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The tumor microenvironment is a complex ecosystem surrounding a tumor, composed of a variety of non-cancerous cells including blood vessels, immune cells, fibroblasts, signaling molecules and the extracellular matrix.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4] Mutual interaction between cancer cells and the different components of the tumor microenvironment support its growth and invasion in healthy tissues which correlates with tumor resistance to current treatments and poor prognosis. Tumors can influence the microenvironment by releasing extracellular signals, promoting tumor angiogenesis and inducing peripheral immune tolerance, while the immune cells in the microenvironment can affect the growth and evolution of cancerous cells.^[1]^[5]^[6]^[7]

History

The importance of a stromal microenvironment, especially "wound" or regenerating tissue, has been recognized since the late 1800s. The interplay between the tumor and its microenvironment was part of Stephen Paget's 1889 "seed and soil" theory, in which he postulated that metastases of a particular type of cancer ("the seed") often metastasizes to certain sites ("the soil") based on the similarity of the original and secondary tumor sites.^[8]

Its^{[clarification needed]} role in blunting an immune attack awaited the discovery of adaptive cellular immunity. In 1960, Klein and colleagues found that in mice, primary methylcholanthrene-induced sarcomas exhibited an antitumor immune response mediated by lymph node cells to cancer cells derived from the primary tumor. This immune response did not however affect the primary tumor. The primary tumor instead established a microenvironment that is functionally analogous to that of certain normal tissues, such as the eye.^[3]

Later, mice experiments by Halachmi and Witz showed that for the same cancer cell line, greater tumorigenicity was evident in vivo than the same strain inoculated in vitro.^[9]^[10]

Vasculature

A tumor's vasculature is important to its growth, as blood vessels deliver oxygen, nutrients, and growth factors to the tumor.^[11] Tumors smaller than 1-2 mm in diameter are delivered oxygen and nutrients through passive diffusion. In larger tumors the center becomes too far away from the existing blood supply, leading the tumor microenvironment to become hypoxic and acidic.^[12] Angiogenesis is upregulated to feed the cancer cells and is linked to tumor malignancy.^[13]

Endothelial cells and angiogenesis

In hypoxic environments the tissue sends out signals called hypoxia inducible factors (HIFs) that can stimulate nearby endothelial cells to secrete factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). VEGF activates the endothelial cells, which begins the process of angiogenesis, where new blood vessels emerge from pre-existing vasculature.^[14] The blood vessel formed in the tumor environment often doesn’t mature properly, and as a result the vasculature formed in the tumor microenvironment differs from that of normal tissue. The blood vessels formed are often “leaky” and tortuous, with a compromised blood flow.^[15]^[12] As tumors cannot grow large without proper vasculature, sustained angiogenesis is therefore considered one of the hallmarks of cancer.^[16]

In later stages of tumor progression endothelial cells can differentiate into carcinoma associated fibroblasts, which furthers metastasis.^[12]

Enhanced permeability and retention effect

The enhanced permeability and retention effect is the observation that the vasculature of tumors tend to accumulate macromolecules in the blood stream to a greater extent than in normal tissue. This is due to the “leaky” nature of the vasculature around tumors, and a lacking lymphatic system.^[17] The permeable vasculature allows for easier delivery of therapeutic drugs to the tumor, and the lacking lymphatic vessels contribute to an increased retention. The permeable vasculature is thought to have several causes, including insufficient pericytes and a malformed basement membrane.^[18]

Hypoxia

While angiogenesis can reduce the hypoxia in the tumor microenvironment, the partial pressure of oxygen is below 5 mmHg in over 50% of locally advanced solid tumors, compared to venous blood which has a partial pressure of oxygen at 40-60 mmHg.^[14]^[19] A hypoxic environment leads to genetic instability by downregulating genes involved in DNA repair mechanisms such as nucleotide excision repair and mismatch repair pathways.^[20] This genetic instability leads to a high number of mutated cells, and is associated with cancer progression.^[19] Periods of mild and acute hypoxia and reoxygenation can lead cancer cells to adapt and grow into more aggressive phenotypes.^[14]

Hypoxia causes the upregulation of hypoxia induced factors (HIFs), which are transcription factors that decides how cells respond to a lack of oxygen.^[12] HIFs induces the transcription of thousands of genes, some of which induces angiogenesis or furthers metastasis, leading, for instance, to increased cell migration and matrix remodeling.^[21]^[4] An increased HIF expression can lead tumor cells to shift their metabolism from aerobic to anaerobic, where they obtain energy through glycolysis.^[22] Cells with an elevated glucose metabolism produce lactate, which decreases the pH in the microenvironment from a neutral and healthy 7.35-7.45 to an acidic 6.3-7.0. This phenomenon is described as the “Warburg effect”.^[22]^[23] HIFs also regulate immune cells, and an increased expression can lead to the inactivation of anti-tumor functions. This furthers the survival of tumor cells and hinders anti-tumor treatment.^[22]

Stromal cells

In cancer biology, the stroma is defined as the nonmalignant cells which are present in the tumor microenvironment. The stroma comprises a variable portion of the entire tumor; up to 90% of a tumor may be stroma, with the remaining 10% as cancer cells. Many types of cells are present in the stroma, but four abundant types are fibroblasts, T cells, macrophages, and endothelial cells.^[24] The stroma surrounding a tumor often reacts to intrusion via inflammation, similar to how it might respond to a wound.^[25] Inflammation can encourage angiogenesis, speed the cell cycle and prevent cell death, all of which augments tumor growth.^[26]

Carcinoma associated fibroblasts

Carcinoma associated fibroblasts are a heterogeneous group of fibroblasts whose function is pirated by cancer cells and redirected toward carcinogenesis.^[27] These cells are usually derived from the normal fibroblasts in the surrounding stroma but can also come from pericytes, smooth muscle cells, fibrocytes, mesenchymal stem cells (often derived from bone marrow), or via epithelial-mesenchymal transition or endothelial-mesenchymal transition.^[28]^[29]

Extracellular matrix remodeling

Fibroblasts are in charge of laying down most of the collagens, elastin, glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans (e.g. perlecan), and glycoproteins. As many fibroblasts are transformed into carcinoma associated fibroblasts during carcinogenesis, this reduces the amount of extracellular matrix produced, like collagen being loosely woven and non-planar, possibly even curved.^[30] In addition, carcinoma associated fibroblasts produce matrix metalloproteinases that cleave proteins.^[19] Carcinoma associated fibroblasts are also able to generate a track that a carcinoma cell can follow.^[31] In either case, destruction of the extracellular matrix allows cancer cells to escape from their in situ location and intravasate into the blood stream where they can metastasize systematically. It can also provide passage for endothelial cells to complete angiogenesis to the tumor site.

Destruction of the extracellular matrix also modulates the signaling cascades controlled by the interaction of cell-surface receptors and the matrix, and it also reveals binding sites previously hidden, like the integrin alpha-v beta-3 on the surface of melanoma cells can be ligated to rescue the cells from apoptosis after degradation of collagen.^[32]^[33] In addition, the degradation products may have downstream effects as well that can increase cancer cell tumorigenicity and can serve as potential biomarkers.^[32] matrix destruction also releases the cytokines and growth factors stored therein (for example, VEGF, basic fibroblast growth factor, insulin-like growth factors, TGF-β, heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor, and tumor necrosis factor, which can increase the growth of the tumor.^[30]^[34] Cleavage of matrix components can also release cytokines that inhibit tumorigenesis, such as degradation of certain types of collagen can form endostatin, restin, canstatin and tumstatin, which have antiangiogenic functions.^[30]

Matrix stiffening is associated with tumor progression.^[4]^[35] This stiffening may be partially attributed to carcinoma associated fibroblasts secreting lysyl oxidase, an enzyme that cross-links collagen.^[36]

Immune cells

Tumor-associated immune cells can be tumor-antagonizing or tumor-promoting, meaning that they can suppress or promote tumor growth.^[37] Because of the effects of hypoxia, the anti-tumor abilities of many tumor-antagonizing immune cells, such as cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells, become inhibited. Tumor-promoting immune cells such as regulatory T cells and myeloid derived suppressor cells will, on the other hand, become upregulated.^[22]

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells and tumor-associated macrophages

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells are a heterogeneous population of cells of myelogenous origin^[38] that are considered tumor promoting.^[37] They have the potential to repress T cell responses,^[39] can support angiogenesis by producing proteins such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and can promote metastasis. Tumor associated macrophages with the M2 phenotype are considered myeloid-derived suppressor cells.^[37]

Tumor-associated macrophages are a central component in the strong link between chronic inflammation and cancer, and are recruited to the tumor as a response to cancer-associated inflammation.^[40] Their sluggish NF-κB activation allows for the smoldering inflammation seen in cancer.^[41] Unlike normal macrophages, tumor-associated macrophages lack cytotoxic activity.^[42] Monocyte derived macrophages are divided into inflammatory M1-polarized macrophages and anti-inflammatory M2-polarized macrophages. M1-polarized macrophages phagocytize tumor cells and are considered tumor-antagonizing.^[12] M2-polarized macrophages are, on the other hand, tumor-promoting, because they promote tumor progression by suppressing immunosurveillance,^[37] aiding angiogenesis by secreting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)^[19] and remodeling the extracellular matrix.^[37] The tumor microenvironment promotes the M2-polarized macrophages, and an increased amount of tumor-associated macrophages is associated with worse prognosis.^[12]^[43]^[44]

Tumor-associated macrophages are associated with using exosomes to deliver invasion-potentiating microRNA into cancerous cells, specifically breast cancer cells.^[39]^[45]

Neutrophils

Neutrophils are polymorphonuclear immune cells that are critical components of the innate immune system. Neutrophils can accumulate in tumors and in some cancers, such as lung adenocarcinoma, their abundance at the tumor site is associated with worsened disease prognosis.^[46]^[47]^[48] Neutrophil numbers (and myeloid cell precursors) in the blood can be increased in some patients with solid tumors.^[49]^[50]^[51]

Experiments in mice have mainly shown that tumor-associated neutrophils exhibit tumor-promoting functions,^[52]^[53]^[54]^[55] but a smaller number of studies show that neutrophils can also inhibit tumor growth.^[56]^[57] Tumor associated neutrophils can be divided into N1- and N2-polarized neutrophils.^[37] N1-polarized neutrophils accumulate in the tumor in its early stages and support with tumor cell death. In later stages N2-polarized neutrophils promotes angiogenesis by secreting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).^[12]

Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes

Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes are lymphocytes, including T cells, B cells and natural killer cells, that penetrate the tumor and has the ability to recognize and kill cancer cells.^[58] A high concentration is generally positively correlated with good prognosis (802).^[59] This type of immune cells can also block metastasis, as natural killer cells are most efficient at killing cancer cells outside of the tumor microenvironment.^[12] Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes has been used in therapeutic treatments, where lab amplificated immune cells are transferred to cancer patients to help their immune system fight the cancer.^[59] This treatment has seen success in solid tumors such as melanoma.^[60]

Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes can become tumor-promoting due to the immunosuppressive mechanisms of the tumor microenvironment.^[59] Cancer cells induce apoptosis of activated T cells by secreting exosomes containing death ligands such as FasL and TRAIL, and via the same method, turn off the normal cytotoxic response of natural killer cells.^[61]^[62]

T cells

There are several types of T cells that are important to tumorigenesis, including cytotoxic T cells (CD8+), T helper 1 (Th-1) cells and regulatory T cells (Tregs).^[12] CD8+ cells are tumor-antagonizing cells that recognize tumor antigens and targets cancer cells for destruction. In addition, CD8+ cells slow tumor progression and suppress angiogenesis by releasing interferon-gamma (IFN-γ).^[12] Th-1 cells supports the activation and proliferation of CD8+ cells by secreting IFN-γ and interleukin-2 (IL-2), and by cross-presenting tumor antigens.^[37] Tregs are, as opposed to CD8+, tumor promoting. They secrete tumor growth factors, and indirectly support cancer survival by interacting with endothelial cells and carcinoma associated fibroblasts.^[12] Tregs also have immunosuppressive mechanisms that can make CD8+ cells less effective.^[37]

T cells reach tumor sites via the vascular system, where the tumor microenvironment appears to preferentially recruit other immune cells over T cells. One such discriminating mechanism is the release of cell-type specific chemokines. Another is the expression of the apoptosis inducer Fas ligand (FasL) in the vasculature of ovarian, colon, prostate, breast, bladder and renal tumors. Tumors with a high expression of FasL has been shown to contain an abundancy of Tregs, but few CD8+ cells.^[3]

T cells must replicate after arriving at the tumor site to effectively kill the cancer cells, survive hostile elements and migrate through the stroma to the cancer cells. This is affected by the tumor microenvironment. The draining lymph nodes are the likely location for cancer specific T cell replication, although this also occurs within the tumor.^[3]

Research

Models

Several in vitro and in vivo models have been developed that seek to replicate the TME in a controlled environment. Tumor immortalised cell lines and primary cell cultures have been long used in order to study various tumors. They are quick to set up and inexpensive, but simplistic and prone to genetic drift.^[63] 3D tumor models have been developed as a more spatially representative model of the TME. Spheroid cultures, scaffolds and organoids are generally derived from stem cells or ex vivo and are much better at recreating the tumour architecture than 2D cell cultures.^[64]

Drug development

Advances in remodeling nanotherapeutics suppress cancer metastasis and recurrence.^[65] Researchers have discovered that the use of ferumoxytol suppress tumor growth by inducing transition of macrophages to proinflammatory types.^[66] Nanocarrier vehicles (~20–200 nm in diameter) can transport drugs and other therapeutic molecules. These therapies can be targeted to selectively extravasate through tumor vasculature.^[18]^[67] These efforts include protein capsids^[68] and liposomes.^[69] However, as some important, normal tissues, such as the liver and kidneys, also have fenestrated endothelium, the nanocarrier size (10–100 nm, with greater retention in tumors seen in using larger nanocarriers) and charge (anionic or neutral) must be considered.^[18] Lymphatic vessels do not usually develop with the tumor, leading to increased interstitial fluid pressure, which may block tumor access.^[18]^[70]

Therapies

Antibodies

Bevacizumab is clinically approved in the US to treat a variety of cancers by targeting VEGF-A, which is produced by both carcinoma associated fibroblasts and tumor macrophages, thus slowing angiogenesis.

Targeting immunoregulatory membrane receptors succeeded in some patients with melanoma, non-small-cell lung carcinoma, urothelial bladder cancer and renal cell cancer. In mice, anti-CTLA-4 therapy leads to clearance from the tumor of FOXP3⁺ regulatory T cells (T_reg cells) whose presence may impair effector T cell function.^[71]

Kinase inhibitors

Many other small molecule kinase inhibitors block the receptors for the growth factors released, including sunitinib, pazopanib, sorafenib and axitinib, all of which inhibit platelet derived growth factor receptors and VEGF receptors.^{[citation needed]}

Chimeric antigen receptor cell therapy

Chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) T cell therapy is an immunotherapy treatment that uses genetically modified T lymphocytes to effectively target tumor cells.^[72]^[73] Since the tumor microenvironment has several barriers that limit the ability of CAR T cells to infiltrate the tumor, several strategies have been developed to address this. Localized delivery of CAR T cells in glioblastoma suggested improved anti-tumor activity and engineering these cells to overexpress chemokine receptors suggested improvement of CAR T cell trafficking.^[74]

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@@ Line 53: / Line 53: @@
 ==Immune cells==
 {{main|Cancer immunology}}
+Tumor-associated immune cells can be tumor-antagonizing or tumor-promoting, meaning that they can suppress or promote tumor growth.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Lei |first=Xu |last2=Lei |first2=Yu |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ke |last4=Du |first4=Wei-Xing |last5=Li |first5=Ru-Gui |last6=Yang |first6=Jing |last7=Li |first7=Jian |last8=Li |first8=Fang |last9=Tan |first9=Hua-Bing |date=2020-02-01 |title=Immune cells within the tumor microenvironment: Biological functions and roles in cancer immunotherapy |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304383519305646 |journal=Cancer Letters |volume=470 |pages=126–133 |doi=10.1016/j.canlet.2019.11.009 |issn=0304-3835}}</ref> Because of the effects of hypoxia, the anti-tumor abilities of many tumor-antagonizing immune cells, such as cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells, become inhibited. Tumor-promoting immune cells such as regulatory T cells and myeloid derived suppressor cells will, on the other hand, become upregulated.<ref name=":3" />[[File:Tumor-associated immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of breast cancer models.svg|thumb|Tumor-associated immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of breast cancer models]]
 [[File:Tumor-associated immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of breast cancer models.svg|thumb|Tumor-associated immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of breast cancer models]]
@@ Line 59: / Line 60: @@
 === Myeloid-derived suppressor cells and tumor-associated macrophages ===
+[[Myeloid-derived suppressor cell|Myeloid-derived suppressor cells]] are a heterogeneous population of cells of [[Myeloid|myelogenous]] origin<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mantovani A, Allavena P, Sica A, Balkwill F |date=July 2008 |title=Cancer-related inflammation |journal=Nature |volume=454 |issue=7203 |pages=436–444 |bibcode=2008Natur.454..436M |doi=10.1038/nature07205 |pmid=18650914 |s2cid=4429118 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2434/145688}}</ref> that are considered tumor promoting.<ref name=":4" /> They have the potential to repress [[T cell]] responses,<ref name="Mathias" /> can support [[angiogenesis]] by producing proteins such as [[vascular endothelial growth factor]] (VEGF), and can promote metastasis. Tumor associated [[Macrophage|macrophages]] with the M2 phenotype are considered myeloid-derived suppressor cells.<ref name=":4" />
-Myeloid-derived suppressor cells are a heterogeneous population of cells of [[Myeloid|myelogenous]] origin with the potential to repress [[T cell]] responses. They regulate wound repair and inflammation and are rapidly expanded in cancer, correlating with that signs of inflammation are seen in most if not all tumor sites.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mantovani A, Allavena P, Sica A, Balkwill F | title = Cancer-related inflammation | journal = Nature | volume = 454 | issue = 7203 | pages = 436–444 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18650914 | doi = 10.1038/nature07205 | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 4429118 | bibcode = 2008Natur.454..436M | hdl = 2434/145688 }}</ref> Tumors can produce exosomes that stimulate inflammation via myeloid-derived suppressor cells.<ref name="Mathias" /><ref name="Valenti">{{cite journal | vauthors = Valenti R, Huber V, Iero M, Filipazzi P, Parmiani G, Rivoltini L | title = Tumor-released microvesicles as vehicles of immunosuppression | journal = Cancer Research | volume = 67 | issue = 7 | pages = 2912–2915 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17409393 | doi = 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-07-0520 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Tumor-associated macrophages are a central component in the strong link between [[Inflammation#Cancer|chronic inflammation and cancer]], and are recruited to the tumor as a response to cancer-associated inflammation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Balkwill F, Charles KA, Mantovani A | title = Smoldering and polarized inflammation in the initiation and promotion of malignant disease | journal = Cancer Cell | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | pages = 211–217 | date = March 2005 | pmid = 15766659 | doi = 10.1016/j.ccr.2005.02.013 | doi-access = free }}</ref>  Unlike normal macrophages, tumor-associated macrophages lack cytotoxic activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Qian BZ, Pollard JW | title = Macrophage diversity enhances tumor progression and metastasis | journal = Cell | volume = 141 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–51 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20371344 | pmc = 4994190 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2010.03.014 }}</ref> Tumor-associated macrophages gather in necrotic regions of tumors where they are associated with hiding cancer cells from normal immune cells by secreting [[interleukin 10]], aiding angiogenesis by secreting [[vascular endothelial growth factor]] (VEGF) and [[nitric oxide synthase]],<ref name ="Weber" /> supporting tumor growth by secreting [[epidermal growth factor]]<ref name="Solinas" /> and remodeling the extracellular matrix.<ref name="Weber" /> Tumor-associated macrophages show sluggish [[NF-κB]] activation, which allows for the smoldering inflammation seen in cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Biswas SK, Gangi L, Paul S, Schioppa T, Saccani A, Sironi M, Bottazzi B, Doni A, Vincenzo B, Pasqualini F, Vago L, Nebuloni M, Mantovani A, Sica A | display-authors = 6 | title = A distinct and unique transcriptional program expressed by tumor-associated macrophages (defective NF-kappaB and enhanced IRF-3/STAT1 activation) | journal = Blood | volume = 107 | issue = 5 | pages = 2112–2122 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16269622 | doi = 10.1182/blood-2005-01-0428 | s2cid = 5884781 | doi-access = free }}</ref> An increased amount of tumor-associated macrophages is associated with worse prognosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang W, Wang L, Zhou D, Cui Q, Zhao D, Wu Y | title = Expression of tumor-associated macrophages and vascular endothelial growth factor correlates with poor prognosis of peripheral T-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified | journal = Leukemia & Lymphoma | volume = 52 | issue = 1 | pages = 46–52 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21077742 | doi = 10.3109/10428194.2010.529204 | s2cid = 26116121 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang BC, Gao J, Wang J, Rao ZG, Wang BC, Gao JF | title = Tumor-associated macrophages infiltration is associated with peritumoral lymphangiogenesis and poor prognosis in lung adenocarcinoma | journal = Medical Oncology | volume = 28 | issue = 4 | pages = 1447–1452 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 20676804 | doi = 10.1007/s12032-010-9638-5 | s2cid = 24840259 }}</ref>
+Tumor-associated macrophages are a central component in the strong link between [[Inflammation#Cancer|chronic inflammation and cancer]], and are recruited to the tumor as a response to cancer-associated inflammation.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Balkwill F, Charles KA, Mantovani A |date=March 2005 |title=Smoldering and polarized inflammation in the initiation and promotion of malignant disease |journal=Cancer Cell |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=211–217 |doi=10.1016/j.ccr.2005.02.013 |pmid=15766659 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Their sluggish [[NF-κB]] activation allows for the smoldering inflammation seen in cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Biswas SK, Gangi L, Paul S, Schioppa T, Saccani A, Sironi M, Bottazzi B, Doni A, Vincenzo B, Pasqualini F, Vago L, Nebuloni M, Mantovani A, Sica A | display-authors = 6 | title = A distinct and unique transcriptional program expressed by tumor-associated macrophages (defective NF-kappaB and enhanced IRF-3/STAT1 activation) | journal = Blood | volume = 107 | issue = 5 | pages = 2112–2122 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16269622 | doi = 10.1182/blood-2005-01-0428 | s2cid = 5884781 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Unlike normal macrophages, tumor-associated macrophages lack cytotoxic activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Qian BZ, Pollard JW | title = Macrophage diversity enhances tumor progression and metastasis | journal = Cell | volume = 141 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–51 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20371344 | pmc = 4994190 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2010.03.014 }}</ref> Monocyte derived macrophages are divided into inflammatory M1-polarized macrophages and anti-inflammatory M2-polarized macrophages. M1-polarized macrophages phagocytize tumor cells and are considered tumor-antagonizing.<ref name=":1" /> M2-polarized macrophages are, on the other hand, tumor-promoting, because they promote tumor progression by suppressing immunosurveillance,<ref name=":4" /> aiding angiogenesis by secreting [[vascular endothelial growth factor]] (VEGF)<ref name="Weber" /> and remodeling the extracellular matrix.<ref name=":4" /> The tumor microenvironment promotes the M2-polarized macrophages, and an increased amount of tumor-associated macrophages is associated with worse prognosis.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang W, Wang L, Zhou D, Cui Q, Zhao D, Wu Y |date=January 2011 |title=Expression of tumor-associated macrophages and vascular endothelial growth factor correlates with poor prognosis of peripheral T-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified |journal=Leukemia & Lymphoma |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=46–52 |doi=10.3109/10428194.2010.529204 |pmid=21077742 |s2cid=26116121}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang BC, Gao J, Wang J, Rao ZG, Wang BC, Gao JF |date=December 2011 |title=Tumor-associated macrophages infiltration is associated with peritumoral lymphangiogenesis and poor prognosis in lung adenocarcinoma |journal=Medical Oncology |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=1447–1452 |doi=10.1007/s12032-010-9638-5 |pmid=20676804 |s2cid=24840259}}</ref>
 Tumor-associated macrophages are associated with using [[Exosome (vesicle)|exosomes]] to deliver invasion-potentiating [[microRNA]] into cancerous cells, specifically breast cancer cells.<ref name="Mathias">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mathias RA, Gopal SK, Simpson RJ | title = Contribution of cells undergoing epithelial-mesenchymal transition to the tumour microenvironment | journal = Journal of Proteomics | volume = 78 | pages = 545–557 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 23099347 | doi = 10.1016/j.jprot.2012.10.016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yang M, Chen J, Su F, Yu B, Su F, Lin L, Liu Y, Huang JD, Song E | display-authors = 6 | title = Microvesicles secreted by macrophages shuttle invasion-potentiating microRNAs into breast cancer cells | journal = Molecular Cancer | volume = 10 | issue = 117 | pages = 117 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21939504 | pmc = 3190352 | doi = 10.1186/1476-4598-10-117 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
 === Neutrophils ===
-[[Neutrophils]] are polymorphonuclear immune cells that are critical components of the [[innate immune system]]. Neutrophils can accumulate in tumors and in some cancers, such as lung adenocarcinoma, their abundance at the tumor site is associated with worsened disease prognosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Coffelt SB, Wellenstein MD, de Visser KE | title = Neutrophils in cancer: neutral no more | journal = Nature Reviews. Cancer | volume = 16 | issue = 7 | pages = 431–446 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27282249 | doi = 10.1038/nrc.2016.52 | s2cid = 4393159 | url = https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/123489/1/123489.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Gentles_2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gentles AJ, Newman AM, Liu CL, Bratman SV, Feng W, Kim D, Nair VS, Xu Y, Khuong A, Hoang CD, Diehn M, West RB, Plevritis SK, Alizadeh AA | display-authors = 6 | title = The prognostic landscape of genes and infiltrating immune cells across human cancers | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 21 | issue = 8 | pages = 938–945 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26193342 | pmc = 4852857 | doi = 10.1038/nm.3909 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Engblom C, Pfirschke C, Pittet MJ | title = The role of myeloid cells in cancer therapies | journal = Nature Reviews. Cancer | volume = 16 | issue = 7 | pages = 447–462 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27339708 | doi = 10.1038/nrc.2016.54 | s2cid = 21924175 }}</ref> When compared among 22 different [[Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes|tumor infiltrating leukocyte]] subsets, neutrophils are especially important predictors of survival for patients with solid tumors.<ref name="Gentles_2015" />  Neutrophil numbers (and myeloid cell precursors) in the blood can be increased in some patients with solid tumors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang SH, Waldron JN, Milosevic M, Shen X, Ringash J, Su J, Tong L, Perez-Ordonez B, Weinreb I, Bayley AJ, Kim J, Hope A, Cho BC, Giuliani M, Razak A, Goldstein D, Shi W, Liu FF, Xu W, O'Sullivan B | display-authors = 6 | title = Prognostic value of pretreatment circulating neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes in oropharyngeal cancer stratified by human papillomavirus status | journal = Cancer | volume = 121 | issue = 4 | pages = 545–555 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25336438 | doi = 10.1002/cncr.29100 | s2cid = 926930 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jiang L, Jiang S, Situ D, Lin Y, Yang H, Li Y, Long H, Zhou Z | display-authors = 6 | title = Prognostic value of monocyte and neutrophils to lymphocytes ratio in patients with metastatic soft tissue sarcoma | journal = Oncotarget | volume = 6 | issue = 11 | pages = 9542–9550 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25865224 | pmc = 4496237 | doi = 10.18632/oncotarget.3283 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wu WC, Sun HW, Chen HT, Liang J, Yu XJ, Wu C, Wang Z, Zheng L | display-authors = 6 | title = Circulating hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells are myeloid-biased in cancer patients | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 111 | issue = 11 | pages = 4221–4226 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24591638 | pmc = 3964061 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1320753111 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2014PNAS..111.4221W }}</ref> Experiments in mice have mainly shown that tumor-associated neutrophils exhibit tumor-promoting functions,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Coffelt SB, Kersten K, Doornebal CW, Weiden J, Vrijland K, Hau CS, Verstegen NJ, Ciampricotti M, Hawinkels LJ, Jonkers J, de Visser KE | display-authors = 6 | title = IL-17-producing γδ T cells and neutrophils conspire to promote breast cancer metastasis | journal = Nature | volume = 522 | issue = 7556 | pages = 345–348 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 25822788 | pmc = 4475637 | doi = 10.1038/nature14282 | bibcode = 2015Natur.522..345C }}</ref><ref name="high neutrophils">{{cite journal | vauthors = Engblom C, Pfirschke C, Zilionis R, Da Silva Martins J, Bos SA, Courties G, Rickelt S, Severe N, Baryawno N, Faget J, Savova V, Zemmour D, Kline J, Siwicki M, Garris C, Pucci F, Liao HW, Lin YJ, Newton A, Yaghi OK, Iwamoto Y, Tricot B, Wojtkiewicz GR, Nahrendorf M, Cortez-Retamozo V, Meylan E, Hynes RO, Demay M, Klein A, Bredella MA, Scadden DT, Weissleder R, Pittet MJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Osteoblasts remotely supply lung tumors with cancer-promoting SiglecF<sup>high</sup> neutrophils | journal = Science | volume = 358 | issue = 6367 | pages = eaal5081 | date = December 2017 | pmid = 29191879 | pmc = 6343476 | doi = 10.1126/science.aal5081 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Casbon AJ, Reynaud D, Park C, Khuc E, Gan DD, Schepers K, Passegué E, Werb Z | display-authors = 6 | title = Invasive breast cancer reprograms early myeloid differentiation in the bone marrow to generate immunosuppressive neutrophils | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 112 | issue = 6 | pages = E566–E575 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25624500 | pmc = 4330753 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1424927112 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2015PNAS..112E.566C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wculek SK, Malanchi I | title = Neutrophils support lung colonization of metastasis-initiating breast cancer cells | journal = Nature | volume = 528 | issue = 7582 | pages = 413–417 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26649828 | pmc = 4700594 | doi = 10.1038/nature16140 | bibcode = 2015Natur.528..413W }}</ref> but a smaller number of studies show that neutrophils can also inhibit tumor growth.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Finisguerra V, Di Conza G, Di Matteo M, Serneels J, Costa S, Thompson AA, Wauters E, Walmsley S, Prenen H, Granot Z, Casazza A, Mazzone M | display-authors = 6 | title = MET is required for the recruitment of anti-tumoural neutrophils | journal = Nature | volume = 522 | issue = 7556 | pages = 349–353 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 25985180 | pmc = 4594765 | doi = 10.1038/nature14407 | bibcode = 2015Natur.522..349F }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Granot Z, Henke E, Comen EA, King TA, Norton L, Benezra R | title = Tumor entrained neutrophils inhibit seeding in the premetastatic lung | journal = Cancer Cell | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | pages = 300–314 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21907922 | pmc = 3172582 | doi = 10.1016/j.ccr.2011.08.012 }}</ref> Neutrophil phenotypes are diverse and distinct neutrophil phenotypes in tumors have been identified.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fridlender ZG, Sun J, Kim S, Kapoor V, Cheng G, Ling L, Worthen GS, Albelda SM | display-authors = 6 | title = Polarization of tumor-associated neutrophil phenotype by TGF-beta: "N1" versus "N2" TAN | journal = Cancer Cell | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 183–194 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19732719 | pmc = 2754404 | doi = 10.1016/j.ccr.2009.06.017 }}</ref><ref name="high neutrophils"/>
+[[Neutrophils]] are polymorphonuclear immune cells that are critical components of the [[innate immune system]]. Neutrophils can accumulate in tumors and in some cancers, such as lung adenocarcinoma, their abundance at the tumor site is associated with worsened disease prognosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Coffelt SB, Wellenstein MD, de Visser KE | title = Neutrophils in cancer: neutral no more | journal = Nature Reviews. Cancer | volume = 16 | issue = 7 | pages = 431–446 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27282249 | doi = 10.1038/nrc.2016.52 | s2cid = 4393159 | url = https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/123489/1/123489.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Gentles_2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gentles AJ, Newman AM, Liu CL, Bratman SV, Feng W, Kim D, Nair VS, Xu Y, Khuong A, Hoang CD, Diehn M, West RB, Plevritis SK, Alizadeh AA | display-authors = 6 | title = The prognostic landscape of genes and infiltrating immune cells across human cancers | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 21 | issue = 8 | pages = 938–945 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26193342 | pmc = 4852857 | doi = 10.1038/nm.3909 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Engblom C, Pfirschke C, Pittet MJ | title = The role of myeloid cells in cancer therapies | journal = Nature Reviews. Cancer | volume = 16 | issue = 7 | pages = 447–462 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27339708 | doi = 10.1038/nrc.2016.54 | s2cid = 21924175 }}</ref> Neutrophil numbers (and myeloid cell precursors) in the blood can be increased in some patients with solid tumors.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang SH, Waldron JN, Milosevic M, Shen X, Ringash J, Su J, Tong L, Perez-Ordonez B, Weinreb I, Bayley AJ, Kim J, Hope A, Cho BC, Giuliani M, Razak A, Goldstein D, Shi W, Liu FF, Xu W, O'Sullivan B | display-authors = 6 | title = Prognostic value of pretreatment circulating neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes in oropharyngeal cancer stratified by human papillomavirus status | journal = Cancer | volume = 121 | issue = 4 | pages = 545–555 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25336438 | doi = 10.1002/cncr.29100 | s2cid = 926930 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jiang L, Jiang S, Situ D, Lin Y, Yang H, Li Y, Long H, Zhou Z | display-authors = 6 | title = Prognostic value of monocyte and neutrophils to lymphocytes ratio in patients with metastatic soft tissue sarcoma | journal = Oncotarget | volume = 6 | issue = 11 | pages = 9542–9550 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25865224 | pmc = 4496237 | doi = 10.18632/oncotarget.3283 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wu WC, Sun HW, Chen HT, Liang J, Yu XJ, Wu C, Wang Z, Zheng L | display-authors = 6 | title = Circulating hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells are myeloid-biased in cancer patients | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 111 | issue = 11 | pages = 4221–4226 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24591638 | pmc = 3964061 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1320753111 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2014PNAS..111.4221W }}</ref>
+Experiments in mice have mainly shown that tumor-associated neutrophils exhibit tumor-promoting functions,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Coffelt SB, Kersten K, Doornebal CW, Weiden J, Vrijland K, Hau CS, Verstegen NJ, Ciampricotti M, Hawinkels LJ, Jonkers J, de Visser KE | display-authors = 6 | title = IL-17-producing γδ T cells and neutrophils conspire to promote breast cancer metastasis | journal = Nature | volume = 522 | issue = 7556 | pages = 345–348 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 25822788 | pmc = 4475637 | doi = 10.1038/nature14282 | bibcode = 2015Natur.522..345C }}</ref><ref name="high neutrophils">{{cite journal | vauthors = Engblom C, Pfirschke C, Zilionis R, Da Silva Martins J, Bos SA, Courties G, Rickelt S, Severe N, Baryawno N, Faget J, Savova V, Zemmour D, Kline J, Siwicki M, Garris C, Pucci F, Liao HW, Lin YJ, Newton A, Yaghi OK, Iwamoto Y, Tricot B, Wojtkiewicz GR, Nahrendorf M, Cortez-Retamozo V, Meylan E, Hynes RO, Demay M, Klein A, Bredella MA, Scadden DT, Weissleder R, Pittet MJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Osteoblasts remotely supply lung tumors with cancer-promoting SiglecF<sup>high</sup> neutrophils | journal = Science | volume = 358 | issue = 6367 | pages = eaal5081 | date = December 2017 | pmid = 29191879 | pmc = 6343476 | doi = 10.1126/science.aal5081 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Casbon AJ, Reynaud D, Park C, Khuc E, Gan DD, Schepers K, Passegué E, Werb Z | display-authors = 6 | title = Invasive breast cancer reprograms early myeloid differentiation in the bone marrow to generate immunosuppressive neutrophils | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 112 | issue = 6 | pages = E566–E575 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25624500 | pmc = 4330753 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1424927112 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2015PNAS..112E.566C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wculek SK, Malanchi I | title = Neutrophils support lung colonization of metastasis-initiating breast cancer cells | journal = Nature | volume = 528 | issue = 7582 | pages = 413–417 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26649828 | pmc = 4700594 | doi = 10.1038/nature16140 | bibcode = 2015Natur.528..413W }}</ref> but a smaller number of studies show that neutrophils can also inhibit tumor growth.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Finisguerra V, Di Conza G, Di Matteo M, Serneels J, Costa S, Thompson AA, Wauters E, Walmsley S, Prenen H, Granot Z, Casazza A, Mazzone M | display-authors = 6 | title = MET is required for the recruitment of anti-tumoural neutrophils | journal = Nature | volume = 522 | issue = 7556 | pages = 349–353 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 25985180 | pmc = 4594765 | doi = 10.1038/nature14407 | bibcode = 2015Natur.522..349F }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Granot Z, Henke E, Comen EA, King TA, Norton L, Benezra R | title = Tumor entrained neutrophils inhibit seeding in the premetastatic lung | journal = Cancer Cell | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | pages = 300–314 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21907922 | pmc = 3172582 | doi = 10.1016/j.ccr.2011.08.012 }}</ref> Tumor associated neutrophils can be divided into N1- and N2-polarized neutrophils.<ref name=":4" /> N1-polarized neutrophils accumulate in the tumor in its early stages and support with tumor cell death. In later stages N2-polarized neutrophils promotes angiogenesis by secreting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).<ref name=":1" />
 === Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes ===
 {{main|Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes}}
-Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes are lymphocytes that penetrate a tumor, having a common origin with myelogenous cells at the [[hematopoietic stem cell]], but diverge in development. Concentration is generally positively correlated.<ref name="Solinas">{{cite journal | vauthors = Solinas G, Germano G, Mantovani A, Allavena P | title = Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) as major players of the cancer-related inflammation | journal = Journal of Leukocyte Biology | volume = 86 | issue = 5 | pages = 1065–1073 | date = November 2009 | pmid = 19741157 | doi = 10.1189/jlb.0609385 | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 6573469 | hdl = 2318/1740263 }}</ref> However, only in melanoma has autologous tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes transplant succeeded as a treatment.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Turcotte S, Rosenberg SA | title = Immunotherapy for metastatic solid cancers | journal = Advances in Surgery | volume = 45 | pages = 341–360 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21954698 | pmc = 3578602 | doi = 10.1016/j.yasu.2011.04.003 }}</ref> Cancer cells induce apoptosis of activated T cells (a class of lymphocyte) by secreting [[exosome (vesicle)|exosome]]s containing death ligands such as FasL and TRAIL, and via the same method, turn off the normal cytotoxic response of [[natural killer cell]]s.<ref name="Valenti" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Clayton A, Tabi Z | title = Exosomes and the MICA-NKG2D system in cancer | journal = Blood Cells, Molecules & Diseases | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 206–213 | date = May–June 2005 | pmid = 15885603 | doi = 10.1016/j.bcmd.2005.03.003 }}</ref>
+Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes are lymphocytes, including T cells, B cells and natural killer cells, that penetrate the tumor and has the ability to recognize and kill cancer cells.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-02-02 |title=https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/tumor-infiltrating-lymphocyte |url=https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/tumor-infiltrating-lymphocyte |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=www.cancer.gov |language=en}}</ref> A high concentration is generally positively correlated with good prognosis (802).<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Whiteside |first=Theresa L. |date=2022 |title=3. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and their role in solid tumor progression |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9113058/ |journal=Experientia supplementum (2012) |volume=113 |pages=89–106 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-91311-3_3 |issn=1664-431X |pmc=9113058 |pmid=35165861}}</ref> This type of immune cells can also block metastasis, as natural killer cells are most efficient at killing cancer cells outside of the tumor microenvironment.<ref name=":1" /> Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes has been used in therapeutic treatments, where lab amplificated immune cells are transferred to cancer patients to help their immune system fight the cancer.<ref name=":5" /> This treatment has seen success in solid tumors such as melanoma.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Turcotte S, Rosenberg SA | title = Immunotherapy for metastatic solid cancers | journal = Advances in Surgery | volume = 45 | pages = 341–360 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21954698 | pmc = 3578602 | doi = 10.1016/j.yasu.2011.04.003 }}</ref>
+Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes can become tumor-promoting due to the immunosuppressive mechanisms of the tumor microenvironment.<ref name=":5" /> Cancer cells induce apoptosis of activated T cells by secreting [[Exosome (vesicle)|exosomes]] containing death ligands such as FasL and TRAIL, and via the same method, turn off the normal cytotoxic response of [[Natural killer cell|natural killer cells]].<ref name="Valenti">{{cite journal |vauthors=Valenti R, Huber V, Iero M, Filipazzi P, Parmiani G, Rivoltini L |date=April 2007 |title=Tumor-released microvesicles as vehicles of immunosuppression |journal=Cancer Research |volume=67 |issue=7 |pages=2912–2915 |doi=10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-07-0520 |pmid=17409393 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Clayton A, Tabi Z | title = Exosomes and the MICA-NKG2D system in cancer | journal = Blood Cells, Molecules & Diseases | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 206–213 | date = May–June 2005 | pmid = 15885603 | doi = 10.1016/j.bcmd.2005.03.003 }}</ref>
 === T cells ===
+There are several types of T cells that are important to tumorigenesis, including [[Cytotoxic T cell|cytotoxic T cells]] (CD8+), [[T helper cell|T helper 1]] (Th-1) cells and [[Regulatory T cell|regulatory T cells]] (Tregs).<ref name=":1" /> CD8+ cells are tumor-antagonizing cells that recognize tumor antigens and targets cancer cells for destruction. In addition, CD8+ cells slow tumor progression and suppress angiogenesis by releasing [[Interferon gamma|interferon-gamma]] (IFN-γ).<ref name=":1" /> Th-1 cells supports the activation and proliferation of CD8+ cells by secreting IFN-γ and [[Interleukin 2|interleukin-2]] (IL-2), and by cross-presenting tumor antigens.<ref name=":4" /> Tregs are, as opposed to CD8+, tumor promoting. They secrete tumor growth factors, and indirectly support cancer survival by interacting with endothelial cells and carcinoma associated fibroblasts.<ref name=":1" /> Tregs also have immunosuppressive mechanisms that can make CD8+ cells less effective.<ref name=":4" />
-T cells reach tumor sites via the circulatory system. The TME appears to preferentially recruit other immune cells over T cells from that system. One such mechanism is the release of cell-type specific [[chemokines]]. Another is the TME's capacity to posttranslationally alter chemokines. For example, the production of reactive nitrogen species by MDSCs within the TME induces nitration of [[CCL2]], which traps T cells in the stroma of colon and prostate cancers.<ref name="Joyce_2015"/>
+T cells reach tumor sites via the vascular system, where the tumor microenvironment appears to preferentially recruit other immune cells over T cells. One such discriminating mechanism is the release of cell-type specific [[chemokines]]. Another is the expression of the [[apoptosis]] inducer [[Fas ligand]] (FasL) in the vasculature of ovarian, colon, prostate, breast, bladder and renal tumors. Tumors with a high expression of FasL has been shown to contain an abundancy of Tregs, but few CD8+ cells.<ref name="Joyce_2015" />
-Another T cell inhibitor appears to be the [[apoptosis]] inducer [[Fas ligand]] (FasL) that is found in the tumor vasculature of tumor types including ovarian, colon, prostate, breast, bladder and renal cancer. High levels of endothelial FasL are accompanied by few CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells, but abundant [[regulatory T cell]]s (T<sub>regs</sub>). In preclinical models inhibiting FasL increased the ratio of tumor-rejecting T cells to T<sub>reg</sub> cells and T cell–dependent tumor suppression. FasL inhibition also improves ACT efficacy.<ref name="Joyce_2015" /> For many cancers, an increased frequency of in the tumor microenvironment is associated with worse outcomes for the individual. This is not the case with colorectal cancer; an increased frequency of T<sub>reg</sub> cells may suppress inflammation mediated by the [[gut flora]], which promotes tumor growth.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Plitas G, Rudensky AY | title = Regulatory T Cells in Cancer | journal = Annual Review of Cancer Biology | date = March 2020 | volume = 4 | pages = 459–77 | doi=10.1146/annurev-cancerbio-030419-033428|doi-access=free }}</ref>
+T cells must replicate after arriving at the tumor site to effectively kill the cancer cells, survive hostile elements and migrate through the stroma to the cancer cells. This is affected by the tumor microenvironment. The draining lymph nodes are the likely location for cancer specific T cell replication, although this also occurs within the tumor.<ref name="Joyce_2015" />
-==== Reproduction ====
-T cells must reproduce after arriving at the tumor site to further increase their numbers, survive hostile elements and migrate through the stroma to the cancer cells. The tumor microenvironment obstructs all three activities. The draining lymph nodes are the likely location for T cell clonal reproduction, although this also occurs within the tumor. Preclinical models suggest that the tumor microenvironment is the major site of cancer-specific T cell cloning and that the CD8<sup>+</sup> T cell replicative response there is orchestrated by the [[CD103]]<sup>+</sup>, Baft3-dependent DC, which can efficiently cross-present cancer cell antigens, suggesting that therapeutic interventions that enhance CD103<sup>+</sup> contribute to tumor control.
 == Research==