4OTc4MjIxNy41OS4wLjA. |access-date=2023-07-19 |website=MDPI |language=English |publication-place=Basel, Switzerland}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=topschoolsintheusa |title=Ecological Problems of Democratic Republic of the Congo – Top Schools in the USA |url=https://www.topschoolsintheusa.com/ecological-problems-of-democratic-republic-of-the-congo/ |access-date=2023-07-19 |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Geology ===
The region is characterized by [[clay]]-[[Sand|sandy]] soil that has undergone considerable [[weathering]] over time. [[Laterite|Lateritic soil]], known for its ferruginous [[Crust (geology)|crust]] and [[Acid|acidic nature]], leads to limited [[Soil fertility|fertility]], particularly for [[Agriculture|crop cultivation]]. However, the low-lying marshy areas boast [[Soil fertility|fertile soil]] attributed to [[Deposition (geology)|sediment deposition]] from local organisms, enriched by [[River|rivers]], and [[Erosion|water erosion]] during the [[Wet season|rainy season]]. Nonetheless, the slopes of the territory are prone to erosion, leading to a rapid decrease in [[agricultural productivity]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> The [[foothills]] and [[Mountain|mountains]] of the territory exhibit an accumulation of [[Mineral|mineral deposits]], harboring subsoil resources such as [[gold]], [[iron]], [[tantalum]], [[Wolframite|wolfram]], and [[tin]], which hold significant [[economic potential]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Minerals_Yearbook/obAPvQczGBIC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=walungu+gold,+iron,+wolfram&pg=SA13-PA2&printsec=frontcover |title=Minerals Yearbook: Area Reports: International Review 2014 Africa and the Middle East |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |others=Editors: Geological Survey, Interior Department, Mines Bureau |year=April 19, 2018 |isbn=9781411341739 |location=Washington, D.C. |language=English}}</ref> The lateritic soils are a result of long-term weathering and leaching processes that have altered the original composition of the [[Parent rock|parent rocks]]. Consequently, the soil becomes impoverished in essential nutrients, affecting its ability to support robust [[plant growth]]. As a result, farmers in the region face challenges in maximizing [[Crop yield|agricultural yields]] due to the limitations of the soil's fertility.<ref name=":1" />

=== Climate ===
Walungu Territory experiences a [[humid subtropical climate]].<ref name=":0" /> The territory has a significant [[Wet season|rainy season]], which typically extends from September 15 to May 15, making it the longest season throughout the year. It is characterized by relatively [[Temperature|mild temperatures]], with the hottest month recording an average temperature of around 25°C. Conversely, the coldest month experiences an average temperature of approximately 18°C, contributing to a relatively comfortable year-round climate. Throughout the year, monthly temperatures within the territory exhibit variations ranging between 15°C and 25°C, indicating moderate temperature [[Day length fluctuations|fluctuations]]. This moderate climate supports various [[Outdoor recreation|outdoor activities]] and [[Agriculture|agricultural practices]]. Annual rainfall in Walungu Territory typically varies between 900 and 1,500 millimeters, illustrating a considerable range of [[Precipitation|precipitation levels]].<ref name=":0" />

== History ==
Walungu Territory was officially created by Presidential Decree No. 65-221 on May 3, 1967, and it was further amended by Decree No. 82-006 on February 25, 1982.<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 21, 2019 |title=Sources of Conflict In Walungu Territory: Kalinzi, Maji and Mujakazi |url=https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00XJ2F.pdf |access-date=2023-07-17 |publisher=Management Systems International (MSI) |page=3 |language=English |publication-place=Arlington County, Virginia, United States}}</ref>

=== Conflict and insecurity ===

==== Kwilu Rebellion and First Congo War ====
{{See also|Kwilu rebellion|First Congo War|Kamanyola Division}}
Walungu Territory has a tumultuous history marked by conflict and insecurity, stemming from a combination of internal and external factors. In the late 1960s, the region played a significant role during the [[Kwilu rebellion|Mulelist insurgency]], where the Zairian army achieved a key victory against the insurgency.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mazrui |first=Ali AlʼAmin |title=Nationalism and new states in Africa from about 1935 to the present |last2=Tidy |first2=Michael |publisher=Pearson Education |year=1984 |isbn=9780435941451 |location=London, United Kingdom |pages=218 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gribbin |first=Robert E. |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/In_the_Aftermath_of_Genocide/6MA4ll7VAkQC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |title=In the Aftermath of Genocide: The U.S. Role in Rwanda |publisher=iUniverse |year=2005 |isbn=9780595344116 |location=Bloomington, Indiana, United States |pages=190 |language=English}}</ref> During the [[First Congo War]] from 1996 to 1997, the region became a battleground due to its strategic location and access to valuable resources. The conflict involved multiple armed groups, including the [[Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo|Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire]] (AFDL), [[Rwanda Defence Force|Rwandan Patriotic Army]] (RPA), and [[National Defence Force (Burundi)|Forces Armées Burundaises]] (FAB). The AFDL, led by [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]], emerged as a rebel movement aiming to overthrow the regime of President [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] in [[Zaire]]. The AFDL received significant support from RPA, led by [[Paul Kagame]], due to concerns about the presence of [[Interahamwe|Rwandan Hutu militias]] in eastern Zaire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Attacks against Hutu refugees - Walungu and Kabare (South Kivu) |url=http://www.mapping-report.org/en/attacks-against-hutu-refugees-walungu-and-kabare-south-kivu/ |access-date=2023-07-19 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Cooper |first=Tom |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Great_Lakes_Holocaust/SuXZAwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 |title=Great Lakes Holocaust: The First Congo War, 1996-1997 |publisher=Casemate Publishers |year=2013 |isbn=9781909384651 |location=Havertown, Pennsylvania, United States |pages=37–50 |language=English}}</ref>

The counter-offensive led to massacres of millions of [[Génocidaires|Hutu génocidaires]], [[Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War|Hutu refugees]], and [[Zaire|Zairean]] [[Civilian|civilians]] in the eastern part of DRC, as documented by the [[DRC Mapping Exercise Report|United Nations Mapping Report]]. The AFDL/RPA units committed numerous [[Human rights|human rights violations]], deliberately attacking civilian populations, resulting in [[Massacre|massacres]], [[Summary execution|summary executions]], and [[Forced displacement|mass displacements]]. Civilians often found themselves caught in the crossfire between rival factions or targeted deliberately to exert control over local communities.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Attacks against Hutu refugees - Walungu and Kabare (South Kivu) |url=http://www.mapping-report.org/en/attacks-against-hutu-refugees-walungu-and-kabare-south-kivu/ |access-date=2023-07-19 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Throughout October and November 1996, the AFDL/RPA units launched brutal attacks on refugees, killing hundreds of people in various locations, including the [[Kamanyola|Kamanyola grouping]] of [[Ngweshe Chiefdom]], Nyarubale in the Kalunga hills, and the routes between Nyantende and Walungu-Centre and Nyantende and [[Bukavu]]. Most of the victims were women, children, and the elderly. The soldiers resorted to [[Firearm|firearms]], [[Bayonet|bayonets]], and [[Shrapnel shell|shrapnel]], causing immense suffering and loss of life.<ref name=":3" /> Additionally, on 28 October 1996, the AFDL/RPA units killed five refugees in the village of Lwakabiri and, in January 1997, killed at least thirty Rwandan and Burundian Hutu refugees on the Bukavu to Walungu Territory road. Before killing the victims, the soldiers often subjected them to [[torture]] and [[mutilation]].<ref name=":3" />

==== Second Congo War ====
{{See also|Second Congo War}}
The [[Second Congo War]] further plunged the region and the Democratic Republic of the Congo into a devastating conflict. After ousting President Mobutu in 1997, Laurent-Désiré Kabila assumed power. However, tensions escalated as former allies from AFDL and RPA felt sidelined and excluded from the new government. This led to a quest to topple Kabila's administration. The Rwandan-backed rebels were known as the [[Rally for Congolese Democracy]] (''Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie''; RCD). The RCD made up various factions with the common goal of challenging Kabila's government and gaining political influence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – South Kivu |url=http://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-south-kivu/ |access-date=2023-07-19 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

As a major faction opposing Laurent-Désiré Kabila's government, the RCD engaged in acts of [[violence]], committing grave atrocities against civilians. These [[Human rights|human rights abuses]] included deliberate attacks on civilian populations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stearns |first=Jason |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Dancing_in_the_Glory_of_Monsters/XAHGTnNu8KIC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=rcd+rebels+second+Congo+war&printsec=frontcover |title=Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=March 27, 2012 |isbn=9781610391597 |location=New York, New York State, United States |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ngolet |first=François |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Crisis_in_the_Congo/db1eAQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |title=Crisis in the Congo: The Rise and Fall of Laurent Kabila |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=December 14, 2010 |isbn=9780230116252 |location=London, United Kingdom |language=English}}</ref> In Walungu and surrounding areas, civilians endured [[Massacre|massacres]], [[Summary execution|summary executions]], and widespread [[Forced displacement|displacement]] due to the conflict.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – South Kivu |url=http://www.mapping-report.org/en/second-congo-war-attacks-on-other-civilian-populations-south-kivu/ |access-date=2023-07-19 |language=en-US}}</ref> RCD forces often resorted to brutal tactics to assert control over local communities and weaken perceived adversaries. Women and girls faced brutal acts of [[rape]], [[sexual assault]], and [[forced marriage]]. These nefarious acts were intended to instill fear, degrade communities, and exert dominance over the civilian population. In addition to sexual violence, the RCD was known for recruiting [[Child soldiers in Africa|child soldiers]]. Young boys, and in some cases girls, were forcibly conscripted into their ranks, exposing them to violence, abuse, and manipulation.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Child_Soldiers_in_the_Age_of_Fractured_S/dtZD6gDvJHcC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |title=Child Soldiers in the Age of Fractured States |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |year=2010 |isbn=9780822973591 |editor-last=Gates |editor-first=Scott |location=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States |pages=153 |language=English |editor-last2=Reich |editor-first2=Simon}}</ref>

==== Ongoing conflict ====
Since the [[Sun City Agreement]] in 2003, the region has been plagued by persistent insecurity and conflict due to armed groups like the [[Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda|FDLR]] (''Forces Démocratiques de Libération du Rwanda'') and [[Rasta militia]] (''les Rasta''), remnants of [[Interahamwe]], perpetuating [[violence]] and [[instability]]. The Rasta militia, an ultra-violent armed group composed of approximately fifteen Congolese dissidents, emerged in the region and has been responsible for several brutal massacres, most notably in the [[Nindja Chiefdom]] and [[Kaniola Groupement|Kaniola ''Groupement'']] between 2004 and 2007.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Bouvy |first=Alexis |date=February 2015 |title=Au-delà de la stabilisation: Comprendre les dynamiques de conflit dans le Nord et le Sud Kivu en République Démocratique du Congo |url=https://www.international-alert.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/DRC-Conflict-Dynamics-Kivus-FR-2015.pdf |access-date=2023-07-20 |website=International Alert |page=25–27 |language=French |publication-place=London, United Kingdom}}</ref>

Another source of ongoing conflict is the traditional [[Power vacuum|power struggle]] and the presence of vigilance committees; armed groups formed to protect [[Local community|local communities]].<ref name=":5" /> Nonetheless, their presence has also generated internal tensions and conflicts. The head of the [[Ngweshe Chiefdom]] in Walungu Territory's decision to depose the leader of the [[Kaniola Groupement|Kaniola ''Groupement'']] without providing a justifiable reason fueled tensions. This expulsion, coupled with the existence of armed vigilance committees and the popularity of Foka Mike, a local figure, further aggravated the power struggle and accusations of militancy.<ref name=":5" /> Civil society in Kaniola and other parts of the region has voiced grievances against the chieftaincy chief, accusing him of lacking transparency and disregarding the demands and expectations of local populations.<ref name=":5" /> Parenthetically, the issue of access to land has become a severe source of insecurity. The competition between [[customary land]] practices and formal [[land law]] has created conflicts over [[land management]] and access. Customary land rights, often precarious and unprotected, leave many farmers susceptible to dispossession and exploitation by influential private individuals who convert large portions of land into private plantations. This plight has exacerbated land inequalities, as [[Smallholding|small-scale producers]] are constrained to rent land from large landowners under insecure [[Oral contract|oral agreements]].<ref name=":5" />

== Administrative subdivisions ==
Walungu Territory is administratively divided into two [[Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|chiefdoms]] (''chefferies''), each further subdivided into ''groupements'' (groups) and ''localités'' (villages). The territory is governed by a territorial administrator and two assistant administrators, aiming to establish closer connections between the rulers and the ruled. Each chiefdom is headed by a chieftaincy commonly known as "[[Mwami]]" or "[[Mwami|Bami]]," responsible for upholding customs and overseeing succession, which is traditionally passed down from father to son. The customary chiefs work in coordination with the administrative authority but maintain some level of independence. Each ''groupement'' is led by a ''groupement'' head, often from the royal family directly or indirectly. The village chiefs (''chefs de village'') within each ''groupement'' are appointed and dismissed by the paramount ''groupement'' leader after consulting the community.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Loi organique n° 08/016 du 07 octobre 2008 portant composition, organisation et fonctionnement des Entités Territoriales Décentralisées et leurs rapports avec l'Etat et les Provinces |url=https://www.leganet.cd/Legislation/Droit%20Public/Administration.ter/L.08.16.17.10.2008.htm |access-date=2023-07-20 |website=www.leganet.cd}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mushi |first=Ferdinand Mugumo |date=January 2013 |title=Insecurity and Local Governance in Congo's South Kivu |url=https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/7398/IDSB_44_1_10.1111-1759-5436.12004.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=2023-07-2023 |website=IDS OpenDocs |page=7 |language=English}}</ref>

=== Chiefdoms (''chefferies'') ===
{| class="wikitable"
|       No
|'''Chiefdoms'''
|'''Total area (km2)'''
|'''Chief town'''
|'''''Groupements'' (groupings)'''
|-
|'''1.'''
|[[Ngweshe Chiefdom]]
|1,599 km <sup>2</sup>
|Musunda
|'''1.''' Burhale
|-
| rowspan="15" |
| rowspan="15" |
| rowspan="15" |
| rowspan="15" |
|'''2.''' Ikkoma
|-
|'''3.''' Irongo
|-
|'''4.''' Izege
|-
|'''5.''' [[Kamanyola]]
|-
|'''6.''' Kamisimbi
|-
|'''7.''' [[Kaniola Groupement|Kaniola-Kanyola]]
|-
|'''8.''' Karhongo
|-
|'''9.''' Lubona
|-
|'''10.''' Luchiga
|-
|'''11.''' Lurhala
|-
|'''12.''' Mulamba
|-
|'''13.''' Mushinga
|-
|'''14.''' Nduba
|-
|'''15.''' Rubimbi
|-
|'''16.''' Walungu
|-
|'''2.'''
|[[Kaziba Chiefdom]]
|195 km <sup>2</sup>
|Lwanguku
|'''1.''' Bulumbwe
|-
| rowspan="14" |
| rowspan="14" |
| rowspan="14" |
| rowspan="14" |
|'''2.''' Butuza
|-
|'''3.''' Chibanda
|-
|'''4.''' Chihumba
|-
|'''5.''' Chirimiro
|-
|'''6.''' Kabembe
|-
|'''7.''' Kahungwe
|-
|'''8.''' Kashanga
|-
|'''9.''' Kashozi
|-
|'''10.''' Chiburhi/Ciburhi
|-
|'''11.''' Lukube
|-
|'''12.''' Muchingwa
|-
|'''13.''' Muhumba
|-
|'''14.''' Mulambi
|-
|'''15.''' Ngando
|}


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 19:49, 21 July 2023

Walungu
Territory
MONUSCO assist in building walls for a church in 2021
MONUSCO assist in building walls for a church in 2021
Country DR Congo
ProvinceSouth Kivu
Time zoneUTC+2 (CAT)

Walungu Territory is a territory located within the South Kivu Province in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Situated approximately 40 km from Bukavu, the capital of South Kivu Province, it shares borders with Kabare Territory to the north, Mwenga Territory to the south, Uvira Territory and the Ruzizi River, as well as the Republics of Rwanda and Burundi to the east, and Shabunda Territory and part of Kabare Territory to the west. According to the 2018 national census, the region has a population of 716,671, with 672,436 residing in the Ngweshe Chiefdom and 44,235 in the Kaziba Chiefdom. Spanning an area of 1,800 km2, Walungu Territory has a population density of 398 inhabitants per square kilometer.[1]

It was the site of a plane crash on May 25, 2005[2] when a chartered Maniema Union Antonov An-28 aircraft, owned by Victoria Air, crashed into a mountain near Walungu, about 30 minutes after takeoff. All of the 22 passengers and 5 crew members were killed (see 2005 in aviation). United Nations Peacekeeping Force has also been employed to counter foreign armed groups and local militias which are committing HRVs (Human Rights Violations)[3] while exploring minerals from the area.

Geography

Walungu Territory is located between 28.44 and 28.758° E (longitude) and 2.692 and 2.625° S (latitude). It sits at an elevation between 1000 meters (at Kamanyola) and 3000 meters above sea level.[4] Covering a surface area of 1800 km2, it is a large region that encompasses a diverse range of natural features, such as mountains, lakes, rivers, forests, and fertile plains.[5] Roughly half of its terrain is situated within the Ruzizi Plain, a vast lowland area known for its fertile soils and favorable agricultural conditions. With its flat topography and favorable climate, the territory is ideal for various agricultural activities, supporting the cultivation of a wide range of crops, including maize, beans, cassava, rice, potatoes, sweet potatoes, soybeans, coffee, bananas, tomatoes, onions, and other cash crops.[6][7] Notable mountain ranges in the territory include Mount Kahuzi and the Mitumba Mountains, which provide habitats for various flora and fauna, including the endangered Eastern lowland gorillas.[8] The territory is also crossed by expansive forests and lush vegetation, forming part of the larger Congo Basin rainforest—the largest rainforest in Africa and second in size only to the Amazon rainforest. These forests support a vast array of plant and animal species, including rare and endemic species, and play a vital role in climate regulation, carbon sequestration, and the preservation of biodiversity.[9]

Hydrology

The region boasts a rich hydrological network, with numerous major rivers coursing through its landscape. Among these rivers, the Ruzizi River, Luvinvi River, Ulindi River, and Ludubo River are significant waterways in the territory that support diverse aquatic life, provide water resources for local communities, and contribute to the overall water balance of the region. The Ruzizi River serves as a natural border between the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, and Burundi. It originates from Lake Kivu and flows northward, passing through the Ruzizi Plain within the territory. Additionally, the territory is home to several smaller rivers, such as Nshesha, Mugaba, Lunzinzi, and Mayi-Mingi. These rivers may change names as they traverse different plains or marshes. Although less extensively documented, these smaller rivers likely contribute to the local water supply and play a role in maintaining the ecological balance within their respective regions.[10]

Vegetation

Walungu Territory is a diverse landscape consisting of grassy savannahs, state woodlots, and forest reserves.[10] The savannahs are home to a range of wildlife such as antelopes, zebras, wildebeests, lions, and cheetahs. These grassy plains play a key role in natural processes such as nutrient cycling, soil formation, and water infiltration. The state woodlots and forest reserves are crucial for the conservation and sustainable management of forest resources. They provide timber, firewood, and non-timber forest products for local communities while also harboring various flora and fauna. However, the forest reserves and woodlots face significant challenges from human activities. The population surrounding these areas relies heavily on natural resources for their daily needs, leading to frequent deforestation and degradation. The relentless quest for firewood and construction materials has resulted in the destruction of these forested areas.[10][11][12]

Geology

The region is characterized by clay-sandy soil that has undergone considerable weathering over time. Lateritic soil, known for its ferruginous crust and acidic nature, leads to limited fertility, particularly for crop cultivation. However, the low-lying marshy areas boast fertile soil attributed to sediment deposition from local organisms, enriched by rivers, and water erosion during the rainy season. Nonetheless, the slopes of the territory are prone to erosion, leading to a rapid decrease in agricultural productivity.[10][11] The foothills and mountains of the territory exhibit an accumulation of mineral deposits, harboring subsoil resources such as gold, iron, tantalum, wolfram, and tin, which hold significant economic potential.[13] The lateritic soils are a result of long-term weathering and leaching processes that have altered the original composition of the parent rocks. Consequently, the soil becomes impoverished in essential nutrients, affecting its ability to support robust plant growth. As a result, farmers in the region face challenges in maximizing agricultural yields due to the limitations of the soil's fertility.[11]

Climate

Walungu Territory experiences a humid subtropical climate.[10] The territory has a significant rainy season, which typically extends from September 15 to May 15, making it the longest season throughout the year. It is characterized by relatively mild temperatures, with the hottest month recording an average temperature of around 25°C. Conversely, the coldest month experiences an average temperature of approximately 18°C, contributing to a relatively comfortable year-round climate. Throughout the year, monthly temperatures within the territory exhibit variations ranging between 15°C and 25°C, indicating moderate temperature fluctuations. This moderate climate supports various outdoor activities and agricultural practices. Annual rainfall in Walungu Territory typically varies between 900 and 1,500 millimeters, illustrating a considerable range of precipitation levels.[10]

History

Walungu Territory was officially created by Presidential Decree No. 65-221 on May 3, 1967, and it was further amended by Decree No. 82-006 on February 25, 1982.[14]

Conflict and insecurity

Kwilu Rebellion and First Congo War

See also: Kwilu rebellion, First Congo War, and Kamanyola Division

Walungu Territory has a tumultuous history marked by conflict and insecurity, stemming from a combination of internal and external factors. In the late 1960s, the region played a significant role during the Mulelist insurgency, where the Zairian army achieved a key victory against the insurgency.[15][16] During the First Congo War from 1996 to 1997, the region became a battleground due to its strategic location and access to valuable resources. The conflict involved multiple armed groups, including the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL), Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), and Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB). The AFDL, led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, emerged as a rebel movement aiming to overthrow the regime of President Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire. The AFDL received significant support from RPA, led by Paul Kagame, due to concerns about the presence of Rwandan Hutu militias in eastern Zaire.[17][18]

The counter-offensive led to massacres of millions of Hutu génocidaires, Hutu refugees, and Zairean civilians in the eastern part of DRC, as documented by the United Nations Mapping Report. The AFDL/RPA units committed numerous human rights violations, deliberately attacking civilian populations, resulting in massacres, summary executions, and mass displacements. Civilians often found themselves caught in the crossfire between rival factions or targeted deliberately to exert control over local communities.[19]

Throughout October and November 1996, the AFDL/RPA units launched brutal attacks on refugees, killing hundreds of people in various locations, including the Kamanyola grouping of Ngweshe Chiefdom, Nyarubale in the Kalunga hills, and the routes between Nyantende and Walungu-Centre and Nyantende and Bukavu. Most of the victims were women, children, and the elderly. The soldiers resorted to firearms, bayonets, and shrapnel, causing immense suffering and loss of life.[19] Additionally, on 28 October 1996, the AFDL/RPA units killed five refugees in the village of Lwakabiri and, in January 1997, killed at least thirty Rwandan and Burundian Hutu refugees on the Bukavu to Walungu Territory road. Before killing the victims, the soldiers often subjected them to torture and mutilation.[19]

Second Congo War

See also: Second Congo War

The Second Congo War further plunged the region and the Democratic Republic of the Congo into a devastating conflict. After ousting President Mobutu in 1997, Laurent-Désiré Kabila assumed power. However, tensions escalated as former allies from AFDL and RPA felt sidelined and excluded from the new government. This led to a quest to topple Kabila's administration. The Rwandan-backed rebels were known as the Rally for Congolese Democracy (Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie; RCD). The RCD made up various factions with the common goal of challenging Kabila's government and gaining political influence.[20][18]

As a major faction opposing Laurent-Désiré Kabila's government, the RCD engaged in acts of violence, committing grave atrocities against civilians. These human rights abuses included deliberate attacks on civilian populations.[21][22] In Walungu and surrounding areas, civilians endured massacres, summary executions, and widespread displacement due to the conflict.[23] RCD forces often resorted to brutal tactics to assert control over local communities and weaken perceived adversaries. Women and girls faced brutal acts of rape, sexual assault, and forced marriage. These nefarious acts were intended to instill fear, degrade communities, and exert dominance over the civilian population. In addition to sexual violence, the RCD was known for recruiting child soldiers. Young boys, and in some cases girls, were forcibly conscripted into their ranks, exposing them to violence, abuse, and manipulation.[23][24]

Ongoing conflict

Since the Sun City Agreement in 2003, the region has been plagued by persistent insecurity and conflict due to armed groups like the FDLR (Forces Démocratiques de Libération du Rwanda) and Rasta militia (les Rasta), remnants of Interahamwe, perpetuating violence and instability. The Rasta militia, an ultra-violent armed group composed of approximately fifteen Congolese dissidents, emerged in the region and has been responsible for several brutal massacres, most notably in the Nindja Chiefdom and Kaniola Groupement between 2004 and 2007.[25]

Another source of ongoing conflict is the traditional power struggle and the presence of vigilance committees; armed groups formed to protect local communities.[25] Nonetheless, their presence has also generated internal tensions and conflicts. The head of the Ngweshe Chiefdom in Walungu Territory's decision to depose the leader of the Kaniola Groupement without providing a justifiable reason fueled tensions. This expulsion, coupled with the existence of armed vigilance committees and the popularity of Foka Mike, a local figure, further aggravated the power struggle and accusations of militancy.[25] Civil society in Kaniola and other parts of the region has voiced grievances against the chieftaincy chief, accusing him of lacking transparency and disregarding the demands and expectations of local populations.[25] Parenthetically, the issue of access to land has become a severe source of insecurity. The competition between customary land practices and formal land law has created conflicts over land management and access. Customary land rights, often precarious and unprotected, leave many farmers susceptible to dispossession and exploitation by influential private individuals who convert large portions of land into private plantations. This plight has exacerbated land inequalities, as small-scale producers are constrained to rent land from large landowners under insecure oral agreements.[25]

Administrative subdivisions

Walungu Territory is administratively divided into two chiefdoms (chefferies), each further subdivided into groupements (groups) and localités (villages). The territory is governed by a territorial administrator and two assistant administrators, aiming to establish closer connections between the rulers and the ruled. Each chiefdom is headed by a chieftaincy commonly known as "Mwami" or "Bami," responsible for upholding customs and overseeing succession, which is traditionally passed down from father to son. The customary chiefs work in coordination with the administrative authority but maintain some level of independence. Each groupement is led by a groupement head, often from the royal family directly or indirectly. The village chiefs (chefs de village) within each groupement are appointed and dismissed by the paramount groupement leader after consulting the community.[26][27]

Chiefdoms (chefferies)

       No Chiefdoms Total area (km2) Chief town Groupements (groupings)
1. Ngweshe Chiefdom 1,599 km 2 Musunda 1. Burhale
2. Ikkoma
3. Irongo
4. Izege
5. Kamanyola
6. Kamisimbi
7. Kaniola-Kanyola
8. Karhongo
9. Lubona
10. Luchiga
11. Lurhala
12. Mulamba
13. Mushinga
14. Nduba
15. Rubimbi
16. Walungu
2. Kaziba Chiefdom 195 km 2 Lwanguku 1. Bulumbwe
2. Butuza
3. Chibanda
4. Chihumba
5. Chirimiro
6. Kabembe
7. Kahungwe
8. Kashanga
9. Kashozi
10. Chiburhi/Ciburhi
11. Lukube
12. Muchingwa
13. Muhumba
14. Mulambi
15. Ngando

References

  1. ^ "Sources of Conflict In Walungu Territory: Kalinzi, Maji and Mujakazi" (PDF). Arlington County, Virginia, United States: Management Systems International (MSI). August 21, 2019. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-07-17.
  2. ^ Congo Planet news article on plane crash
  3. ^ "Democratic Republic of Congo: Civilians at Risk During Disarmament Operations – Human Rights Abuses of Civilians by Armed Groups in Walungu". Human Rights Watch. December 29, 2004.
  4. ^ Ndeko, Adrien Byamungu; Géant, Chuma Basimine; Chokola, Gloire Musafiri; Zihalirwa, Parent Kulimushi (October 24, 2022). "Soil properties shape the arbuscular mycorrhizal status of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and soil mycorhizal potential in Kabare and Walungu territories, Eastern DR Congo" (PDF). Research Square. Durham, North Carolina, United States. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-07-18.
  5. ^ Bisimwa, Patrick; Birindwa, Bwihangane A.; Banswe, Gédéon; Shukuru, Wasso (April 13, 2018). "Prevalence of Gastro-Intestinal Helminths in Slaughtered Cattle in Walungu Territory, South Kivu Province, Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo" (PDF). Austin Publishing Group. Monroe Township, New Jersey, United States. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-07-18.
  6. ^ Mondo, Jean M.; Chuma, Géant B.; Kwalya, Pecos B.; Balagizi, Sébastien A.; Ndjadi, Serge S.; Mugumaarhahama, Yannick; Balezi, Alphonse Z.; Karume, Katcho; Mushagalusa, Gustave N.; Civava, René M. (2021-12-01). "Neglected and underutilized crop species in Kabare and Walungu territories, Eastern D.R. Congo: Identification, uses and socio-economic importance". Journal of Agriculture and Food Research. 6: 100234. doi:10.1016/j.jafr.2021.100234. ISSN 2666-1543.
  7. ^ Overbeek, Fons van (October 3, 2022). Shaping Claims to Urban Land: An Ethnographic Guide to Governmentality in Bukavu's Hybrid Spaces. Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter. p. 31. ISBN 9783110734539.
  8. ^ "Ethnic Tribes in Bukavu | Bukavu City". Kahuzi Biega National Park. 2022-01-13. Retrieved 2023-07-18.
  9. ^ Pandolfi, Massimo (1989). Equatorial Africa. Oxford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom: Raintree Publishers. p. 115. ISBN 9780817233402.
  10. ^ a b c d e f "Rapport final des consultations participatives de la base pour l'élaboration du Document de Stratégies de Réduction de la Pauvreté (DSRP) Territoire de Walungu - Province du Sud Kivu" (PDF). University of Texas Libraries | The University of Texas at Austin. 2004. pp. 18–19. Retrieved 2023-07-18.
  11. ^ a b c Shao, Hua; Chen, Xi; Ndayisaba, Felix; Nahayo, Lamek; Kayiranga, Alphonse; Omifolaji, James Kehinde; Liu, Tong; Zhang, Chi (Fidele). "Deforestation Effects on Soil Erosion in the Lake Kivu Basin, D.R. Congo-Rwanda" (PDF). MDPI. Basel, Switzerland. Retrieved 2023-07-19. {{cite web}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ topschoolsintheusa. "Ecological Problems of Democratic Republic of the Congo – Top Schools in the USA". Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  13. ^ Minerals Yearbook: Area Reports: International Review 2014 Africa and the Middle East. Editors: Geological Survey, Interior Department, Mines Bureau. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. April 19, 2018. ISBN 9781411341739.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  14. ^ "Sources of Conflict In Walungu Territory: Kalinzi, Maji and Mujakazi" (PDF). Arlington County, Virginia, United States: Management Systems International (MSI). August 21, 2019. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-07-17.
  15. ^ Mazrui, Ali AlʼAmin; Tidy, Michael (1984). Nationalism and new states in Africa from about 1935 to the present. London, United Kingdom: Pearson Education. p. 218. ISBN 9780435941451.
  16. ^ Gribbin, Robert E. (2005). In the Aftermath of Genocide: The U.S. Role in Rwanda. Bloomington, Indiana, United States: iUniverse. p. 190. ISBN 9780595344116.
  17. ^ "Attacks against Hutu refugees - Walungu and Kabare (South Kivu)". Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  18. ^ a b Cooper, Tom (2013). Great Lakes Holocaust: The First Congo War, 1996-1997. Havertown, Pennsylvania, United States: Casemate Publishers. pp. 37–50. ISBN 9781909384651.
  19. ^ a b c "Attacks against Hutu refugees - Walungu and Kabare (South Kivu)". Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  20. ^ "Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – South Kivu". Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  21. ^ Stearns, Jason (March 27, 2012). Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa. New York, New York State, United States: PublicAffairs. ISBN 9781610391597.
  22. ^ Ngolet, François (December 14, 2010). Crisis in the Congo: The Rise and Fall of Laurent Kabila. London, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230116252.
  23. ^ a b "Second Congo War – Attacks on other civilian populations – South Kivu". Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  24. ^ Gates, Scott; Reich, Simon, eds. (2010). Child Soldiers in the Age of Fractured States. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States: University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 153. ISBN 9780822973591.
  25. ^ a b c d e Bouvy, Alexis (February 2015). "Au-delà de la stabilisation: Comprendre les dynamiques de conflit dans le Nord et le Sud Kivu en République Démocratique du Congo" (PDF). International Alert (in French). London, United Kingdom. p. 25–27. Retrieved 2023-07-20.
  26. ^ "Loi organique n° 08/016 du 07 octobre 2008 portant composition, organisation et fonctionnement des Entités Territoriales Décentralisées et leurs rapports avec l'Etat et les Provinces". www.leganet.cd. Retrieved 2023-07-20.
  27. ^ Mushi, Ferdinand Mugumo (January 2013). "Insecurity and Local Governance in Congo's South Kivu" (PDF). IDS OpenDocs. p. 7. Retrieved 2023-07-2023. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)

External links

2°38′S 28°40′E / 2.633°S 28.667°E / -2.633; 28.667


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