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'''''Ascophyllum nodosum''''' is a large, common cold water seaweed or [[Phaeophyceae|brown alga]] ([[Phaeophyceae]]) in the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Fucaceae]]. A. nodosum is also known in localities as '''feamainn bhuí''', '''rockweed''', '''Norwegian kelp''', '''knotted kelp''', '''knotted wrack''' or '''egg wrack'''. It is a [[seaweed]] that dominates the [[intertidal zone]]<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |author=O. Morton |year=2003 |title=The marine macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland |journal=[[Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society]] |volume=27 |pages=3–164}}</ref> <ref name=":3">{{cite book |author=O. Morton |title=Marine Algae of Northern Ireland |publisher=[[Ulster Museum]], Belfast |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-900761-28-7}}</ref> and grows only in the northern [[Atlantic Ocean]], along the north-western coast of [[Europe]] (from the [[White Sea]] to [[Portugal]]) including east [[Greenland]]<ref name="AlgaeBase2">{{cite web |author1=M. D. Guiry |author2=Wendy Guiry |name-list-style=amp |date=2006-11-23 |title=''Ascophyllum nodosum'' (Linnaeus) Le Jolis |url=http://www.algaebase.org/speciesdetail.lasso?species_id=5&sk=0&from=results |website=[[AlgaeBase]]}}</ref> and the north-eastern coast of [[North America|North America,]] its range further south of these latitudes being limited by warmer ocean waters.<ref name="Taylor 622">{{cite book |author=W. R. Taylor |title=Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America |publisher=Ann Arbor, [[University of Michigan Press]] |year=1962 |isbn=978-0-472-04904-2}}</ref> Ascophyllum nodosum has been used numerous times in scientific research and has even been found to benefit humans through consumption.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Fitton |first=Janet Helen |date=2011 |title=Therapies from fucoidan; multifunctional marine polymers |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22072995 |journal=Marine Drugs |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=1731–1760 |doi=10.3390/md9101731 |issn=1660-3397 |pmc=3210604 |pmid=22072995}}</ref>


== Scientific Name History ==
'''''Ascophyllum nodosum''''' is a large, common cold water seaweed or [[Phaeophyceae|brown alga]] ([[Phaeophyceae]]) in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Fucaceae]], being the only [[species]] in the [[genus]] '''''Ascophyllum'''''. It is a [[seaweed]] that grows only in the northern [[Atlantic Ocean]], also known in localities as '''feamainn bhuí''', '''rockweed''', '''Norwegian kelp''', '''knotted kelp''', '''knotted wrack''' or '''egg wrack'''. It is common on the north-western coast of [[Europe]] (from the [[White Sea]] to [[Portugal]]) including east [[Greenland]]<ref name="AlgaeBase">{{cite web |url=http://www.algaebase.org/speciesdetail.lasso?species_id=5&sk=0&from=results |website=[[AlgaeBase]] |title=''Ascophyllum nodosum'' (Linnaeus) Le Jolis |author1=M. D. Guiry |author2=Wendy Guiry |name-list-style=amp |date=2006-11-23}}</ref> and the north-eastern coast of [[North America]], its range further south of these latitudes being limited by warmer ocean waters.<ref name="Taylor 62">{{cite book |author=W. R. Taylor |year=1962 |title=Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America |publisher=Ann Arbor, [[University of Michigan Press]] |isbn=978-0-472-04904-2}}</ref>
A. nodosum is the only [[species]] in the [[genus]] '''''Ascophyllum'''''. "The original name (basionym) was [[Fucus]] nodosus [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] 1753. The species was transferred to the genus Ascophyllum (as Ascophylla) by Stackhouse (Papenfuss 1950), under the name Ascophyllum laevigata(Guiry and Guiry 2020). The combination Ascophyllum nodosum was made by Le Jolis (1863)."<ref name=":02">Pereira, L., Morrison, L., Shukla, P. S., & Critchley, A. T. (2020). A concise review of the brown macroalga Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis. ''Journal of Applied Phycology, 32''(6), 3561-3584. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02246-6</nowiki></ref>.


==Description==
==Description==
''Ascophyllum nodosum'' has long tough and leathery fronds,<ref name="Bunker 2017">Bunker, F.StP., [[Christine Maggs|Maggs, C.A.]], Brodie, J.A. and Bunker, J.A. 2017. ''Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland.'' Second Edition. Wild Nature Press, Plymouth, UK. {{ISBN|978-0-9955673-3-7}}</ref> irregularly dichotomously branched <ref>Newton, L. 1931. ''A Handbook of the British Seaweeds.'' British Museum, London</ref>[[frond]]s with large, egg-shaped air bladders set in series at regular intervals along the fronds and not stalked. The fronds can reach 2&nbsp;m in length and are attached by a [[holdfast (biology)|holdfast]] to rocks and boulders. The fronds are olive-green,<ref>Harvey, W.H. 1841. ''A Manual of the British Algae'': London, John van Voorst, London</ref> olive-brown in color and somewhat compressed, but without a midrib.<ref>{{cite journal |author=S. Hiscock |year=1979 |title=A field key to the British brown seaweeds (Heterokontophyta) |journal=Field Studies |volume=5 |pages=1–44}}</ref>
''Ascophyllum nodosum'' has long tough and leathery fronds,<ref name="Bunker 2017">Bunker, F.StP., [[Christine Maggs|Maggs, C.A.]], Brodie, J.A. and Bunker, J.A. 2017. ''Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland.'' Second Edition. Wild Nature Press, Plymouth, UK. {{ISBN|978-0-9955673-3-7}}</ref> irregularly dichotomously branched <ref>Newton, L. 1931. ''A Handbook of the British Seaweeds.'' British Museum, London</ref>[[frond]]s with large, egg-shaped air bladders set in series at regular intervals along the fronds and not stalked. The air bladders create a way for fronds broken by wave exposure or other causes to be dispersed and regrow in other areas.<ref name=":1">Arbuckle, J., Beal, B., Brawley, S., Domizi, S., Mercer, L., Preston, D., Seaver, G., Sferra, N., Thayer, P., Ugarte, R., Vonderweidt, C. 2014. Fishery management plan for rockweed (''Ascophyllum nodosum''). Maine Department of Marine Resources. https://www.maine.gov/dmr/sites/maine.gov.dmr/files/docs/DMRRockweedFMPJan2014.pdf</ref> While the fronds can reach up to 2m, the length depends on wave exposure: the length increases with water velocity until a certain point, then decreases as waves become more intense.<ref name=":1" /> The fronds can reach 2&nbsp;m in length and are attached by a holdfast to rocks and boulders. In rare cases, the fronds can reach 6m long<ref name=":03">Pereira, L., Morrison, L., Shukla, P. S., & Critchley, A. T. (2020). A concise review of the brown macroalga Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis. ''Journal of Applied Phycology, 32''(6), 3561-3584. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02246-6</nowiki></ref>. The fronds are olive-green,<ref>Harvey, W.H. 1841. ''A Manual of the British Algae'': London, John van Voorst, London</ref> olive-brown in color and somewhat compressed, but without a midrib.<ref>{{cite journal |author=S. Hiscock |year=1979 |title=A field key to the British brown seaweeds (Heterokontophyta) |journal=Field Studies |volume=5 |pages=1–44}}</ref>


==Reproduction==
==Reproduction==
Its life history is of one [[diploid]] plant and [[gamete]]s. Each individual plant is either male or female.<ref name="Bunker 2017"/> The gametes are produced in the spring<ref name="Bunker 2017"/> in [[conceptacles]] embedded in yellowish [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacles]] on short branches.<ref name="Taylor 62"/><ref>{{cite book |author1=H. Stegenga |author2=J. J. Bolton |author3=R. J. Anderson |year=1997 |title=Seaweeds of the South African West Coast |publisher=Bolus Herbarium Humber 18, [[University of Cape Town]] |isbn=978-0-7992-1793-3}}</ref> A year after the plant is fertilized, the first frond grows, and at the beginning of year 2, an air bladder forms, which creates a way to age the plants.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arbuckle, J. |author2=Beal, B. |author3=Brawley, S. |author4=Domizi, S. |author5=Mercer, L. |author6=Preston, D. |author7=Seaver, G. |author8=Sferra, N. |author9=Thayer, P. |author10=Ugarte, R. |author11=Vonderweidt, C. |date=January 2014 |title=Fishery Management Plan for Rockweed (''Ascophyllum nodosum'') |url=https://www.maine.gov/dmr/sites/maine.gov.dmr/files/docs/DMRRockweedFMPJan2014.pdf |access-date=October 6, 2023 |publisher=Maine Department of Marine Resources}}</ref>
Each individual plant is <u>dioecious:</u> either male or female.<ref name="Bunker 20172">Bunker, F.StP., [[Christine Maggs|Maggs, C.A.]], Brodie, J.A. and Bunker, J.A. 2017. ''Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland.'' Second Edition. Wild Nature Press, Plymouth, UK. {{ISBN|978-0-9955673-3-7}}</ref> The gametes from one plant are produced in the spring<ref name="Bunker 20172" /> in conceptacles embedded in yellowish receptacles on short branches.<ref name="Taylor 6222">{{cite book |author=W. R. Taylor |title=Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America |publisher=Ann Arbor, [[University of Michigan Press]] |year=1962 |isbn=978-0-472-04904-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=H. Stegenga |title=Seaweeds of the South African West Coast |author2=J. J. Bolton |author3=R. J. Anderson |publisher=Bolus Herbarium Humber 18, [[University of Cape Town]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7992-1793-3}}</ref> A year after the plant is fertilized and forms a zygote, the first frond grows, and at the beginning of year 2, an air bladder forms, which creates a way to age the plants.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arbuckle, J. |author2=Beal, B. |author3=Brawley, S. |author4=Domizi, S. |author5=Mercer, L. |author6=Preston, D. |author7=Seaver, G. |author8=Sferra, N. |author9=Thayer, P. |date=January 2014 |title=Fishery Management Plan for Rockweed (''Ascophyllum nodosum'') |url=https://www.maine.gov/dmr/sites/maine.gov.dmr/files/docs/DMRRockweedFMPJan2014.pdf |access-date=October 6, 2023 |publisher=Maine Department of Marine Resources |author10=Ugarte, R. |author11=Vonderweidt, C.}}</ref>


===Varieties and forms===
===Varieties and forms===
Several different varieties and forms of this species have been described.
Several different varieties and forms of this species have been described, <u>including the two below.</u>

* ''Ascophyllum nodosum'' var. ''minor'' has been described from [[Larne Lough]] in [[Northern Ireland]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=M. J. Lynn |year=1949 |title=A rare alga from Larne Lough |journal=[[Irish Naturalists' Journal]] |volume=9 |pages=301–304}}</ref>
* ''Ascophyllum nodosum'' var. ''minor'' has been described from [[Larne Lough]] in [[Northern Ireland]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=M. J. Lynn |year=1949 |title=A rare alga from Larne Lough |journal=[[Irish Naturalists' Journal]] |volume=9 |pages=301–304}}</ref>


Free-floating forms of this species are found in, for example, ''A. n. mackaii'' Cotton, which is found at very sheltered locations, such as at the heads of [[sea loch]]s in [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=D. C. Gibb |year=1957 |title=The free-living forms of ''Ascophyllum nodosum'' (L.) Le Jol |journal=[[Journal of Ecology]] |volume=45 |pages=49–83 |doi=10.2307/2257076 |issue=1 |jstor=2257076}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=O. Morton |year=2003 |title=The marine macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland |journal=[[Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society]] |volume=27 |pages=3–164}}</ref>
* Free-floating forms of this species are found in, for example, ''A. n. mackaii'' Cotton, which is found at very sheltered locations, such as at the heads of [[Sea loch|sea lochs]] in [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=D. C. Gibb |year=1957 |title=The free-living forms of ''Ascophyllum nodosum'' (L.) Le Jol |journal=[[Journal of Ecology]] |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=49–83 |doi=10.2307/2257076 |jstor=2257076}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{cite journal |author=O. Morton |year=2003 |title=The marine macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland |journal=[[Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society]] |volume=27 |pages=3–164}}</ref>


==Ecology==
==Ecology==
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This seaweed grows quite slowly, 0.5% per day, carrying capacity is about 40&nbsp;kg wet weight per square meter, and it may live for 10–15 years. It may typically overlap in distribution with ''[[Fucus vesiculosus]]'' and ''[[Fucus serratus]]''. Its distribution is also limited by salinity, wave exposure, temperature, desiccation, and general stress.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schonbeck | first1 = M. W. | last2 = Norton | first2 = T. A. | year = 1980 | title = Factors controlling the lower limits of fucoid algae on the shore | journal = J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. | volume = 43 | issue = 2| pages = 131–150 | doi=10.1016/0022-0981(80)90021-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Seip | first1 = K. L. | year = 1980 | title = A mathematical model of competition and colonization in a community of marine benthic algae | journal = Ecological Modelling | volume = 10 | issue = 2| pages = 77–104 | doi=10.1016/0304-3800(80)90065-4}}</ref><ref>Seip K. L. "Mathematical models of rocky shore ecosystems". In: Jørgensen S. E. & Mitch W J. (Eds.) Application of ecological modelling in environmental management, Part B, Chap 13, pp 341-433.</ref> It may take approximately five years before becoming fertile.
This seaweed grows quite slowly, 0.5% per day, carrying capacity is about 40&nbsp;kg wet weight per square meter, and it may live for 10–15 years. It may typically overlap in distribution with ''[[Fucus vesiculosus]]'' and ''[[Fucus serratus]]''. Its distribution is also limited by salinity, wave exposure, temperature, desiccation, and general stress.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schonbeck | first1 = M. W. | last2 = Norton | first2 = T. A. | year = 1980 | title = Factors controlling the lower limits of fucoid algae on the shore | journal = J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. | volume = 43 | issue = 2| pages = 131–150 | doi=10.1016/0022-0981(80)90021-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Seip | first1 = K. L. | year = 1980 | title = A mathematical model of competition and colonization in a community of marine benthic algae | journal = Ecological Modelling | volume = 10 | issue = 2| pages = 77–104 | doi=10.1016/0304-3800(80)90065-4}}</ref><ref>Seip K. L. "Mathematical models of rocky shore ecosystems". In: Jørgensen S. E. & Mitch W J. (Eds.) Application of ecological modelling in environmental management, Part B, Chap 13, pp 341-433.</ref> It may take approximately five years before becoming fertile.


Ascophyllum nodosum is an autotroph, meaning that it makes its own food. Like other plants and algae, knotted wrack undergoes photosynthesis. The air bladders on A. nodosum serve as a flotation device, which allows sunlight to reach the plant better, aiding photosynthesis. <ref name=":04">Pereira, L., Morrison, L., Shukla, P. S., & Critchley, A. T. (2020). A concise review of the brown macroalga Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis. ''Journal of Applied Phycology, 32''(6), 3561-3584. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02246-6</nowiki></ref>
⚫
[[Phlorotannin]]s in ''A. nodosum'' act as chemical defenses against the marine herbivorous snail, ''[[Littorina littorea]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Geiselman | first1 = J. A. | last2 = McConnell | first2 = O. J. | year = 1981 | title = Polyphenols in brown algae Fucus vesiculosus and Ascophyllum nodosum: Chemical defenses against the marine herbivorous snail, Littorina littorea | journal = Journal of Chemical Ecology | volume = 7 | issue = 6| pages = 1115–1133 | doi = 10.1007/BF00987632 | pmid = 24420835 | s2cid = 21550668 }}</ref>

Excess sperm can be released during the reproductive process of Ascophyllum nodosum, which can then act as a food source for plankton consumers. The coverage created by mats of A. nodosum can serve as protection for several marine species, including barnacles (Semibalanus balanoides) , periwinkles (genus littorina), and marine isopods.<ref name=":12">Arbuckle, J., Beal, B., Brawley, S., Domizi, S., Mercer, L., Preston, D., Seaver, G., Sferra, N., Thayer, P., Ugarte, R., Vonderweidt, C. 2014. Fishery management plan for rockweed (''Ascophyllum nodosum''). Maine Department of Marine Resources. https://www.maine.gov/dmr/sites/maine.gov.dmr/files/docs/DMRRockweedFMPJan2014.pdf</ref>

⚫
[[Phlorotannin]]s in ''A. nodosum'' act as chemical defenses against the marine herbivorous snail, ''[[Littorina littorea]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geiselman |first1=J. A. |last2=McConnell |first2=O. J. |year=1981 |title=Polyphenols in brown algae Fucus vesiculosus and Ascophyllum nodosum: Chemical defenses against the marine herbivorous snail, Littorina littorea |journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=1115–1133 |doi=10.1007/BF00987632 |pmid=24420835 |s2cid=21550668}}</ref>


''[[Polysiphonia lanosa]]'' (L.) T.A. Christensen is a small [[red alga]], commonly found growing in dense tufts on ''Ascophyllum'' whose [[rhizoid]]s penetrate the host.<ref>{{cite book |author=C. A. Maggs |author-link=Christine Maggs|year=1993 |title=Seaweeds of the British Isles. Vol. I: Rhodophyta. Part 3A |publisher=[[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]], London |isbn=978-0-11-310045-3}}</ref> It is considered by some as [[parasitic]]; however, as it only receives structural support from knotted wrack (not parasitically), it acts as an [[epiphyte]].
''[[Polysiphonia lanosa]]'' (L.) T.A. Christensen is a small [[red alga]], commonly found growing in dense tufts on ''Ascophyllum'' whose [[rhizoid]]s penetrate the host.<ref>{{cite book |author=C. A. Maggs |author-link=Christine Maggs|year=1993 |title=Seaweeds of the British Isles. Vol. I: Rhodophyta. Part 3A |publisher=[[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]], London |isbn=978-0-11-310045-3}}</ref> It is considered by some as [[parasitic]]; however, as it only receives structural support from knotted wrack (not parasitically), it acts as an [[epiphyte]].
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==Distribution==
==Distribution==
[[File:INaturalist Ascophyllum nodosum 2.jpg |thumb| Observed in [[Zeeland]], Netherlands<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/20255309 |title = Knotted Wrack (Ascophyllum nodosum)| date=10 February 2019 }}</ref>]]
[[File:INaturalist Ascophyllum nodosum 2.jpg |thumb| Observed in [[Zeeland]], Netherlands<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/20255309 |title = Knotted Wrack (Ascophyllum nodosum)| date=10 February 2019 }}</ref>]]
This species has been recorded in Europe from [[Ireland]], the [[White Sea]],<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://naukarus.com/produktsiya-buryh-vodorosley-ascophyllum-nodosum-i-fucus-vesiculosus-v-belom-more | title=Продукция Бурых Водорослей Ascophyllum Nodosum И Fucus Vesiculosus В Белом Море | journal=Биология Моря | year=2009 | volume=35 | issue=5 }}</ref> the [[Faroe Islands]],<ref>{{cite book |author=F. Børgesen |year=1903 |title=Botany of the Færöes Part II, pp. 339–532 |publisher=Det nordiske Forlag Ernst Bojesen, Copenhagen |author-link=Frederik Børgesen|title-link=Botany of the Faeroes }}</ref> [[Norway]],<ref>{{cite book |author=F. E. Round |year=1981 |title=The Ecology of Algae |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-22583-0}}</ref> [[Great Britain|Britain]] and [[Isle of Man]],<ref>{{cite book |author1=F. G. Hardy |author2=M. D. Guiry |name-list-style=amp |year=2006 |title=A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland |publisher=[[British Phycological Society]], London |isbn=978-3-906166-35-3}}</ref> [[Netherlands]],<ref>{{cite journal |author1=H. Stegenga |author2=I. Mol |author3=W. F. Prud'homme van Reine |author4=G. M. Lokhorst |year=1997 |title=Checklist of the marine algae of the Netherlands |series=supplement |journal=[[Gorteria]] |volume=4 |pages=3–57}}</ref> and North America from the [[Bay of Fundy]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Baffin Island]], [[Hudson Strait]], [[Labrador]], and [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]].<ref name="AlgaeBase"/><ref name="Taylor 62"/> It has been recorded as an accidental introduction near [[San Francisco]], California, and eradicated as a potential [[invasive species]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=A. W. Miller |author2=A. L. Chang |author3=N. Cosentino-Manning |author4=G. M. Ruiz |year=2004 |title=A new record and eradication of the north Atlantic alga ''Ascophyllum nodosum'' (Phaeophyceae) from San Francisco Bay, California, USA |journal=[[Journal of Phycology]] |volume=40 |issue=6 |pages=1028–1031 |doi=10.1111/j.1529-8817.2004.04081.x|s2cid=85943266 }}</ref>
This species has been recorded in Europe from [[Ireland]], the [[White Sea]],<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://naukarus.com/produktsiya-buryh-vodorosley-ascophyllum-nodosum-i-fucus-vesiculosus-v-belom-more | title=Продукция Бурых Водорослей Ascophyllum Nodosum И Fucus Vesiculosus В Белом Море | journal=Биология Моря | year=2009 | volume=35 | issue=5 }}</ref> the [[Faroe Islands]],<ref>{{cite book |author=F. Børgesen |year=1903 |title=Botany of the Færöes Part II, pp. 339–532 |publisher=Det nordiske Forlag Ernst Bojesen, Copenhagen |author-link=Frederik Børgesen|title-link=Botany of the Faeroes }}</ref> [[Norway]],<ref>{{cite book |author=F. E. Round |year=1981 |title=The Ecology of Algae |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-22583-0}}</ref> [[Great Britain|Britain]] and [[Isle of Man]],<ref>{{cite book |author1=F. G. Hardy |author2=M. D. Guiry |name-list-style=amp |year=2006 |title=A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland |publisher=[[British Phycological Society]], London |isbn=978-3-906166-35-3}}</ref> [[Netherlands]],<ref>{{cite journal |author1=H. Stegenga |author2=I. Mol |author3=W. F. Prud'homme van Reine |author4=G. M. Lokhorst |year=1997 |title=Checklist of the marine algae of the Netherlands |series=supplement |journal=[[Gorteria]] |volume=4 |pages=3–57}}</ref> and North America from the [[Bay of Fundy]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Baffin Island]], [[Hudson Strait]], [[Labrador]], and [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]].<ref name="AlgaeBase">{{cite web |author1=M. D. Guiry |author2=Wendy Guiry |name-list-style=amp |date=2006-11-23 |title=''Ascophyllum nodosum'' (Linnaeus) Le Jolis |url=http://www.algaebase.org/speciesdetail.lasso?species_id=5&sk=0&from=results |website=[[AlgaeBase]]}}</ref><ref name="Taylor 62">{{cite book |author=W. R. Taylor |title=Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America |publisher=Ann Arbor, [[University of Michigan Press]] |year=1962 |isbn=978-0-472-04904-2}}</ref> The southern boundary of A. nodosum ends around Long Island, NY, on account of higher water temperatures when traveling farther south.<ref name=":05">Pereira, L., Morrison, L., Shukla, P. S., & Critchley, A. T. (2020). A concise review of the brown macroalga Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis. ''Journal of Applied Phycology, 32''(6), 3561-3584. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02246-6</nowiki></ref> It has been recorded as an accidental introduction near [[San Francisco]], California, and eradicated as a potential [[invasive species]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=A. W. Miller |author2=A. L. Chang |author3=N. Cosentino-Manning |author4=G. M. Ruiz |year=2004 |title=A new record and eradication of the north Atlantic alga ''Ascophyllum nodosum'' (Phaeophyceae) from San Francisco Bay, California, USA |journal=[[Journal of Phycology]] |volume=40 |issue=6 |pages=1028–1031 |doi=10.1111/j.1529-8817.2004.04081.x|s2cid=85943266 }}</ref>


==Uses==
==Uses==
The consumption of ''Ascophyllum nodosum'' has been proven to have dental benefits in humans,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van Dijken |first1=Jan W. V. |last2=Koistinen |first2=S. |last3=Ramberg |first3=Per |date=2015 |title=A randomized controlled clinical study of the effect of daily intake of Ascophyllum nodosum alga on calculus, plaque, and gingivitis |journal=Clinical Oral Investigations |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=1507–1518 |doi=10.1007/s00784-014-1383-2 |issn=1436-3771 |pmid=25511384|s2cid=254086069 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Wikner |first1=S. |last2=Timander |first2=Christina |last3=Bergström |first3=J. |date=2007 |title=The systemic effect of a food additive on dental plaque and calculus |s2cid=34112885 |language=en}}</ref> dogs<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gawor |first1=Jerzy |last2=Jank |first2=Michał |last3=Jodkowska |first3=Katarzyna |last4=Klim |first4=Emilia |last5=Svensson |first5=Ulla K. |date=2018-07-27 |title=Effects of Edible Treats Containing Ascophyllum nodosum on the Oral Health of Dogs: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Single-Center Study |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |volume=5 |page=168 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2018.00168 |issn=2297-1769 |pmc=6080642 |pmid=30109236 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Gawor |first1=J |last2=Jodkowska |first2=K |last3=Jank |first3=M |date=2013 |title=Effects of an Ascophyllum Nodosum Formulation on Oral Health Index in Dogs and Cats |journal=Weterynaria W Praktyce (Veterinary Medicine in Practice) Magazine |issue=10 |page=74}}</ref> and cats.<ref name=":0" /> It is also consumed by humans and animals as a nutritional supplement.
The consumption of ''Ascophyllum nodosum'' has been proven to have dental benefits in humans,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van Dijken |first1=Jan W. V. |last2=Koistinen |first2=S. |last3=Ramberg |first3=Per |date=2015 |title=A randomized controlled clinical study of the effect of daily intake of Ascophyllum nodosum alga on calculus, plaque, and gingivitis |journal=Clinical Oral Investigations |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=1507–1518 |doi=10.1007/s00784-014-1383-2 |issn=1436-3771 |pmid=25511384 |s2cid=254086069}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Wikner |first1=S. |last2=Timander |first2=Christina |last3=Bergström |first3=J. |date=2007 |title=The systemic effect of a food additive on dental plaque and calculus |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-systemic-effect-of-a-food-additive-on-dental-Wikner-Timander/6897a20a2a7934e2efb3b80c9792233af3bd0bd6 |access-date=2023-03-28 |website=www.semanticscholar.org |language=en |s2cid=34112885}}</ref> dogs<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gawor |first1=Jerzy |last2=Jank |first2=Michał |last3=Jodkowska |first3=Katarzyna |last4=Klim |first4=Emilia |last5=Svensson |first5=Ulla K. |date=2018-07-27 |title=Effects of Edible Treats Containing Ascophyllum nodosum on the Oral Health of Dogs: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Single-Center Study |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |volume=5 |page=168 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2018.00168 |issn=2297-1769 |pmc=6080642 |pmid=30109236 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":022">{{Cite journal |last1=Gawor |first1=J |last2=Jodkowska |first2=K |last3=Jank |first3=M |date=2013 |title=Effects of an Ascophyllum Nodosum Formulation on Oral Health Index in Dogs and Cats |journal=Weterynaria W Praktyce (Veterinary Medicine in Practice) Magazine |issue=10 |page=74}}</ref> and cats.<ref name=":022" /> In addition to dental benefits, A. nodosum can reduce inflammation and speed up healing, especially after a serious injury.<ref name=":06">Pereira, L., Morrison, L., Shukla, P. S., & Critchley, A. T. (2020). A concise review of the brown macroalga Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis. ''Journal of Applied Phycology, 32''(6), 3561-3584. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02246-6</nowiki></ref> Brown algae contains fucoidans, which are "sulfated, fucose-rich polymers". Fucoidans block selectins, which are receptors on white blood cells that allow those cells to enter a tissue, causing inflammation. Since the fucoidans block inflammation, A. nodosum can be considered an anti-inflammatory. <ref name=":42">{{Cite journal |last=Fitton |first=Janet Helen |date=2011 |title=Therapies from fucoidan; multifunctional marine polymers |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22072995 |journal=Marine Drugs |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=1731–1760 |doi=10.3390/md9101731 |issn=1660-3397 |pmc=3210604 |pmid=22072995}}</ref>

In "The effects of Ascophyllum nodosum, Camellia sinensis-leaf extract, and their joint interventions on glycolipid and energy metabolism in obese mice", it was discovered that ascophyllum nodosum extracts can be used to control body weight in obese mice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Xu |first=Yuhan |last2=Jia |first2=Xiuzhen |last3=Zhang |first3=Wei |last4=Xie |first4=Qiaoling |last5=Zhu |first5=Meizhen |last6=Zhao |first6=Zifu |last7=Hao |first7=Jingyu |last8=Li |first8=Haoqiu |last9=Du |first9=Jinrui |last10=Liu |first10=Yan |last11=Feng |first11=Haotian |last12=He |first12=Jian |last13=Li |first13=Hongwei |date=2023 |title=The effects of Ascophyllum nodosum, Camellia sinensis-leaf extract, and their joint interventions on glycolipid and energy metabolism in obese mice |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37693249 |journal=Frontiers in Nutrition |volume=10 |pages=1242157 |doi=10.3389/fnut.2023.1242157 |issn=2296-861X |pmc=PMC10483828 |pmid=37693249}}</ref> There is potential for these extracts to be efficient in humans, but most studies focus on the effects in small rodents, so more testing needs to be done.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Keleszade |first=Enver |last2=Patterson |first2=Michael |last3=Trangmar |first3=Steven |last4=Guinan |first4=Kieran J. |last5=Costabile |first5=Adele |date=2021-01-30 |title=Clinical Efficacy of Brown Seaweeds Ascophyllum nodosum and Fucus vesiculosus in the Prevention or Delay Progression of the Metabolic Syndrome: A Review of Clinical Trials |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33573121 |journal=Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=714 |doi=10.3390/molecules26030714 |issn=1420-3049 |pmc=7866543 |pmid=33573121}}</ref>


''Ascophyllum nodosum'' is harvested for use in [[alginate]]s, [[fertiliser]]s, and the manufacture of seaweed meal for animal and human consumption.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac860e/ac860e02.htm | title=Production, Trade and Utilization of Seaweeds and Seaweed Products}}</ref> It has long been used as an organic and mainstream fertilizer for many varieties of crops due to its combination of both [[macronutrient (ecology)|macronutrient]]s, ([[nitrogen|N]], [[Phosphorus|P]], and [[Potassium|K]]) and [[micronutrient]]s ([[Calcium|Ca]], [[Magnesium|Mg]], [[Sulfur|S]], [[Manganese|Mn]], [[Copper|Cu]], [[Iron|Fe]], [[zinc|Zn]], etc.). It also contains [[cytokinin]]s, [[auxin]]-like [[gibberellin]]s, [[betaine]]s, [[mannitol]], [[organic acid]]s, [[polysaccharide]]s, [[amino acid]]s, and proteins which are all very beneficial and widely used in agriculture.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=J. Norrie |author2=D. A. Hiltz |name-list-style=amp |year=1999 |title=Seaweed Extract Research and Applications in Agriculture |journal=Agro Food Industry Hi-tech}}</ref>
''Ascophyllum nodosum'' is harvested for use in [[Alginate|alginates]], [[Fertiliser|fertilisers]], and the manufacture of seaweed meal for animal and human consumption. Due to the high level of vitamins and minerals that bioaccumulate in ''A. nodosum'', it has been used in Greenland as a dietary supplement.<ref name=":06" /> It was also been used for certain herbal teas, particularly kelp teas.<ref name=":06" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Production, Trade and Utilization of Seaweeds and Seaweed Products |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac860e/ac860e02.htm}}</ref> It has long been used as an organic and mainstream fertilizer for many varieties of crops due to its combination of both [[Macronutrient (ecology)|macronutrients]], ([[Nitrogen|N]], [[Phosphorus|P]], and [[Potassium|K]]) and [[Micronutrient|micronutrients]] ([[Calcium|Ca]], [[Magnesium|Mg]], [[Sulfur|S]], [[Manganese|Mn]], [[Copper|Cu]], [[Iron|Fe]], [[Zinc|Zn]], etc.). It also contains [[Cytokinin|cytokinins]], [[auxin]]-like [[Gibberellin|gibberellins]], [[Betaine|betaines]], [[mannitol]], [[Organic acid|organic acids]], [[Polysaccharide|polysaccharides]], [[Amino acid|amino acids]], and proteins which are all very beneficial and widely used in agriculture.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=J. Norrie |author2=D. A. Hiltz |name-list-style=amp |year=1999 |title=Seaweed Extract Research and Applications in Agriculture |journal=Agro Food Industry Hi-tech}}</ref> Ireland, Scotland and Norway have provided the world's principal alginate supply.<ref>{{cite book |author1=L. G. Lewis |title=Algae and Human Affairs |author2=N. F. Stanley |author3=G. G. Guist |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-521-32115-0 |editor=C. A. Lembi & J. R. Waaland |chapter=Commercial production and applications of algal hydrocolloides}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=M. D. Guiry |title=Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential |author2=D. J. Garbary |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]], England |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-471-92947-5 |editor=M. D. Guiry & Blunden |chapter=Geographical and Taxonomic guide to European Seaweeds of Economic Importance |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>
Ireland, Scotland and Norway have provided the world's principal alginate supply.<ref>{{cite book |author1=L. G. Lewis |author2=N. F. Stanley |author3=G. G. Guist |year=1988 |chapter=Commercial production and applications of algal hydrocolloides |editor=C. A. Lembi & J. R. Waaland |title=Algae and Human Affairs |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-32115-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=M. D. Guiry |author2=D. J. Garbary |name-list-style=amp |year=1991 |chapter=Geographical and Taxonomic guide to European Seaweeds of Economic Importance |editor=M. D. Guiry & Blunden |title=Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]], England |isbn=978-0-471-92947-5}}</ref>


''Ascophyllum nodosum'' is frequently used as packaging material for baitworm and lobster shipments from [[New England]] to various domestic and international locations.<ref name="Chang 2010"/> ''Ascophyllum'' itself has occasionally been introduced to California, and several species frequently found in baitworm shipments, including ''[[Carcinus maenas]]'' and ''[[Littorina saxatilis]]'', may have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay region this way.<ref name="Chang 2010">{{cite journal | last1 = Chang | first1 = A. L. | last2 = Blakeslee | first2 = A. M. H. | last3 = Miller | first3 = A. W. | last4 = Ruiz | first4 = G. M. | year = 2011 | title = Establishment Failure in Biological Invasions: A Case History of ''Littorina littorea'' in California, USA | journal = [[PLoS ONE]] | volume = 6 | issue = 1| page = e16035 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0016035 | pmid = 21264336 | pmc = 3018467 | bibcode = 2011PLoSO...616035C | doi-access = free }}</ref>
''Ascophyllum nodosum'' is frequently used as packaging material for baitworm and lobster shipments from [[New England]] to various domestic and international locations.<ref name="Chang 20102">{{cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=A. L. |last2=Blakeslee |first2=A. M. H. |last3=Miller |first3=A. W. |last4=Ruiz |first4=G. M. |year=2011 |title=Establishment Failure in Biological Invasions: A Case History of ''Littorina littorea'' in California, USA |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=e16035 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...616035C |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0016035 |pmc=3018467 |pmid=21264336 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ''Ascophyllum'' itself has occasionally been introduced to California, and several species frequently found in baitworm shipments, including ''[[Carcinus maenas]]'' and ''[[Littorina saxatilis]]'', may have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay region this way.<ref name="Chang 20102" />


=== Toxicological uses ===
=== Toxicological uses ===
Because the age of the different parts of ''A. nodosum'' can be identified by its shoots, it has also been used to monitor concentrations of heavy metals in seawater. A [[Bioconcentration factor|concentration factor]] for zinc has been reported to be of the order 10<sup>4</sup>.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Seip | first1 = K.L. | year = 1979 | title = A mathematical model for the uptake of heavy metals in benthic algae | journal = Ecological Modelling | volume = 6 | issue = 3| pages = 183–197 | doi=10.1016/0304-3800(79)90012-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Melhus | first1 = A. | last2 = Seip | first2 = KL | last3 = Seip | first3 = HM | last4 = Myklestad | first4 = S. | year = 1978 | title = A preliminary study of the use of benthic algae as biological indicators of heavy metal pollution in Sørfjorden, Norway | journal = Environ. Pollut. | volume = 15 | issue = 2| page = 101107 | doi = 10.1016/0013-9327(78)90099-X }}</ref>
Because the age of the different parts of ''A. nodosum'' can be identified by its shoots, it has also been used to monitor concentrations of heavy metals in seawater. A [[Bioconcentration factor|concentration factor]] for zinc has been reported to be of the order 10<sup>4</sup>.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Seip | first1 = K.L. | year = 1979 | title = A mathematical model for the uptake of heavy metals in benthic algae | journal = Ecological Modelling | volume = 6 | issue = 3| pages = 183–197 | doi=10.1016/0304-3800(79)90012-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Melhus | first1 = A. | last2 = Seip | first2 = KL | last3 = Seip | first3 = HM | last4 = Myklestad | first4 = S. | year = 1978 | title = A preliminary study of the use of benthic algae as biological indicators of heavy metal pollution in Sørfjorden, Norway | journal = Environ. Pollut. | volume = 15 | issue = 2| page = 101107 | doi = 10.1016/0013-9327(78)90099-X }}</ref> It has been used in this way for over fifty years, and studies have shown that A. nodosum absorbs cobalt, cadmium, lead, and indium metal ions out of the water. It has also been used to track environmental radioactivity. <ref name=":07">Pereira, L., Morrison, L., Shukla, P. S., & Critchley, A. T. (2020). A concise review of the brown macroalga Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis. ''Journal of Applied Phycology, 32''(6), 3561-3584. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02246-6</nowiki></ref>


== Chemistry ==
== Chemistry ==
Line 132: Line 140:


==References==
==References==
This article incorporates CC BY-2.5 text from the reference<ref name="Chang 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=A. L. |last2=Blakeslee |first2=A. M. H. |last3=Miller |first3=A. W. |last4=Ruiz |first4=G. M. |year=2011 |title=Establishment Failure in Biological Invasions: A Case History of ''Littorina littorea'' in California, USA |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=e16035 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...616035C |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0016035 |pmc=3018467 |pmid=21264336 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
This article incorporates CC BY-2.5 text from the reference<ref name="Chang 2010"/>
{{Reflist|33em}}
{{Reflist|33em}}


Revision as of 21:41, 15 November 2023

Ascophyllum
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Stramenopiles
Phylum: Gyrista
Subphylum: Ochrophytina
Class: Phaeophyceae
Order: Fucales
Family: Fucaceae
Genus: Ascophyllum
Stackhouse, 1809
Species:
A. nodosum
Binomial name
Ascophyllum nodosum
Distribution

Ascophyllum nodosum is a large, common cold water seaweed or brown alga (Phaeophyceae) in the family Fucaceae. A. nodosum is also known in localities as feamainn bhuí, rockweed, Norwegian kelp, knotted kelp, knotted wrack or egg wrack. It is a seaweed that dominates the intertidal zone[1] [2] and grows only in the northern Atlantic Ocean, along the north-western coast of Europe (from the White Sea to Portugal) including east Greenland[3] and the north-eastern coast of North America, its range further south of these latitudes being limited by warmer ocean waters.[4] Ascophyllum nodosum has been used numerous times in scientific research and has even been found to benefit humans through consumption.[5]

Scientific Name History

A. nodosum is the only species in the genus Ascophyllum. "The original name (basionym) was Fucus nodosus Linnaeus 1753. The species was transferred to the genus Ascophyllum (as Ascophylla) by Stackhouse (Papenfuss 1950), under the name Ascophyllum laevigata(Guiry and Guiry 2020). The combination Ascophyllum nodosum was made by Le Jolis (1863)."[6].

Description

Ascophyllum nodosum has long tough and leathery fronds,[7] irregularly dichotomously branched [8]fronds with large, egg-shaped air bladders set in series at regular intervals along the fronds and not stalked. The air bladders create a way for fronds broken by wave exposure or other causes to be dispersed and regrow in other areas.[9] While the fronds can reach up to 2m, the length depends on wave exposure: the length increases with water velocity until a certain point, then decreases as waves become more intense.[9] The fronds can reach 2 m in length and are attached by a holdfast to rocks and boulders. In rare cases, the fronds can reach 6m long[10]. The fronds are olive-green,[11] olive-brown in color and somewhat compressed, but without a midrib.[12]

Reproduction

Each individual plant is dioecious: either male or female.[13] The gametes from one plant are produced in the spring[13] in conceptacles embedded in yellowish receptacles on short branches.[14][15] A year after the plant is fertilized and forms a zygote, the first frond grows, and at the beginning of year 2, an air bladder forms, which creates a way to age the plants.[16]

Varieties and forms

Several different varieties and forms of this species have been described, including the two below.

  • Free-floating forms of this species are found in, for example, A. n. mackaii Cotton, which is found at very sheltered locations, such as at the heads of sea lochs in Scotland and Ireland.[18][19]

Ecology

Ascophyllum nodosum is found mostly on sheltered sites on shores in the midlittoral, where it can become the dominant species in the littoral zone.[20][21]

The species is found in a range of coastal habitats from sheltered estuaries to moderately exposed coasts, and often it dominates the intertidal zone (although subtidal populations are known to exist in very clear waters). However, it is rarely found on exposed shores, and if it is found, the fronds are usually small and badly scratched. This seaweed grows quite slowly, 0.5% per day, carrying capacity is about 40 kg wet weight per square meter, and it may live for 10–15 years. It may typically overlap in distribution with Fucus vesiculosus and Fucus serratus. Its distribution is also limited by salinity, wave exposure, temperature, desiccation, and general stress.[22][23][24] It may take approximately five years before becoming fertile.

Ascophyllum nodosum is an autotroph, meaning that it makes its own food. Like other plants and algae, knotted wrack undergoes photosynthesis. The air bladders on A. nodosum serve as a flotation device, which allows sunlight to reach the plant better, aiding photosynthesis. [25]

Excess sperm can be released during the reproductive process of Ascophyllum nodosum, which can then act as a food source for plankton consumers. The coverage created by mats of A. nodosum can serve as protection for several marine species, including barnacles (Semibalanus balanoides) , periwinkles (genus littorina), and marine isopods.[26]

Phlorotannins in A. nodosum act as chemical defenses against the marine herbivorous snail, Littorina littorea.[27]

Polysiphonia lanosa (L.) T.A. Christensen is a small red alga, commonly found growing in dense tufts on Ascophyllum whose rhizoids penetrate the host.[28] It is considered by some as parasitic; however, as it only receives structural support from knotted wrack (not parasitically), it acts as an epiphyte.

Distribution

Observed in Zeeland, Netherlands[29]

This species has been recorded in Europe from Ireland, the White Sea,[30] the Faroe Islands,[31] Norway,[32] Britain and Isle of Man,[33] Netherlands,[34] and North America from the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, Baffin Island, Hudson Strait, Labrador, and Newfoundland.[35][36] The southern boundary of A. nodosum ends around Long Island, NY, on account of higher water temperatures when traveling farther south.[37] It has been recorded as an accidental introduction near San Francisco, California, and eradicated as a potential invasive species.[38]

Uses

The consumption of Ascophyllum nodosum has been proven to have dental benefits in humans,[39][40] dogs[41][42] and cats.[42] In addition to dental benefits, A. nodosum can reduce inflammation and speed up healing, especially after a serious injury.[43] Brown algae contains fucoidans, which are "sulfated, fucose-rich polymers". Fucoidans block selectins, which are receptors on white blood cells that allow those cells to enter a tissue, causing inflammation. Since the fucoidans block inflammation, A. nodosum can be considered an anti-inflammatory. [44]

In "The effects of Ascophyllum nodosum, Camellia sinensis-leaf extract, and their joint interventions on glycolipid and energy metabolism in obese mice", it was discovered that ascophyllum nodosum extracts can be used to control body weight in obese mice.[45] There is potential for these extracts to be efficient in humans, but most studies focus on the effects in small rodents, so more testing needs to be done.[46]

Ascophyllum nodosum is harvested for use in alginates, fertilisers, and the manufacture of seaweed meal for animal and human consumption. Due to the high level of vitamins and minerals that bioaccumulate in A. nodosum, it has been used in Greenland as a dietary supplement.[43] It was also been used for certain herbal teas, particularly kelp teas.[43][47] It has long been used as an organic and mainstream fertilizer for many varieties of crops due to its combination of both macronutrients, (N, P, and K) and micronutrients (Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn, etc.). It also contains cytokinins, auxin-like gibberellins, betaines, mannitol, organic acids, polysaccharides, amino acids, and proteins which are all very beneficial and widely used in agriculture.[48] Ireland, Scotland and Norway have provided the world's principal alginate supply.[49][50]

Ascophyllum nodosum is frequently used as packaging material for baitworm and lobster shipments from New England to various domestic and international locations.[51] Ascophyllum itself has occasionally been introduced to California, and several species frequently found in baitworm shipments, including Carcinus maenas and Littorina saxatilis, may have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay region this way.[51]

Toxicological uses

Because the age of the different parts of A. nodosum can be identified by its shoots, it has also been used to monitor concentrations of heavy metals in seawater. A concentration factor for zinc has been reported to be of the order 104.[52][53] It has been used in this way for over fifty years, and studies have shown that A. nodosum absorbs cobalt, cadmium, lead, and indium metal ions out of the water. It has also been used to track environmental radioactivity. [54]

Chemistry

Ascophyllum nodosum contains the phlorotannins tetraphlorethol C and tetrafucol A.[55]

Harvesting controversy

Controversy exists over impacts of commercial harvesting of A. nodosum for use in garden or crop fertilizers and livestock feed supplements in North America and Europe. Some research has been focused on bycatch and impact on intertidal zone communities. [56] Opponents of its wild harvest point to the algae's high habitat value for over 100 marine species,[57] including benthic invertebrates, [58] commercially important fish,[59] wild ducks,[60] shorebirds,[61] and seabirds.[62] Shoreland owners in Maine, as well as federal, state, and local agencies in the United States, have placed their conservation lands off limits to rockweed removal.[63][64] Rockweed harvesters point to the value of the seasonal jobs created by the harvest operation, and also highlight the differences in impact of different harvesting methods such as machine versus hand harvesting.[65]

References

This article incorporates CC BY-2.5 text from the reference[66]

  1. ^ O. Morton (2003). "The marine macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland". Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society. 27: 3–164.
  2. ^ O. Morton (1994). Marine Algae of Northern Ireland. Ulster Museum, Belfast. ISBN 978-0-900761-28-7.
  3. ^ M. D. Guiry & Wendy Guiry (2006-11-23). "Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis". AlgaeBase.
  4. ^ W. R. Taylor (1962). Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-04904-2.
  5. ^ Fitton, Janet Helen (2011). "Therapies from fucoidan; multifunctional marine polymers". Marine Drugs. 9 (10): 1731–1760. doi:10.3390/md9101731. ISSN 1660-3397. PMC 3210604. PMID 22072995.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ Pereira, L., Morrison, L., Shukla, P. S., & Critchley, A. T. (2020). A concise review of the brown macroalga Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis. Journal of Applied Phycology, 32(6), 3561-3584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02246-6
  7. ^ Bunker, F.StP., Maggs, C.A., Brodie, J.A. and Bunker, J.A. 2017. Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland. Second Edition. Wild Nature Press, Plymouth, UK. ISBN 978-0-9955673-3-7
  8. ^ Newton, L. 1931. A Handbook of the British Seaweeds. British Museum, London
  9. ^ a b Arbuckle, J., Beal, B., Brawley, S., Domizi, S., Mercer, L., Preston, D., Seaver, G., Sferra, N., Thayer, P., Ugarte, R., Vonderweidt, C. 2014. Fishery management plan for rockweed (Ascophyllum nodosum). Maine Department of Marine Resources. https://www.maine.gov/dmr/sites/maine.gov.dmr/files/docs/DMRRockweedFMPJan2014.pdf
  10. ^ Pereira, L., Morrison, L., Shukla, P. S., & Critchley, A. T. (2020). A concise review of the brown macroalga Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis. Journal of Applied Phycology, 32(6), 3561-3584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02246-6
  11. ^ Harvey, W.H. 1841. A Manual of the British Algae: London, John van Voorst, London
  12. ^ S. Hiscock (1979). "A field key to the British brown seaweeds (Heterokontophyta)". Field Studies. 5: 1–44.
  13. ^ a b Bunker, F.StP., Maggs, C.A., Brodie, J.A. and Bunker, J.A. 2017. Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland. Second Edition. Wild Nature Press, Plymouth, UK. ISBN 978-0-9955673-3-7
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