Marasmius rotula: Difference between revisions

*Marasmius rotula*
Mycological characteristics
Marasmius rotula Mycological characteristics
	Gills on hymenium
	Cap is convex
	Hymenium is free
	Stipe is bare
	Spore print is white
	Ecology is saprotrophic
	Edibility is inedible

Marasmius rotula
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Fungi
Division:	Basidiomycota
Class:	Agaricomycetes
Order:	Agaricales
Family:	Marasmiaceae
Genus:	Marasmius
Species:	M. rotula
Binomial name
	Marasmius rotula; (Scop.) Fr. (1838)
Synonyms
	Agaricus rotula Scop. (1772); Merulius collariatus With. (1796); Micromphale collariatum (With.) Gray (1821); Androsaceus rotula (Scop.) Pat. (1887); Chamaeceras rotula (Scop.) Kuntze (1898)

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Marasmius rotula is a widespread and common species of agaric fungus in the family Marasmiaceae. It is commonly known variously as the pinwheel mushroom, the pinwheel Marasmius, the little wheel, the collared parachute, or the horse hair fungus. The type species of the genus Marasmius, M. rotula was first described scientifically in 1772 by mycologist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli and assigned its current name in 1838 by Elias Fries.

The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, of M. rotula are characterized by their whitish, thin, membranous caps up to 2 cm (0.8 in) wide that are sunken in the center, and pleated with scalloped margins. The slender and wiry black hollow stems measure up to 8.5 cm (3.3 in) long by 1 mm thick. On the underside of the caps are widely-spaced white gills that are attached to a collar encircling the stem. The mushrooms grow in clusters on decaying wood such as fallen twigs and sticks, moss-covered logs, and stumps.

Unlike other mushrooms known to release spores in response to an internal timer, or circadian rhythm, spore release in M. rotula is dependent upon sufficient moisture. Dried mushrooms may revive after rehydrating and continue to release spores for up to three weeks—a sustained spore production of markedly longer duration than other typical agarics. There are several species of Marasmius with which M. rotula might be confused owing to somewhat similar overall appearances, but differences in size, gill arrangement, and substrate are usually sufficient field characteristics to distinguish them. Although M. rotula mushrooma are not generally considered edible, they produce a unique peroxidase enzyme that is attracting research interest for possible use in bioengineering applications.

Taxonomy

The species was first named by Italian mycologist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli as Agaricus rotula in 1772.^[4] In 1821 Elias Magnus Fries redescribed the mushroom in Systema Mycologicum,^[5] and later sanctioned the name Marasmius rotula in his 1838 Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici.^[6] Synonyms include names derived from generic transfers to Androsaceus by Narcisse Théophile Patouillard in 1887,^[7] and to Chamaeceras by Otto Kuntze in 1898;^[2] both of these genera are now obsolete and have since been sunk back into Marasmius.^[8]

In his 1821 Natural Arrangement of British Plants, Samuel Frederick Gray introduced the generic name Micromphale, including the species Micromphale collariatum,^[1] which was based on William Withering's 1796 Merulius collariatus.^[9] In 1946 Alexander H. Smith and Rolf Singer proposed to conserve the genus name Marasmius over Micromphale, which had nomenclatorial priority, with M. rotula as the lectotype.^[10] The generic name Marasmius, with M. rotula as the lectotype species, was later conserved at the 1954 Paris Congress on Botanical Nomenclature.^[11]^[12] M. rotula is also the type species of section Marasmius of the genus Marasmius, a grouping of species characterized by nonamyloid trama, a cap cuticle with broom cells ornamented with numerous warts, gills usually attached to a collar surrounding the stem, and the presence of black rhizomorphs on the stem.^[13]

Several varieties of M. rotula have been described. Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis named var. fuscus in 1869 for its brown cap.^[14] In 1887, Pier Andrea Saccardo described var. microcephalus from Italy, with caps half the normal size.^[15] It is now understood, however, that fruit body morphology is variable and dependent upon environmental conditions. Joseph Schröter described var. phyllophyla in 1889,^[16] but this is now known to be synonymous with Marasmius bulliardi.^[17]

Marasmius rotula is commonly known as the "pinwheel mushroom", the "pinwheel Marasmius",^[18] the "collared parachute",^[19] or the "horse hair fungus".^[20] Gray called it the "collared dimple-stool".^[1] The name "little wheel fungus" is suggestive of the collar to which the gills are attached like the spokes of a wheel.^[21] The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word rota meaning "wheel".^[18]

Description

The cap of the fruit body is thin and membranous, measuring 3 to 20 mm (0.1 to 0.8 in) in diameter.^[22] It has a convex shape, and is slightly depressed in the center. The cap color is whitish to light pinkish-white, slightly darker at the center, and smooth. The cap margin has scalloped edges and furrows that outline the shape of the gills on the underside; the radial furrows extend inward to one-third to three-quarters of the cap radius from the edge.^[23] The flesh is about 0.25–1.5 mm thick in the central part of the cap, and thin in the cap margin; it is white or slightly yellowish.^[24]

The gills are attached to a collar, and are free from direct attachment to the stem, although some specimens may have the collar pressed close to the stem and this characteristic will be less obvious.^[18] The widely-spaced gills are whitish to pale yellow, and there are typically between 16 and 22 of them.^[25] They are initially narrow, but eventually broaden to about 1–3 mm. The stem is 1.5 to 8.5 cm (0.6 to 3.3 in) long and up to 0.1 cm (0.04 in) thick, with a smooth, sometimes shiny surface. It is tough, hollow, and either straight or curved. Its color is blackish-brown below, with a lighter apex that is almost translucent. The base of the stem may be connected to dark brown to black root-like rhizomorphs that are 0.1–0.3 mm thick.^[24] There is no partial veil on the stem.^[20]

"Note particularly the manner in which the hair-like stem is set into the tiny socket, the sparsity of the gill development, and the fine furrows and scallopings of the margin of the cap. A Swiss matchmaker could not excel such workmanship."

Louis C.C. Krieger^[26]

The external appearance of the fruit bodies is somewhat variable, and dependent on growing conditions. For example, fruit bodies growing on logs in forests dominated by oak and hickory trees tend to have more yellowish-white, depressed caps than those found later in autumn that are light yellow brown and more convex in shape.^[24] The fruit body development of M. rotula is hemiangiocarpous, meaning that the hymenium is enclosed by tissues of the basidiocarp. Robert Kühner showed that a cortina-like tissue covers the young gills before the expanding cap breaks away from the stem. In unfavorable weather conditions however, the mushrooms may fail to develop normally and instead produce semi-gasteroid basidiocarps.^[27] Like many Marasmius species, M. rotula can dry and shrivel completely and then revive after rainfall.^[18]

Microscopic characteristics

Viewed in deposit, such as with a spore print, the spores of Marasmius rotula appear white or pale yellow.^[23] Viewed with a light microscope, the spores are hyaline (translucent), teardrop or pip-shaped, and have dimensions of 7–10 by 3–5 µm.^[20] The basidia (the spore-producing cells) are four-spored, club shaped or nearly so, and measure 21–21 by 4–17 µm. Along the edge of the gill, interspersed among the basidia, are sterile (non-reproductive) cells called cystidia; they are club-shaped and have rough wart-like protuberances on the surface.^[25] The gill edges feature broom cells, which are finger-like projections common to Marasmius species. The broom cells of M. rotula are variably shaped, thin-walled, and measure 7–32 by 2.5–20 µm. Their apical surfaces are covered with blunt yellowish conical warts or incrustations that measure 0.2–1.5 by 0.1–1 µm^[24]

Similar species

There are several less-common species of Marasmius with which M. rotula might be confused owing to somewhat similar overall appearances, but differences in size, gill arrangement, and substrate are usually sufficient field characteristics to distinguish between them. Marasmius capillaris has a pale tan cap with a white center, and it grows on oak leaves, and is never clustered.^[22] Further, its cap is evenly rounded, unlike the pleated and furrowed cap of M. rotula,^[28] and its stem is somewhat thicker (usually more than 0.3 mm) and slightly darker in color.^[29] M. rotula is distinguished from M. bulliardii by its larger size, and greater number of gills.^[25] M. limosus is found in marshes, where it fruits on the dead stems of reeds and rushes.^[30] M. rotuloides, known only from Trinidad, has smaller, ovoid spores measuring 5 by 2.5 µm.^[31] Tetrapyrgos nigripes (formerly Marasmius nigripes) has white caps that are 5 to 10 mm (0.2 to 0.4 in) in diameter, widely-spaced gills, and a dark stem covered with what appears to be a white powder.^[32]

Other Marasmius species with a pinwheel arrangement of gills may be readily distinguished from M. rotula by differences in color, including the orange M. siccus, the pink M. pulcherripes, and the rust M. fulvoferrugineus.^[28] M. neorotula, found in the tropics of Brazil, was considered by discoverer Rolf Singer to be closely related to M. rotula.^[33] Mycena corticola is smaller than Marasmius rotula, has a pale pink-brown cap, and is usually found growing singly or in small groups on bark near the base of living trees.^[18]

Ecology and distribution

Marasmius rotula is a saprobic species,^[28] and obtains nutrients by decomposing dead organic matter. It grows on rotting leaves, dead wood (especially beech), or other woody debris in deciduous forests. The fruit bodies, which are easily overlooked because of their diminutive size,^[21] often grow in abundance after rains.^[34] The fungus is relatively intolerant of low water potentials, and will grow poorly or not at all under conditions of water stress.^[35]^[36] Consequently, the fungus is unable to degrade leaf litter until it becomes more fragmented and more compacted and the water-holding capacity increases in the deeper layers of the soil.^[35] The stems of the fruit body are used by the Magnolia Warbler to line their nests.^[37]

In 1975 American mycologist Martina S. Gilliam investigated the periodicity of spore release in M. rotula and concluded that spore discharge did not follow a regular circadian rhythm typical of agaric and bolete mushrooms,^[38] but rather, was dependent on rain. A threshold of rainfall was required to elicit a spore discharge response, and the duration of peak spore discharge was correlated with the amount of rainfall, rather than its duration. Furthermore, Gilliam noted that spore prints were more readily obtained if the end of the stem was placed in water, suggesting that water must enter through the fruit body for spore discharge to occur. Like many other species of Marasmius, the fruit bodies of M. rotula can dessicate and shrivel in dry periods, and revive when sufficient moisture is available in the form of rain or high humidity. Gilliam's study demonstrated that revived fruit bodies were capable of discharging spores over a period of at least three weeks, whereas previous studies using similar methods for other Agaricomycetes showed spore discharge over a period of up to six days after revival. The potential for sustained spore production and discharge may be due to the growth of new basidioles (immature basidia) during periods of growth, which may explain why the gills become broader as the mushroom matures.^[39]

The fungus is widespread and common in its preferred habitats in North America, Europe, and northern Asia.^[30] Isolated collections have been reported from Africa (Congo,^[40] Nigeria,^[41] Sierra Leone,^[42] and Tanzania^[43]) and South Asia (India).^[44] In North America M. rotula is more common in the eastern part of the continent.^[20]

Uses

Marasmius rotula is generally considered inedible,^[18] but not poisonous. The mushroom has no distinguishable odor, and the taste is mild or bitter.^[20] However, Louis Krieger, writing in National Geographic (1920), noted that the mushroom was used as an addition to gravies, and, when used to garnish venison, "adds the appropriate touch of the wild woodlands."^[26] The fruit bodies will bioaccumulate the heavy metal cadmium; a study of the metal concentration of 15 wild Indian mushroom species showed that M. rotula had accumulated the highest concentration of cadmium.^[44]

A peroxidase enzyme called MroAPO (Marasmius rotula aromatic peroxygenase) is attracting research interest for possible applications in biocatalysis. In general, enzymes catalyzing oxygen-transfer reactions are of great utility in chemical synthesis since they work selectively and under ambient conditions. Fungal peroxidases can catalyze oxidations that are difficult for the organic chemist, including those involving aromatic substrates such as aniline, 4-aminophenol, hydroquinone, resorcinol, catechol, and paracetamol.^[45] The M. rotula enzyme is the first fungal peroxygenase that can be produced in high yields. It is highly stable over a wide pH range, and in a variety of organic solvents.^[46] The enzyme has potential for use as a biosensor for aromatic substances in environmental analysis and drug monitoring.^[45]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Gray SF. (1821). A Natural Arrangement of British Plants. Vol. 1. London, UK: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. p. 622.
^ ^a ^b Kuntze O. (1898). "Revisio generum plantarum" (in German). 3. Leipzig, Germany: A. Felix: 455. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.327. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "Synonymy: Marasmius rotula (Scop.) Fr". Index Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2012-06-14.
^ Scopoli JA. (1772). Flora Carniolica (in Latin). Vol. 2 (2 ed.). Vienna, Austria: J.P. Krauss. p. 456.
^ Fries EM. (1821). Systema Mycologicum (in Latin). Vol. 1. ex officina Berlingiana. p. 136.
^ Fries EM. (1838). Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici. Uppsala, Sweden: Typographia Academica. p. 385.
^ Patouillard N. (1887). Les Hyménomycètes d'Europe (in French). Paris, France: Paul Klincksieck. p. 105.
^ Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA. (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. pp. 8, 134. ISBN 9780851998268.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Withering W. (1796). An Arrangement of British Plants. Vol. 4 (3 ed.). Birmingham, UK: M. Swinney. p. 148.
^ Singer R, Smith AH. (1946). "Proposals concerning the nomenclature of the gill fungi, including a list of proposed lectotypes and genera conservation". Mycologia. 38 (3): 240–99. doi:10.2307/3755094. JSTOR 3755094.
^ Anon (1953). "Disposition of nomina generica conservanda for Fungi". Taxon. 2 (2): 29–32. JSTOR 1217581.
^ Anon (1954). "Nomina generica conservanda". Taxon. 3 (8): 233. doi:10.2307/1216603. JSTOR 1216603.
^ Gilliam (1976), p. 112.
^ Berkeley MJ, Curtis MA. (1869). "Fungi Cubenses (Hymenomycetes)". Journal of the Linnean Society. Botany. 10 (45): 280–392 (see p. 297).
^ Saccardo PA. (1887). Sylloge Fungorum (in Latin). Vol. 5. Padova, Italy: Sumptibus Auctoris. p. 541.
^ Schröter J. (1885). Kryptogamen-Flora von Schlesien (in German). Vol. 3–1(1). Lehre, Germany: Cramer. p. 558.
^ "Marasmius rotula var. phyllophila J. Schröt. 1889". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2012-06-18.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Roody WC. (2003). Mushrooms of West Virginia and the Central Appalachians. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-9039-8.
^ Phillips R. "Marasmius rotula". RogersMushrooms. Rogers Plants. Retrieved 2010-01-05.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Miller HR, Miller OK. (2006). North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, Connecticut: Falcon Guide. p. 196. ISBN 0-7627-3109-5.
^ ^a ^b Orr DB, Orr RT. (1979). Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 240. ISBN 0-520-03656-5.
^ ^a ^b Bessette A, Bessette AR, Fischer DW. (1997). Mushrooms of Northeastern North America. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. pp. 201–2. ISBN 978-0-8156-0388-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b McKnight VB, McKnight KH. (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms, North America. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. p. 167. ISBN 0-395-91090-0.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Gilliam (1976), pp. 122–7.
^ ^a ^b ^c Jordan M. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe. London, UK: Frances Lincoln. p. 191. ISBN 0-7112-2378-5.
^ ^a ^b Krieger LCC. (1920). "Common mushrooms of the United States". National Geographic. 37 (5): 413.
^ Gilliam (1976), p. 3.
^ ^a ^b ^c Kuo M. (November 2004). "Marasmius rotula". MushroomExpert.Com. Retrieved 2012-05-15.
^ Gilliam (1976), p. 121.
^ ^a ^b Roberts P, Evans S. (2011). The Book of Fungi. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. p. 231. ISBN 978-0226721170.
^ Dennis RWG. (1951). "Some Agaricaceae of Trinidad and Venezuela. Leucosporae: Part 1". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 34 (4): 411–80 (see p. 415).
^ Healy RA, Huffman DR, Tiffany LH, Knaphaus G. (2008). Mushrooms and Other Fungi of the Midcontinental United States. Bur Oak Guide. Iowa City, Iowa: University of Iowa Press. p. 143. ISBN 1-58729-627-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Singer R. (1989). New Taxa and New combinations of Agaricales (Diagnoses Fungorum Novorum Agaricalium IV). Fieldiana: Botany (in Latin and English)). Field Museum of Natural History. p. 51.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
^ Kauffman CH. (1918). The Agaricaceae of Michigan. Vol. 1. Lansing, Michigan: Wynkoop Hallenbeck Crawford Co., State Printers. p. 78.
^ ^a ^b Dix NJ. (1984). "Minimum water potentials for growth of some litter-decomposing agarics and other Basidiomycetes". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 83 (1): 152–3.
^ Koske RE, Tessier B. (1986). "Growth of some wood and litter-decay Basidiomycetes at reduced water potential". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 86 (1): 156–7.
^ Schorger AW. (1946). "Nest of the Magnolia Warbler at Trout Lake, Wisconsin". The Wilson Bulletin. 58 (3): 186. JSTOR 4157507.
^ Roenneber T, Merrow M. (2001). "Seasonality and photoperiodism in fungi". Journal of Biological Rhythms. 16 (4): 403–14. doi:10.1177/074873001129001999. PMID 11506384.
^ Gilliam MS. (1975). "Periodicity of spore release in Marasmius rotula". Michigan Botanist. 14 (2): 83–90. ISSN 0026-203X.
^ Beeli M, Goossens M. (1928). "Contribution a l'étude de la Flore mycologique du Congo CHAMPIGNONS: FUNGI GOOSSENSIANI: V". Bulletin de la Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique (in French). 60 (2): 153–74. JSTOR 20791530.
^ Idu M, Osemwegie OO, Onyibe HI. (2008). "Checklist of flora in Edo State, Nigeria". Plant Archives. 8 (2): 539–49. ISSN 0972-5210.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Beeli M. (1938). "Étude de la Flore Mycologique africaine Note sur des Basidiomycètes récoltés a Sierra Leone par F. C Deighton". Bulletin du Jardin botanique de l'État a Bruxelles (in French). 15 (1): 25–53. JSTOR 3666575.
^ Vězda A. (1975). "Foliikole Flechten aus Tanzania (Ost-Afrika)". Folia Geobotanica & Phytotaxonomica (in German). 10 (4): 383–432 (see p. 391). JSTOR 4179892.
^ ^a ^b Das N. (2005). "Determination of lead, arsenic, cadmium, iron, copper and nickel in wild mushroom samples from South West Bengal". Mushroom Research. 14 (2): 80–3.
^ ^a ^b Yarman A, Gröbe G, Neumann B, Kinne M, Gajovic-Eichelmann N, Wollenberger U, Hofrichter M, Ullrich R, Scheibner K, Scheller FW. (2012). "The aromatic peroxygenase from Marasmius rotula—a new enzyme for biosensor applications". Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 402 (1): 405–12. doi:10.1007/s00216-011-5497-y. PMID 22038589.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Gröbe G, Ullrich R, Pecyna MJ, Kapturska D, Friedrich S, Hofrichter M, Scheibner K. (2011). "High-yield production of aromatic peroxygenase by the agaric fungus Marasmius rotula". AMB Express. 1 (1): 31. doi:10.1186/2191-0855-1-31. PMID 21988939.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

Cited literature

Gilliam MS. (1976). "The genus Marasmius in the northeastern United States and adjacent Canada". Mycotaxon. 4 (6): 1–144.

External links

Marasmius rotula in Index Fungorum

[Gray1821-1] Gray SF. (1821). A Natural Arrangement of British Plants. Vol. 1. London, UK: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. p. 622.

[Kuntze1898-2] Kuntze O. (1898). "Revisio generum plantarum" (in German). 3. Leipzig, Germany: A. Felix: 455. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.327. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[urlSpecies_Fungorum_Synonymy:_Marasmius_rotula-3] "Synonymy: Marasmius rotula (Scop.) Fr". Index Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2012-06-14.

[Scopoli1772-4] Scopoli JA. (1772). Flora Carniolica (in Latin). Vol. 2 (2 ed.). Vienna, Austria: J.P. Krauss. p. 456.

[Fries1821-5] Fries EM. (1821). Systema Mycologicum (in Latin). Vol. 1. ex officina Berlingiana. p. 136.

[Fries1838-6] Fries EM. (1838). Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici. Uppsala, Sweden: Typographia Academica. p. 385.

[Patouillard1887-7] Patouillard N. (1887). Les Hyménomycètes d'Europe (in French). Paris, France: Paul Klincksieck. p. 105.

[Kirk2008-8] Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA. (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. pp. 8, 134. ISBN 9780851998268.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Withering1796-9] Withering W. (1796). An Arrangement of British Plants. Vol. 4 (3 ed.). Birmingham, UK: M. Swinney. p. 148.

[Singer1946-10] Singer R, Smith AH. (1946). "Proposals concerning the nomenclature of the gill fungi, including a list of proposed lectotypes and genera conservation". Mycologia. 38 (3): 240–99. doi:10.2307/3755094. JSTOR 3755094.

[Taxon1953-11] Anon (1953). "Disposition of nomina generica conservanda for Fungi". Taxon. 2 (2): 29–32. JSTOR 1217581.

[Taxon1954-12] Anon (1954). "Nomina generica conservanda". Taxon. 3 (8): 233. doi:10.2307/1216603. JSTOR 1216603.

[13] Gilliam (1976), p. 112.

[Berkeley1869-14] Berkeley MJ, Curtis MA. (1869). "Fungi Cubenses (Hymenomycetes)". Journal of the Linnean Society. Botany. 10 (45): 280–392 (see p. 297).

[Saccardo1887-15] Saccardo PA. (1887). Sylloge Fungorum (in Latin). Vol. 5. Padova, Italy: Sumptibus Auctoris. p. 541.

[Schröter_1885-16] Schröter J. (1885). Kryptogamen-Flora von Schlesien (in German). Vol. 3–1(1). Lehre, Germany: Cramer. p. 558.

[urlMycoBank:_Marasmius_rotula_var._phyllophila-17] "Marasmius rotula var. phyllophila J. Schröt. 1889". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2012-06-18.

[Roody2003-18] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Roody WC. (2003). Mushrooms of West Virginia and the Central Appalachians. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-9039-8.

[Rogers-19] Phillips R. "Marasmius rotula". RogersMushrooms. Rogers Plants. Retrieved 2010-01-05.

[Miller2006-20] Miller HR, Miller OK. (2006). North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, Connecticut: Falcon Guide. p. 196. ISBN 0-7627-3109-5.

[Orr1979-21] Orr DB, Orr RT. (1979). Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 240. ISBN 0-520-03656-5.

[Bessette1997-22] Bessette A, Bessette AR, Fischer DW. (1997). Mushrooms of Northeastern North America. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. pp. 201–2. ISBN 978-0-8156-0388-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[McKnight1987-23] McKnight VB, McKnight KH. (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms, North America. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. p. 167. ISBN 0-395-91090-0.

[Gilliam1976-24] Gilliam (1976), pp. 122–7.

[Jordan2004-25] Jordan M. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe. London, UK: Frances Lincoln. p. 191. ISBN 0-7112-2378-5.

[Krieger1920-26] Krieger LCC. (1920). "Common mushrooms of the United States". National Geographic. 37 (5): 413.

[27] Gilliam (1976), p. 3.

[urlMarasmius_rotula_(MushroomExpert.Com)-28] Kuo M. (November 2004). "Marasmius rotula". MushroomExpert.Com. Retrieved 2012-05-15.

[29] Gilliam (1976), p. 121.

[Roberts2011-30] Roberts P, Evans S. (2011). The Book of Fungi. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. p. 231. ISBN 978-0226721170.

[Dennis1951-31] Dennis RWG. (1951). "Some Agaricaceae of Trinidad and Venezuela. Leucosporae: Part 1". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 34 (4): 411–80 (see p. 415).

[Healy2008-32] Healy RA, Huffman DR, Tiffany LH, Knaphaus G. (2008). Mushrooms and Other Fungi of the Midcontinental United States. Bur Oak Guide. Iowa City, Iowa: University of Iowa Press. p. 143. ISBN 1-58729-627-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Singer1989-33] Singer R. (1989). New Taxa and New combinations of Agaricales (Diagnoses Fungorum Novorum Agaricalium IV). Fieldiana: Botany (in Latin and English)). Field Museum of Natural History. p. 51.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)

[Kauffman1918-34] Kauffman CH. (1918). The Agaricaceae of Michigan. Vol. 1. Lansing, Michigan: Wynkoop Hallenbeck Crawford Co., State Printers. p. 78.

[Dix1984-35] Dix NJ. (1984). "Minimum water potentials for growth of some litter-decomposing agarics and other Basidiomycetes". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 83 (1): 152–3.

[Koske1986-36] Koske RE, Tessier B. (1986). "Growth of some wood and litter-decay Basidiomycetes at reduced water potential". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 86 (1): 156–7.

[Schorger1946-37] Schorger AW. (1946). "Nest of the Magnolia Warbler at Trout Lake, Wisconsin". The Wilson Bulletin. 58 (3): 186. JSTOR 4157507.

[Roenneberg2001-38] Roenneber T, Merrow M. (2001). "Seasonality and photoperiodism in fungi". Journal of Biological Rhythms. 16 (4): 403–14. doi:10.1177/074873001129001999. PMID 11506384.

[Gilliam1975-39] Gilliam MS. (1975). "Periodicity of spore release in Marasmius rotula". Michigan Botanist. 14 (2): 83–90. ISSN 0026-203X.

[Beeli1928-40] Beeli M, Goossens M. (1928). "Contribution a l'étude de la Flore mycologique du Congo CHAMPIGNONS: FUNGI GOOSSENSIANI: V". Bulletin de la Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique (in French). 60 (2): 153–74. JSTOR 20791530.

[Idu2008-41] Idu M, Osemwegie OO, Onyibe HI. (2008). "Checklist of flora in Edo State, Nigeria". Plant Archives. 8 (2): 539–49. ISSN 0972-5210.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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Marasmius rotula Mycological characteristics
	Gills on hymenium
	Cap is convex
	Hymenium is free
	Stipe is bare
	Spore print is white
	Ecology is saprotrophic
	Edibility is inedible