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Physical appearance of the shiny cowbird adult depends on subspecies. Sizes range from 31-40 grams in mass and 18 cm in length (''M. b. minimus)'', to 55-65 grams in mass and 22 cm in length ''(M. b. cabanisii).''<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last=Lowther|first=Peter E.|date=2011-01-21|editor-last=Schulenberg|editor-first=Thomas S.|title=Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis)|url=https://neotropical.birds.cornell.edu/Species-Account/nb/species/shicow/overview|journal=Neotropical Birds|doi=10.2173/nb.shicow.01}}</ref>
Physical appearance of the shiny cowbird adult depends on subspecies. Sizes range from 31-40 grams in mass and 18 cm in length (''M. b. minimus)'', to 55-65 grams in mass and 22 cm in length ''(M. b. cabanisii).''<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last=Lowther|first=Peter E.|date=2011-01-21|editor-last=Schulenberg|editor-first=Thomas S.|title=Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis)|url=https://neotropical.birds.cornell.edu/Species-Account/nb/species/shicow/overview|journal=Neotropical Birds|doi=10.2173/nb.shicow.01}}</ref>


Basic adult [[plumage]] for ''M. b. bonariensis'' is black with purple-blue [[iridescence]] for males, and dusty gray-brown for females<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=The cowbirds: A study in the biology of social parasitism.|last=Friedmann|first=H.|publisher=C. Thomas Publ.|year=1929|isbn=|location=Springfield, IL.|pages=}}</ref>. ''M. b. cabanisii'' males have plumage similar to ''M. b. bonariensis,'' while females are paler in colouration.<ref name=":6" /> ''M. b. aequatorialis'' males have violet iridescence and females are dark in colour.<ref name=":6" /> ''M. b. occidentalis'' males have rich purple iridescence, and females are distinct compared to the other subspecies as they have a pale upper body and very pale, streaked underparts<ref name=":6" />. ''M. b. venezuelensis'' males look similar to ''M. b. occidentalis'', and females dark in colour''.''<ref name=":6" /> ''M. b. minimus'' males look similar to ''M. b. bonariensis'', and females have a darker head than ''M. b. bonariensis'' and have streaked scapulars and inter-scapulars.<ref name=":6" /> ''M. b. riparius'' males are similar to ''M. b. bonariensis'', and the females have darker upper bodies and paler underparts than ''M. b. bonariensis.''<ref name=":6" />
Basic adult [[plumage]] for ''M. b. bonariensis'' is black with purple-blue [[iridescence]] for males, and dusty gray-brown for females<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=The cowbirds: A study in the biology of social parasitism.|last=Friedmann|first=H.|publisher=C. Thomas Publ.|year=1929|isbn=|location=Springfield, IL.|pages=}}</ref>. ''M. b. cabanisii'' males have plumage similar to ''M. b. bonariensis,'' while females are paler in colouration.<ref name=":6" /> ''M. b. aequatorialis'' males have violet iridescence and females are dark in colour.<ref name=":6" /> ''M. b. occidentalis'' males have rich purple iridescence, and females are distinct compared to the other subspecies as they have a pale upper body and very pale, streaked underparts<ref name=":6" />. ''M. b. venezuelensis'' males look similar to ''M. b. occidentalis'', and females dark in colour''.''<ref name=":6" /> ''M. b. minimus'' males look similar to ''M. b. bonariensis'', and females have a darker head than ''M. b. bonariensis'' and have streaked scapulars and inter-scapulars.<ref name=":6" /> ''M. b. riparius'' males are similar to ''M. b. bonariensis'', and the females have darker upper bodies and paler underparts than ''M. b. bonariensis.''<ref name=":6" />[[Image:Shiny Cowbird (female).JPG|thumb|Female shiny cowbird]]Upon hatching, shiny cowbirds are [[Altriciality|altricial]] and are confined to their nests. Hatchlings are covered in a gray [[Down feather|down]].<ref name=":03" /> Juvenile males are dark on their upper body, with dull dray underparts streaked with dark brown or black, and a buff abdomen. Females are a buff brown colour on top, with light buff, brown, or gray underparts that may or may not be streaked with brown.<ref name=":03" />


⚫
Eggs are ovate in shape, and can exist as either a spotted [[Polymorphism (biology)|morph]], or an unspotted "immaculate" morph. They are usually white in colour, though they sometimes take on a light blue, light gray, or buff hue.<ref name=":03" />
Upon hatching, shiny cowbirds are [[Altriciality|altricial]] and are confined to their nests. Hatchlings are covered in a gray [[Down feather|down]].<ref name=":03" /> Juvenile males are dark on their upper body, with dull dray underparts streaked with dark brown or black, and a buff abdomen. Females are a buff brown colour on top, with light buff, brown, or gray underparts that may or may not be streaked with brown.<ref name=":03" />


== Distribution and Habitat ==
⚫
Eggs are ovate in shape, and can exist as either a spotted [[Polymorphism (biology)|morph]], or an unspotted "immaculate" morph. They are usually white in colour, though they sometimes take on a light blue, light gray, or buff hue.<ref name=":03" />[[Image:Shiny Cowbird (female).JPG|thumb|Female shiny cowbird]]
The shiny cowbird is a year-round resident across most of South America, where it lives in open areas such as open forests and cultivated land.<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal|last=Lowther|first=Peter E.|date=2011-01-21|editor-last=Schulenberg|editor-first=Thomas S.|title=Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis)|url=https://neotropical.birds.cornell.edu/Species-Account/nb/species/shicow/overview|journal=Neotropical Birds|doi=10.2173/nb.shicow.01}}</ref> Within the last century, the range of the species has shifted northward, and birds have been recorded in the West Indies and southern Florida.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=LOWTHER|first=PETER|last2=POST|first2=WILLIAM|date=1999|title=Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2173/bna.399|journal=The Birds of North America Online|doi=10.2173/bna.399|issn=1061-5466}}</ref> This shift in range is due to increased human conversion of forests into open cultivated and agricultural land, habitats which are preferred by the shiny cowbird.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Wiley|first=James W.|date=1988|title=Host Selection by the Shiny Cowbird|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1368557|journal=The Condor|volume=90|issue=2|pages=289–303|doi=10.2307/1368557|issn=0010-5422}}</ref> This range shift into new regions allows the cowbird to exploit new naive host species.<ref name=":3" />
[[Image:(Molothrus bonariensis) e ( Zonotrichia Capensis ).jpg|right|thumb|A juvenile being fed by a [[rufous-collared sparrow]]]]
[[File:Molothrus bonariensis Barbados.jpg|thumb|right|Grouping of males]]


=== Effect of deforestation ===
[[File:Molothrus bonariensis Barbados.jpg|thumb|right|Grouping of males]]Deforestation and conversion of forested land to open agricultural fields and pastures has lead to a northward shift in the range of the shiny cowbird, as this species prefers open habitats.<ref name=":3" /> These deforested areas may be home to host species that were previously not parasitized by cowbirds. These naive hosts likely do not have defenses against parasitism, and may be more negatively affected by the presence of the cowbirds.<ref name=":3" /> The species spread from South America to mainland Puerto Rico in 1955, and subsequently reached the Dominican Republic in 1973 and Cuba in 1982. Since 1985, the shiny cowbird has been recorded in Florida.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baltz|first=Michael E.|date=1995|title=First Records of the Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) in the Bahama Archipelago|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4089036|journal=The Auk|volume=112|issue=4|pages=1039–1041|doi=10.2307/4089036|issn=0004-8038|via=}}</ref>[[Image:(Molothrus bonariensis) e ( Zonotrichia Capensis ).jpg|right|thumb|A juvenile being fed by a [[rufous-collared sparrow]]]]
== References ==
== References ==


Revision as of 17:03, 17 November 2019

Shiny cowbird
Adult male
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Icteridae
Genus: Molothrus
Species:
M. bonariensis
Binomial name
Molothrus bonariensis
(Gmelin, 1789)
  Resident

The shiny cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) is a passerine bird in the New World family Icteridae. It breeds in most of South America except for dense forests and areas of high altitude such as mountains[1]. Within the last century the shiny cowbirds' range has shifted northward, and it was been recorded in the Caribbean islands as well as the United States, where it is found breeding in southern Florida.[2] It is a bird associated with open habitats, including disturbed land from agriculture and deforestation.[1]

Adults are sexually dimorphic. Males are all black with a purple-blue iridescence. The female is smaller, with dull brown plumage that is sometimes paler on the underparts. Females of the species can be distinguished from the female brown-headed cowbird by their longer, finer bills and flatter heads.[1] The shiny cowbird's diet consists mainly of insects and seeds, and they have been recorded foraging for grains in cattle troughs.[1]

Like most other cowbirds, it is an obligate brood parasite, laying its eggs in the nests of many other bird species such as the rufous-collared sparrow.[3] Different host species show different responses to their nests being parasitised, with behaviours ranging from accepting and caring for the cowbird eggs, to rejecting the eggs from the nest.[1] As the shiny cowbird is an effective generalist brood parasite, it can be considered the South American counterpart to the brown-headed cowbird.[4]

Taxonomy

The shiny cowbird is a passerine in the family Icteridae, which includes the blackbirds. The species was first described in 1789 by Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It has seven described subspecies due to geographic variation:[5][6]

Description

Physical appearance of the shiny cowbird adult depends on subspecies. Sizes range from 31-40 grams in mass and 18 cm in length (M. b. minimus), to 55-65 grams in mass and 22 cm in length (M. b. cabanisii).[7]

Basic adult plumage for M. b. bonariensis is black with purple-blue iridescence for males, and dusty gray-brown for females[8]. M. b. cabanisii males have plumage similar to M. b. bonariensis, while females are paler in colouration.[8] M. b. aequatorialis males have violet iridescence and females are dark in colour.[8] M. b. occidentalis males have rich purple iridescence, and females are distinct compared to the other subspecies as they have a pale upper body and very pale, streaked underparts[8]. M. b. venezuelensis males look similar to M. b. occidentalis, and females dark in colour.[8] M. b. minimus males look similar to M. b. bonariensis, and females have a darker head than M. b. bonariensis and have streaked scapulars and inter-scapulars.[8] M. b. riparius males are similar to M. b. bonariensis, and the females have darker upper bodies and paler underparts than M. b. bonariensis.[8]

Female shiny cowbird

Upon hatching, shiny cowbirds are altricial and are confined to their nests. Hatchlings are covered in a gray down.[7] Juvenile males are dark on their upper body, with dull dray underparts streaked with dark brown or black, and a buff abdomen. Females are a buff brown colour on top, with light buff, brown, or gray underparts that may or may not be streaked with brown.[7]

Eggs are ovate in shape, and can exist as either a spotted morph, or an unspotted "immaculate" morph. They are usually white in colour, though they sometimes take on a light blue, light gray, or buff hue.[7]

Distribution and Habitat

The shiny cowbird is a year-round resident across most of South America, where it lives in open areas such as open forests and cultivated land.[9] Within the last century, the range of the species has shifted northward, and birds have been recorded in the West Indies and southern Florida.[10] This shift in range is due to increased human conversion of forests into open cultivated and agricultural land, habitats which are preferred by the shiny cowbird.[11] This range shift into new regions allows the cowbird to exploit new naive host species.[11]

Effect of deforestation

Grouping of males

Deforestation and conversion of forested land to open agricultural fields and pastures has lead to a northward shift in the range of the shiny cowbird, as this species prefers open habitats.[11] These deforested areas may be home to host species that were previously not parasitized by cowbirds. These naive hosts likely do not have defenses against parasitism, and may be more negatively affected by the presence of the cowbirds.[11] The species spread from South America to mainland Puerto Rico in 1955, and subsequently reached the Dominican Republic in 1973 and Cuba in 1982. Since 1985, the shiny cowbird has been recorded in Florida.[12]

A juvenile being fed by a rufous-collared sparrow

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Lowther, Peter E. (2011-01-21). Schulenberg, Thomas S. (ed.). "Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis)". Neotropical Birds. doi:10.2173/nb.shicow.01.
  2. ^ LOWTHER, PETER; POST, WILLIAM (1999). "Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis)". The Birds of North America Online. doi:10.2173/bna.399. ISSN 1061-5466.
  3. ^ Friedmann, Herbert; Kiff, Lloyd F.; Rothstein, Stephen I. (1977). "A further contribution of knowledge of the host relations of the parasitic cowbirds". Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology (235): 1–75. doi:10.5479/si.00810282.235. ISSN 0081-0282.
  4. ^ Lowther, Peter; Post, William (1999). Poole, A.; Gill, F. (eds.). "Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis)". The Birds of North America Online. doi:10.2173/bna.399. ISSN 1061-5466.
  5. ^ Lowther, Peter E. (2011-01-21). Schulenberg, Thomas S. (ed.). "Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis)". Neotropical Birds. doi:10.2173/nb.shicow.01.
  6. ^ Blake, E. R. (1968). Family Icteridae, pp. 138-202. In R. A. Paynter, Jr. (ed.), Checklist of birds of the world, vol. 14. Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, MA
  7. ^ a b c d Lowther, Peter E. (2011-01-21). Schulenberg, Thomas S. (ed.). "Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis)". Neotropical Birds. doi:10.2173/nb.shicow.01.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Friedmann, H. (1929). The cowbirds: A study in the biology of social parasitism. Springfield, IL.: C. Thomas Publ.
  9. ^ Lowther, Peter E. (2011-01-21). Schulenberg, Thomas S. (ed.). "Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis)". Neotropical Birds. doi:10.2173/nb.shicow.01.
  10. ^ LOWTHER, PETER; POST, WILLIAM (1999). "Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis)". The Birds of North America Online. doi:10.2173/bna.399. ISSN 1061-5466.
  11. ^ a b c d Wiley, James W. (1988). "Host Selection by the Shiny Cowbird". The Condor. 90 (2): 289–303. doi:10.2307/1368557. ISSN 0010-5422.
  12. ^ Baltz, Michael E. (1995). "First Records of the Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) in the Bahama Archipelago". The Auk. 112 (4): 1039–1041. doi:10.2307/4089036. ISSN 0004-8038.

Further reading

Books

  • Lowther, P., and W. Post. 1999. Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis). In The Birds of North America, No. 399 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.
  • Pereira, J.F.M. 2008. Aves e Pássaros Comuns do Rio de Janeiro. Technical Books, Rio de Janeiro.


Articles

  • Arendt WJ & Mora TAV. (1984). Range Expansion of the Shiny Cowbird in the Dominican-Republic. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 55, no 1. p. 104-107.
  • Astie AA. (2003). New record of Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) parasitism of Black-chinned Siskins (Carduelis barbata). Wilson Bulletin. vol 115, no 2. p. 212-213.
  • Astie AA & Reboreda JC. (2005). Creamy-bellied Thrush defenses against Shiny Cowbird brood parasitism. Condor. vol 107, no 4. p. 788-796.
  • Astie AA & Reboreda JC. (2006). Costs of egg punctures and parasitism by shiny cowbirds (Molothrus bonariensis) at Creamy-bellied Thrush (Turdus amaurochalinus) nests. Auk. vol 123, no 1. p. 23-32.
  • Baltz ME. (1995). First records of the Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) in the Bahama Archipelago. Auk. vol 112, no 4. p. 1039-1041.
  • Blanco DE. (1995). Brood Parasitism of the Shiny Cowbird Molothrus bonariensis on Chestnut-Capped Blackbird Agelaius ruficapillus, in Eastern Buenos Aires Province. Hornero. vol 14, no 1-2. p. 44-45.
  • Cavalcanti RB & Pimentel TM. (1988). Shiny Cowbird Parasitism in Central Brazil. Condor. vol 90, no 1. p. 40-43.
  • Cruz A & Andrews RW. (1997). The breeding biology of the Pied Water-Tyrant and its interactions with the Shiny Cowbird in Venezuela. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 68, no 1. p. 91-97.
  • Cruz A, Manolis TD & Andrews RW. (1990). Reproductive Interactions of the Shiny Cowbird Molothrus-Bonariensis and the Yellow-Hooded Blackbird Agelaius-Icterocephalus in Trinidad West Indies. Ibis. vol 132, no 3. p. 436-444.
  • Cruz A, Manolis TH & Andrews RW. (1995). History of shiny cowbird Molothrus bonariensis brood parasitism in Trinidad and Tobago. Ibis. vol 137, no 3. p. 317-321.
  • Debrot AO & Prins TG. (1992). First Record and Establishment of the Shiny Cowbird in Curaçao. Caribbean Journal of Science. vol 28, no 1-2. p. 104-105.
  • Dolores M & Juan CR. (2005). Conspecific and heterospecific social learning in shiny cowbirds. Animal Behaviour. vol 70, p. 1087.
  • Feare CJ & Zaccagnini ME. (1993). Roost departure by shiny cowbirds (Molothrus bonariensis). Hornero. vol 13, no 4. p. 292-293.
  • Fiorini VD & Reboreda JC. (2006). Cues used by shiny cowbirds (Molothrus bonariensis) to locate and parasitise chalk-browed mockingbird (Mimus saturninus) nests. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. vol 60, no 3. p. 379-385.
  • Fraga RM. (1978). The Rufous-Collared Sparrow as a Host of the Shiny Cowbird. Wilson Bulletin. vol 90, no 2. p. 271-284.
  • Fraga RM. (2002). Notes on new or rarely reported Shiny Cowbird hosts from Argentina. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 73, no 2. p. 213-219.
  • Fraga RM. (2005). The Brown-backed Mockingbird (Mimus dorsalis) as a shiny cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) host. Ornitologia Neotropical. vol 16, no 3. p. 435-436.
  • Gabriela L. (1998). Parasitism by Shiny Cowbirds of Rufous-bellied Thrushes. The Condor. vol 100, no 4. p. 680.
  • Gallardo JM. (1977). Molothrus-Bonariensis and Vigilance of Nests Parasitized by It. Physis Seccion C los Continentes y los Organismos Terrestres. vol 36, no 92. p. 345-346.
  • Gochfeld M. (1978). Begging by Nestling Shiny Cowbirds Molothrus-Bonariensis Adaptive or Mal Adaptive. Living Bird. vol 17, p. 41-50.
  • Grzybowski JA & Fazio VW, III. (1991). Shiny Cowbird Reaches Oklahoma USA. American Birds. vol 45, no 1. p. 50-52.
  • Hutcheson WH & Post W. (1990). Shiny Cowbird Collected in South Carolina USA First North American Specimen. Wilson Bulletin. vol 102, no 3.
  • Juan Pablo I. (2002). Nectarivorous feeding by Shiny Cowbirds: A complex feeding innovation. The Wilson Bulletin. vol 114, no 3. p. 412.
  • Kattan GH. (1996). Growth and provisioning of Shiny Cowbird and House Wren host nestlings. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 67, no 3. p. 434-441.
  • Kattan GH. (1997). Shiny cowbirds follow the 'shotgun' strategy of brood parasitism. Animal Behaviour. vol 53, p. 647.
  • King JR. (1973). Reproductive Relationships of the Rufous-Collared Sparrow and the Shiny Cowbird. Auk. vol 90, no 1. p. 19-34.
  • Kluza DA. (1998). First record of Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) in Yucatan, Mexico. Wilson Bulletin. vol 110, no 3. p. 429-430.
  • Lea SEG & Kattan GH. (1998). Reanalysis gives further support to the 'shotgun' model of shiny cowbird parasitism of house wren nests. Animal Behaviour. vol 56, p. 1571-1573.
  • Lichtenstein G. (2001). Low success of shiny cowbird chicks parasitizing rufous-bellied thrushes: chick-chick competition or parental discrimination?. Animal Behaviour. vol 61, p. 401-413.
  • Lopez-Ortiz R, Ventosa-Febles EA, Ramos-Alvarez KR, Medina-Miranda R & Cruz A. (2006). Reduction in host use suggests host specificity in individual shiny cowbirds (Molothrus bonariensis). Ornitologia Neotropical. vol 17, no 2. p. 259-269.
  • Lyon BE. (1997). Spatial patterns of shiny cowbird brood parasitism on chestnut-capped blackbirds. Animal Behaviour. vol 54, p. 927-939.
  • Mason P. (1986). Brood Parasitism in a Host Generalist the Shiny Cowbird Molothrus-Bonariensis I. the Quality of Different Species as Hosts. Auk. vol 103, no 1. p. 52-60.
  • Mason P. (1986). Brood Parasitism in a Host Generalist the Shiny Cowbird Molothrus-Bonariensis Ii. Host Selection. Auk. vol 103, no 1. p. 61-69.
  • Mason P & Rothstein SI. (1986). Coevolution and Avian Brood Parasitism Cowbird Molothrus-Bonariensis Eggs Show Evolutionary Response to Host Discrimination. Evolution. vol 40, no 6. p. 1207-1214.
  • Mason P & Rothstein SI. (1987). CRYPSIS VERSUS MIMICRY AND THE COLOR OF SHINY COWBIRD EGGS. American Naturalist. vol 130, no 2. p. 161-167.
  • Massoni V & Reboreda JC. (1998). Costs of brood parasitism and the lack of defenses on the yellow-winged blackbird shiny cowbird system. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. vol 42, no 4. p. 273-280.
  • Massoni V & Reboreda JC. (2001). Number of close spatial and temporal neighbors decreases the probability of nest failure and Shiny Cowbird parasitism in colonial Yellow-winged Blackbirds. Condor. vol 103, no 3. p. 521-529.
  • Mermoz ME & Fernandez GJ. (1999). Low frequency of Shiny Cowbird parasitism on Scarlet-headed Blackbirds: anti-parasite adaptations or nonspecific host life-history traits?. Journal of Avian Biology. vol 30, no 1. p. 15-22.
  • Mermoz ME & Reboreda JC. (1994). Brood parasitism of the shiny cowbird Molothrus bonariensis, on the brown-and-yellow Marshbird, Pseudoleistes virescens. Condor. vol 96, no 3. p. 716-721.
  • Mermoz ME & Reboreda JC. (1999). Egg-laying behaviour by shiny cowbirds parasitizing brown-and-yellow marshbirds. Animal Behaviour. vol 58, p. 873.
  • Mermoz ME & Reboreda JC. (2003). Reproductive success of shiny cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) parasitizing the larger brown-and-yellow marshbird (Pseudoleistes virescens) in Argentina. Auk. vol 120, no 4. p. 1128-1139.
  • Pereira LE, Suzuki A, Moraes Coimbra TL, Pereira de Souza R & Bocato Chamelet EL. (2001). [Ilheus arbovirus in wild birds (Sporophila caerulescens and Molothrus bonariensis)]. Revista de Saude Publica. vol 35, no 2. p. 119-123.
  • Perez-Rivera RA. (1986). Parasitism by the Shiny Cowbird Molothrus-Bonariensis in the Interior Parts of Puerto-Rico. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 57, no 2. p. 99-104.
  • Porto GR & Piratelli A. (2005). Ethogram of the shiny cowbird, Molothrus bonariensis Gmelin (Aves, Emberizidae, Icterinae). Revista Brasileira de Zoologia. vol 22, no 2. p. 306-312.
  • Post W. (1992). First Florida Specimens of the Shiny Cowbird. Florida Field Naturalist. vol 20, no 1. p. 17-18.
  • Post W. (1993). First specimen of the shiny cowbird, Molothrus bonariensis (Aves: Emberizidae) in North Carolina. Brimleyana. vol 0, no 19. p. 205-208.
  • Post W, Cruz A & McNair DB. (1993). The North American invasion pattern of the shiny cowbird. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 64, no 1. p. 32-41.
  • Post W, Nakamura TK & Cruz A. (1990). Patterns of Shiny Cowbird Parasitism in St. Lucia West Indies Southwestern Puerto Rico. Condor. vol 92, no 2. p. 461-469.
  • Post W & Wiley JW. (1977). Reproductive Interactions of the Shiny Cowbird and the Yellow-Shouldered Blackbird. Condor. vol 79, no 2. p. 176-184.
  • Post W & Wiley JW. (1977). The Shiny Cowbird in the West-Indies. Condor. vol 79, no 1. p. 119-121.
  • Post W & Wiley JW. (1992). The head-down display in Shiny Cowbirds and its relation to dominance behavior. The Condor. vol 94, no 4. p. 999.
  • Ruckdeschel C, Shoop CR & Sibley D. (1996). First sighting of the shiny cowbird in Georgia. Oriole. vol 61, no 2-3. p. 29-30.
  • Sackmann P & Reboreda JC. (2003). A comparative study of Shiny Cowbird parasitism of two large hosts, the Chalk-browed Mockingbird and the Rufous-bellied Thrush. Condor. vol 105, no 4. p. 728-736.
  • Salvador SA. (1984). Study of Parasitism in Raising Shiny Cowbirds Molothrus-Bonariensis and Chalk-Browed Mockingbirds Mimus-Saturninus in Villa Maria Cordoba Argentine. Hornero. vol 12, no 3. p. 141-149.
  • Smith PW & Sprunt AI. (1987). The Shiny Cowbird Reaches the USA Will the Scourge of the Caribbean Impact Florida's Avifauna Too?. American Birds. vol 41, no 3. p. 370-371.
  • Sykes PW, Jr. & Post W. (2001). First specimen and evidence of breeding by the shiny cowbird in Georgia. Oriole. vol 66, no 3-4. p. 45-51.
  • Viviana M & Juan Carlos R. (2002). A neglected cost of brood parasitism: Egg punctures by Shiny Cowbirds during inspection of potential host nests. The Condor. vol 104, no 2. p. 407.
  • Wiley JW. (1985). Shiny Cowbird Molothrus-Bonariensis Parasitism in 2 Avian Communities in Puerto-Rico. Condor. vol 87, no 2. p. 165-176.
  • Wiley JW. (1986). Growth of Shiny Cowbirds Molothrus-Bonariensis and Host Chicks. Wilson Bulletin. vol 98, no 1. p. 126-131.
  • Wiley JW. (1988). Host Selection By the Shiny Cowbird. Condor. vol 90, no 2. p. 289-303.

External links


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