Performance-enhancing substance: Difference between revisions

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Performance-enhancing drugs (also known as PEDs) are substances used to improve performance. Although the phrase performance-enhancing drugs is popularly used in reference to anabolic steroids or their precursors (hence the colloquial term "steroids"), anti-doping organizations apply the term broadly.^[1]

Users

Performance-enhancing drugs are used by athletes and bodybuilders. Use of cognitive performance enhancers by students is sometimes referred to as academic doping. They are also used by military personnel to enhance combat performance.^[2]

Types

The phrase has been used to refer to several distinct classes of drugs:

Lean mass builders, which drive or amplify the growth of muscle and lean body mass, are also used to reduce body fat. They can also reduce the time it takes to recover from an injury. This class of drugs includes anabolic steroids, xenoandrogens, beta-2 agonists, selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs), and various human hormones, most notably human growth hormone, as well as some of their prodrugs.^[3] Performance-enhancing drugs are also found in animals like chicken as synthetic growth hormone.
Stimulants, particularly dopamine reuptake inhibitors and releasing agents, can enhance cognitive and athletic performance by improving muscle strength, focus, and energy and decreasing reaction time and fatigue; some examples of ergogenic (athletic performance-enhancing) stimulants are caffeine, ephedrine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine.^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]
Nootropics can increase cognition including memory short term and long term.
Painkillers allow performance beyond the usual pain threshold. Some painkillers raise blood pressure, increasing oxygen supply to muscle cells. Painkillers used by athletes range from common over-the-counter medicines such as NSAIDs (such as ibuprofen) to powerful prescription narcotics.
Sedatives and anxiolytics are sometimes used in sports like archery which require steady hands and accurate aim, and also to overcome excessive nervousness or discomfort. Diazepam and propranolol are common examples; ethanol and cannabis are also used occasionally.
Blood boosters (blood doping) increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood beyond the individual's natural capacity. They are used in endurance sports like long-distance running, cycling, and Nordic skiing. EPO is one of the most widely known drugs in this class.

Definition

The classifications of substances as performance-enhancing drugs are not entirely clear-cut and objective. As in other types of categorization, certain prototype performance enhancers are universally classified as such (like anabolic steroids), whereas other substances (like vitamins and protein supplements) are virtually never classified as performance enhancers despite their effects on performance. As is usual with categorization, there are borderline cases; caffeine, for example, is considered a performance enhancer by some but not others.^[8]

References

^ "Performance-Enhancing Drug Resources". Drug Free Sport. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
^ Anon. Better Fighting Through Chemistry? The Role of FDA Regulation in Crafting the Warrior of the Future. Food and Drug Law: Final Paper. March 8, 2004.
^ McKelvey Martin, Valerie. "Drugs in Sport". Retrieved 15 April 2013.
^ Liddle DG, Connor DJ (June 2013). "Nutritional supplements and ergogenic AIDS". Prim. Care. 40 (2): 487–505. doi:10.1016/j.pop.2013.02.009. PMID 23668655. Amphetamines and caffeine are stimulants that increase alertness, improve focus, decrease reaction time, and delay fatigue, allowing for an increased intensity and duration of training
^ Parr JW (July 2011). "Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and the athlete: new advances and understanding". Clin. Sports Med. 30 (3): 591–610. doi:10.1016/j.csm.2011.03.007. PMID 21658550.
^ Roelands B, de Koning J, Foster C, Hettinga F, Meeusen R (May 2013). "Neurophysiological determinants of theoretical concepts and mechanisms involved in pacing". Sports Med. 43 (5): 301–311. doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0030-4. PMID 23456493.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Parker KL, Lamichhane D, Caetano MS, Narayanan NS (October 2013). "Executive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease and timing deficits". Front. Integr. Neurosci. 7: 75. doi:10.3389/fnint.2013.00075. PMC 3813949. PMID 24198770. The neurotransmitter dopamine is released from projections originating in the midbrain. Manipulations of dopaminergic signaling profoundly influence interval timing, leading to the hypothesis that dopamine influences internal pacemaker, or "clock," activity (Maricq and Church, 1983; Buhusi and Meck, 2005, 2009; Lake and Meck, 2013). For instance, amphetamine, which increases concentrations of dopamine at the synaptic cleft (Maricq and Church, 1983; Zetterström et al., 1983) advances the start of responding during interval timing (Taylor et al., 2007), whereas antagonists of D2 type dopamine receptors typically slow timing (Drew et al., 2003; Lake and Meck, 2013). ... Depletion of dopamine in healthy volunteers impairs timing (Coull et al., 2012), while amphetamine releases synaptic dopamine and speeds up timing (Taylor et al., 2007).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ "Caffeine and Sports Performance". Vanderbilt.edu. Retrieved 2012-03-04.

External links

Mitchell Report – regarding Major League Baseball.
Risks to health – from Mayo Clinic.
National Institute on Drug Abuse: "NIDA for Teens: Anabolic Steroids".

[1] "Performance-Enhancing Drug Resources". Drug Free Sport. Retrieved 14 April 2013.

[2] Anon. Better Fighting Through Chemistry? The Role of FDA Regulation in Crafting the Warrior of the Future. Food and Drug Law: Final Paper. March 8, 2004.

[3] McKelvey Martin, Valerie. "Drugs in Sport". Retrieved 15 April 2013.

[Ergogenics-4] Liddle DG, Connor DJ (June 2013). "Nutritional supplements and ergogenic AIDS". Prim. Care. 40 (2): 487–505. doi:10.1016/j.pop.2013.02.009. PMID 23668655. Amphetamines and caffeine are stimulants that increase alertness, improve focus, decrease reaction time, and delay fatigue, allowing for an increased intensity and duration of training

[Ergogenics2-5] Parr JW (July 2011). "Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and the athlete: new advances and understanding". Clin. Sports Med. 30 (3): 591–610. doi:10.1016/j.csm.2011.03.007. PMID 21658550.

[Roelands_2013-6] Roelands B, de Koning J, Foster C, Hettinga F, Meeusen R (May 2013). "Neurophysiological determinants of theoretical concepts and mechanisms involved in pacing". Sports Med. 43 (5): 301–311. doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0030-4. PMID 23456493.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Amph-DA_reaction_time-7] Parker KL, Lamichhane D, Caetano MS, Narayanan NS (October 2013). "Executive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease and timing deficits". Front. Integr. Neurosci. 7: 75. doi:10.3389/fnint.2013.00075. PMC 3813949. PMID 24198770. The neurotransmitter dopamine is released from projections originating in the midbrain. Manipulations of dopaminergic signaling profoundly influence interval timing, leading to the hypothesis that dopamine influences internal pacemaker, or "clock," activity (Maricq and Church, 1983; Buhusi and Meck, 2005, 2009; Lake and Meck, 2013). For instance, amphetamine, which increases concentrations of dopamine at the synaptic cleft (Maricq and Church, 1983; Zetterström et al., 1983) advances the start of responding during interval timing (Taylor et al., 2007), whereas antagonists of D2 type dopamine receptors typically slow timing (Drew et al., 2003; Lake and Meck, 2013). ... Depletion of dopamine in healthy volunteers impairs timing (Coull et al., 2012), while amphetamine releases synaptic dopamine and speeds up timing (Taylor et al., 2007).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[8] "Caffeine and Sports Performance". Vanderbilt.edu. Retrieved 2012-03-04.

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 The phrase has been used to refer to several distinct classes of drugs:
 * '''Lean mass builders''', which drive or amplify the growth of [[Body composition|muscle and lean body mass]], are also used to reduce body fat. They can also reduce the time it takes to recover from an injury.  This class of drugs includes [[anabolic steroid]]s, [[xenoandrogen]]s, [[Beta2-adrenergic agonist|beta-2 agonists]], [[selective androgen receptor modulator]]s (SARMs), and various human [[hormone]]s, most notably [[human growth hormone]], as well as some of their [[prodrug]]s.<ref>{{cite web|last=McKelvey Martin|first=Valerie|title=Drugs in Sport|url=http://www.ulster.ac.uk/scienceinsociety/drugsinsport.html|accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref> Performance-enhancing drugs are also found in animals like chicken as synthetic growth hormone.
+* '''[[Stimulant]]s''', particularly [[dopamine]] [[reuptake inhibitor]]s and [[releasing agent]]s, can enhance cognitive and athletic performance by improving muscle strength, focus, and energy and decreasing [[mental chronometry|reaction time]] and fatigue; some examples of [[ergogenic]] (athletic performance-enhancing) stimulants are [[caffeine]], [[ephedrine]], [[amphetamine]], and [[methamphetamine]].<ref name="Ergogenics">{{cite journal | author = Liddle DG, Connor DJ | title = Nutritional supplements and ergogenic AIDS | journal = Prim. Care | volume = 40 | issue = 2 | pages = 487–505 |date=June 2013 | pmid = 23668655 | doi = 10.1016/j.pop.2013.02.009 |quote=Amphetamines and caffeine are stimulants that increase alertness, improve focus, decrease reaction time, and delay fatigue, allowing for an increased intensity and duration of training}}</ref><ref name="Ergogenics2">{{cite journal |author=Parr JW |title=Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and the athlete: new advances and understanding |journal=Clin. Sports Med. |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=591–610 |date=July 2011 |pmid=21658550 |doi=10.1016/j.csm.2011.03.007 |url=}}</ref><ref name="Roelands_2013">{{cite journal | author = Roelands B, de Koning J, Foster C, Hettinga F, Meeusen R | title = Neurophysiological determinants of theoretical concepts and mechanisms involved in pacing | journal = Sports Med. | volume = 43 | issue = 5 | pages = 301–311 |date=May 2013 | pmid = 23456493 | doi = 10.1007/s40279-013-0030-4 }}</ref><ref name="Amph-DA reaction time">{{cite journal | author = Parker KL, Lamichhane D, Caetano MS, Narayanan NS | title = Executive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease and timing deficits | journal = Front. Integr. Neurosci. | volume = 7 | page = 75 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 24198770 | pmc = 3813949 | doi = 10.3389/fnint.2013.00075 | quote = The neurotransmitter dopamine is released from projections originating in the midbrain. Manipulations of dopaminergic signaling profoundly influence interval timing, leading to the hypothesis that dopamine influences internal pacemaker, or “clock,” activity (Maricq and Church, 1983; Buhusi and Meck, 2005, 2009; Lake and Meck, 2013). For instance, amphetamine, which increases concentrations of dopamine at the synaptic cleft (Maricq and Church, 1983; Zetterström et al., 1983) advances the start of responding during interval timing (Taylor et al., 2007), whereas antagonists of D2 type dopamine receptors typically slow timing (Drew et al., 2003; Lake and Meck, 2013).&nbsp;... Depletion of dopamine in healthy volunteers impairs timing (Coull et al., 2012), while amphetamine releases synaptic dopamine and speeds up timing (Taylor et al., 2007).}}</ref>
-* '''[[Stimulant]]s''' can enhance cognitive and athletic performance by increasing focus, energy, metabolic rate, and aggression, and by decreasing perceived exertion.  Some examples are [[caffeine]], [[ephedrine]], [[amphetamine]], and [[methamphetamine]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Stimulants|url=http://www.faqs.org/sports-science/Sp-Tw/Stimulants.html|accessdate=14 April 2013}}</ref>
 * '''[[Nootropic]]s''' can increase cognition including memory short term and long term.
 * '''[[Painkiller]]s''' allow performance beyond the usual pain threshold.  Some painkillers raise [[blood pressure]], increasing oxygen supply to [[muscle cell]]s.  Painkillers used by athletes range from common [[Over-the-counter drug|over-the-counter]] medicines such as [[NSAID]]s (such as [[ibuprofen]]) to powerful prescription [[narcotic]]s.