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Ninkarrak

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Ninkarrak
Divine physician
A depiction of a healing goddess with a dog on a kudurru.
Major cult centerSippar, Terqa
Symboldog
Personal information
ParentsAnu and Urash
Consortusually none, sometimes Pabilsag
ChildrenDamu
Equivalents
Isin equivalentNinisina
Umma equivalentGula
Nippur equivalentNintinugga
Luwian equivalentNikarawa

Ninkarrak (Akkadian: 𒀭𒊩𒌆𒋼𒀀𒊏𒀝, dnin-kar-ra-ak) was a goddess of medicine worshiped chiefly in northern Mesopotamia and Syria. It has been proposed that her name originates in either Akkadian or an unidentified substrate language possibly spoken in parts of modern Syria, rather than in Sumerian. It is assumed that inconsistent orthography reflects ancient scholarly attempts at making it more closely resemble Sumerian theonyms. The best attested temples dedicated to her existed in Sippar in modern Iraq and in Terqa in modern Syria. Finds from excavations undertaken at the site of the latter were used as evidence in more precisely dating the history of the region. Further attestations are available from northern Mesopotamia, including the kingdom of Apum, Assyria and the Diyala area, from various southern Mesopotamian cities like Larsa, Nippur and possibly Uruk, as well as from Ugarit and Emar. It is also possible that Ninkar from the texts from Ebla and Nikarawa attested in Luwian inscriptions from Carchemish were the same goddess.

Like a number of other healing goddesses, Ninkarrak was described as a divine physician. She shared her role in the Mesopotamian pantheon with deities such as Gula, Ninisina, Nintinugga and Bau. Dogs were regarded a symbol of her, as well as multiple other of these goddesses. While she was sometimes identified with other similar deities, certain traits were unique to her. Together with the distribution of evidence of her cult they serve as an indication that even if partially syncretised, individual Mesopotamian goddesses of medicine had distinct origins. It is possible that Ninkarrak only developed into a healing goddess due to already being associated with disease in curse formulas, in which she appears frequently as early as in the Akkadian Empire. In the context of those texts she could be paired with Ishara.

Name and origin

While the standard spelling of Ninkarrak's name is dnin-kar-ra-ak, it is not attested before the second millennium BCE, and the orthography shows a degree of variety in cuneiform texts.[1] Spellings from the Ur III period include dnin-kar7 and dnin-kar-ra, while in texts from the Old Babylonian period forms such as dnin-kar, dnin-kar-ra, dnin-kar-ak, dnin-ni-ka-ra-ak, dnin-kar-ak, dnin-ḫar-ra (from Mari) and possibly dnin-ḫar-ra-ak and dnin-kar2 can be found.[2] In Ugarit it was written as ni-ka-rakx(rik2), while in an incantation from Alalakh a damaged name has been tentatively restored as ne-ni-ka-ra-ak.[3] Two further spellings, dnin-kar2-ra-ak(-a)2 and dnin-ka-rak appear in Neo-Babylonian sources, despite the standard spelling being generally employed consistently through the Middle Babylonian period.[3] A logographic writing of the name, dNIN.IN.DUB, is likely derived from dNIN.IN, used to represent the name of another medicine goddess, Ninisina, though according to Antoine Cavigneaux and Manfred Krebernik a second less likely possibility is that it was based on a connection with the term indub, "embankment."[4] The god list An = Anum also gives Ninekisiga, possibly to be understood as "lady of the house of funerary offerings," as an alternate name of Ninkarrak.[5]

The etymology of the theonym Ninkarrak is unknown.[6][1] Early Assyriologist Knut Tallqvist understood it as a topographical name, "Lady (Nin) of Karrak."[6] William W. Hallo, expanding on this proposal, suggested that it might have been derived from the name of the city of Larak, which would require a hypothetical form Lakrak to be in use at some point, eventually leading to the spelling Karrak, though this suggestion was evaluated critically by Manfred Krebernik.[7] Thorkild Jacobsen suggested derivation from the genitive form of the Sumerian word kar ("harbor," "quay") in the 1970s.[6] This view is also accepted by a number of other researchers.[3] Maurice Lambert in the 1950s and Piotr Steinkeller in the 1990s both explained Ninkarrak's name as an allusion to prostitution, arguing it can be translated roughly as "the one who 'does' the harbour," in their proposal a to be understood as synonym of "prostitute."[8] Irene Sibbing-Plantholt notes that past popularity of this proposal relies on the assumption that goddesses were connected to supposed practice of "temple prostitution."[3] Joan Goodnick Westenholz rejected this view due to lack of a connection to Ninkarrak's sphere of activity.[9] Douglas Frayne attempts to explain the name as a phonetic Akkadian rendering of Sumerian nin-gir-ak, "Lady of the scalpel" (with ak being a genitive ending), though this view is generally considered implausible.[7] Sibbing-Plantholt proposes the derivation from nin-kara2, "Lady of the mourning cloth," which according to her would fit Ninkarrak's "liminality,"[3] though in her survey of past scholarship on the matter she ultimately concludes that none of the proposals can be accepted with certainty, and agrees with the view that the variable orthography and apparent lack of connection between the meaning of the sign KAR and Ninkarrak's character might indicate her name did not originate in Sumerian.[10] Westenholz, who also voiced support for this view, pointed out Ninkarrak's name is absent from glossaries of dialectical emesal forms, which would be expected for a Sumerian theonym,[9] though this argument is not accepted by Sibbing-Plantholt as convincing evidence.[11] Westenholz argued that the name was of foreign origin (much like these of Tishpak or the Dilmunite deities Inzak and Meskilak) and the addition of the sign NIN was meant to make it resemble Sumerian theonyms,[9] which often started with this sign (examples include Ningirsu and Ninisina).[12] This view is also supported by Sibbing-Plantholt, who concludes that the Sumerian appearance of the name "could (...) have been carefully created by scholars who attempted to give the goddess a meaningful position within the religious framework."[11] Westenholz proposed that Ninkarrak might have originally been one of the deities whose names belong to a proposed substratum, originally proposed by Alfonso Archi.[13] It has been argued that a number of deities known from sources from various ancient cities located in modern Syria bear names which originally came from an unknown language predating the era of predominance of speakers of Semitic languages and Hurrian in the region.[14][15] The proposed category of "Syrian substratum" deities includes a number of gods for the most part first attested in Ebla: Kura, Barama, Hadabal, Adamma, Ishara, Aštabi, as well as Kubaba.[16][14][15][17] Dagan, the main god of the upper Euphrates area, is regarded as a "substratum" deity in some recent studies too due to the implausibility of various proposed etymologies of his name.[18]

According to Westenholz's proposal, the area where Ninkarrak was originally worshiped "could be in the Habur river basin, one side of the triangle formed by the Habur river ending at Terqa and the other side by the Tigris river ending at Akkad."[13] However, it is generally accepted that her point of origin should be considered uncertain in the light of available evidence.[19]

Eblaite Ninkar

Joan Goodnick Westenholz proposed that the name "Ninkar" attested in texts from Ebla stand for Ninkarrak rather than the similarly named but more obscure southern Mesopotamian goddess of daylight.[13] Occasional shortening of Ninkarrak's name to "Ninkar" is known from Mesopotamian sources as well.[6] This theory is also accepted by Alfonso Archi, who notes that identification of the Eblaite Ninkar with a minor Sumerian goddess of daylight would make it difficult to explain why devotion to her is relatively common for example among women of the royal house.[20] Irene Sibbing-Plantholt also assumes Ninkarrak was worshiped in Ebla.[21]

Luwian Nikarawa

It is possible that Ninkarrak, under the name Nikarawa (dni-ka+ra/i-wa/i-sa2[3]), appears in a hieroglyphic Luwian inscription from Carchemish, which asks the goddess' dogs to devour anyone who damages the inscribed monument.[22] The identification of Nikarawa with Ninkarrak has a long history in modern scholarship.[3] Ignace Gelb already proposed it in his translation of the Carchemish inscription in 1938.[23] It has been challenged in a recent publication by Sylvia Hutter-Braunsar,[24] though as of 2022 the identification of Nikarawa as an alternate spelling of Ninkarrak's name is still regarded as plausible.[3]

Character

Ninkarrak was regarded as a healing goddess and functioned as a divine physician.[25] Evidence from god lists such as An = Anum indicates that theologians perceived her as the default Akkadian goddess of medicine.[26] Šurpu addresses her as the "great doctoress"(azugallatu).[27] Mesopotamian goddesses associated with medicine were portrayed as surgeons in literary texts, cleaning wounds and applying bandages.[25] One healing incantation invokes Ninkarrak with the formula "May Ninkarrak bandage you with her gentle hands."[28] Her other area of expertise were believed to be exorcisms.[29] As attested for the first time in texts from the Old Assyrian period, she could be invoked to ward off the demon Lamashtu,[29] which is also attested for Ninisina and might indicate that healing goddesses were viewed as guardians of pregnant women, as well as mothers and newborns, demographic groups particularly endangered by this creature according to Mesopotamian beliefs.[30] However, Ninkarrak was usually not described as a divine midwife.[19]

Ninkarrak was also invoked in curses.[31] In this capacity, she was implored to inflict various diseases upon potential transgressors, which lead Jan Assmann to refer to her as the "goddess of maladies."[32] Irene Sibbing-Plantholt goes as far as suggesting that Ninkarrak might have been primarily a curse deity, and only acquired an association with healing as an extension of this role.[33] She already appears in a curse formula from the reign of Naram-Sin of Akkad.[34] The Babylonian king Hammurabi invoked Ninkarrak in a curse formula[35] on one of his steles, calling her the "goddess who promotes my cause at the Ekur temple" and imploring her to punish anyone who damages the monuments with diseases "which a physician cannot diagnose."[36]

References were often made to Ninkarrak's dogs, which were regarded as fearsome.[37] She can be identified on seals from Sippar based on the presence of these animals.[38] A dog statuette was found during excavations of her temple in Terqa.[39] However, according to Sibbing-Plantholt it is not certain if Ninkarrak's connection with gods necessarily reflects her role as a healing deity, and might instead reflect the animals' liminal character in Mesopotamian beliefs.[40]

Associations with other deities

Ninkarrak was usually not paired with any male deities,[41] though sometimes she appears in association with Pabilsag, who could also function as the husband of other medicine goddesses.[42] They appear together on two seals from the Old Babylonian period.[41] Anu was consistently regarded as Ninkarrak's father while her mother was Urash, which indicates that her parentage was understood to be identical to that of Ninisina, another healing goddess.[43] The son of the latter goddess, Damu, was sometimes said to be Ninkarrak's child instead.[42] They appear together in incantations.[28] However, with the exception of a single bilingual text, Ninkarrak was never associated with the daughter of Ninisina, Gunura.[42]

The god list An = Anum equates the goddess NIN-ĝaʾuga (reading of the first sign uncertain, with ereš and égi both being possibilities), the wife of the god Lugalabba, with Ninkarrak, though in the Emesal Vocabulary she corresponds to Gula instead, and a text where in different copies her name alternates with Ninmug's is known too.[44]

Irene Sibbing-Plantholt points out that parallels can be drawn between the roles of Ninkarrak and the rainbow goddess Manzat in treaties.[31]

In a hymn dedicated to Nanaya, this goddess compares herself to Ninkarrak.[45]

Ishara

A Hurro-Hittite relief from Yazılıkaya depicting Ishara

Multiple source attest the existence of a connection between Ninkarrak and Ishara,[13] a goddess first attested in sources from Ebla, later worshiped by various cultures of Mesopotamia, as well as by Hurrians and Hittites.[46] She was believed to be capable of both inflicting and, if placated, curing illnesses,[47] but she also functioned as a love goddess[48] and was associated with the underworld and by extension with the goddess Allani.[49] Examples of texts which mention Ishara together with Ninkarrak include an Old Assyrian treaty,[13] offering lists from Sippar and Mari, and especially curse formulas.[50] Additionally both appear, though not next to each other, in Naram-Sin's treaty with Elam.[13] Joan Goodnick Westenholz assumed that the link between them was based on their shared origin in modern Syria,[13] while Irene Sibbing-Plantholt more broadly refers to both of them being worshiped in the "Western and Eastern fringes of Mesopotamia" as the cause.[39] She also proposes that since Ninkarrak was associated with dogs and Ishara with either snakes or scorpions, they might have been perceived as complementary due to their animal symbols.[40]

The name Meme is attributed to both Ishara and Ninkarrak in their respective sections of the god list An = Anum.[51]

Other healing goddesses

In addition to Ninkarrak, multiple other healing goddesses belonged to the Mesopotamian pantheon, among them Ninisina (from Isin), Nintinugga (from Nippur), Gula (possibly originally from Umma) and Bau.[52] While they formed an interconnected network,[53] and could be treated as equivalents or conflated,[54] all of them were initially separate from each other.[55] The differences between individual deities were particularly pronounced in the sphere of cult, in contrast with theology.[37] In the Weidner god list Ninkarrak, Gula and Ninisina occur separately from each other, which indicates they were viewed as separate from each other at the time of its composition.[55] However, as noted by Joan Goodnick Westenholz, the study of Ninkarrak as an independent deity was nonetheless neglected in Assyriology in the past, with no dedicated studies published between 1918 and 2010, and no separate entry in the Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie.[56]

Ninkarrak was commonly associated with both Gula and Ninisina, who were themselves interchangeable to a degree.[57] An association between her and the latter of these two goddesses is first attested in the Ur III period.[58] In bilingual texts, Ninkarrak often appears in the Akkadian version, while Ninisina - in Sumerian.[59] One example is the text known as Ninisina's Journey to Nippur.[60] In the late hymn to Ninisina, Ninkarrak appears as one of her names, described as be-let rik-si up-ša2-še-e, "lady of bandages (and) magical actions."[61] Irene Sibbing-Plantholt notes that a difference between the respective characters of Ninkarrak and Ninisina is that the former was not typically described as motherly, in contrast with the latter.[61]

A syncretistic hymn to Gula composed at some point between 1400 BCE and 700 BCE by Bulluṭsa-rabi[54] equates her with a number of other goddesses, including Ninkarrak, but also Bau, Ninsun, Nanshe, Ninigizibara and more.[62] At the same time, each section appears to preserve information about the original character of the goddess mentioned in it.[63] The one dedicated to Ninkarrak does not describe her abilities as a healer, but rather highlights her high status.[64]

In a version of the literary text Great Revolt against Narām-Sîn from Mari, Ninkarrak is mentioned in association with the coronation of Ipḫur-Kiši, though in another copy Gula appears instead, and temple present in the same passage, Esabad, belonged to Ninisina.[41] A degree of interchangeability between Ninkarrak and Ninisina and Ninkarrak and Gula is attested in sources from Sippar,[59] as attested variable writing of both theophoric names (for example, the same man appears as Puzur-Ninkarrak in one document and Puzur-Gula in another) and toponyms.[65] According to Barbara Böck it is possible that large-scale migration from Isin was responsible for this phenomenon.[66] Irene Sibbing-Plantholt notes that since Ninkarrak was worshiped there for longer than the other two goddesses, who are much more sparsely attested, their names were likely treated as her "cognomina" locally.[59] Equally close connection between Ninkarrak and Gula is otherwise unattested.[67] A difference between them has been identified based on curse formulas, where only the former was invoked to bring incurable diseases.[19]

In Mari Kakka, seemingly a local healing goddess, was associated with Ninkarrak, but also with Ninshubur.[68] This goddess is regarded as distinct from Kakka, the sukkal of Anshar, known from the god list An = Anum (where the former Kakka herself appears in Ninkarrak's section) and from the later myth Enuma Elish.[69]

Worship

The oldest certain attestation of Ninkarrak occurs in the treaty between Naram-Sin of Akkad and an Elamite ruler.[1] According to Daniel T. Potts, she is one of the four deities from the Sumero-Akkadian pantheon mentioned in it, the other four being Ninurta, Ilaba, Ishara and Manzat, while the remaining twenty six are Elamite and include, among others, Inshushinak, Humban, Hutran, Pinikir and Simut.[70] Her inclusion might indicate that she belonged to the state pantheon of the Akkadian Empire,[42] though it is also possible it instead depended on the presence of her cult in areas bordering with Elam.[39] A number of further possible early references are uncertain, as it is not clear when the writing dnin-kar refers to Ninkarrak and when to the goddess of daylight, Ninkar, who was instead regarded as analogous to Aya.[1] Joan Goodnick Westenholz argued that the latter is known only from Girsu,[34] while Irene Sibbing-Plantholt maintains a more cautious approach, and concludes that it remains uncertain which goddess is meant in early sources such as the Abu Salabikh god list.[71] Other certain early attestations have been identified in incantations, inscriptions, theophoric names and toponyms from the Old Akkadian and Ur III periods,[42] though in god lists Ninkarrak's name is not attested before the Old Babylonian period.[9]

Sippar

The worship of Ninkarrak is well attested in sources from Sippar,[72] though it is not uncertain if she was present in the local pantheon before the Old Babylonian period or if she was only introduced there during the reign of Immerum, perhaps from the Diyala area.[73] A temple dedicated to her existed there in the Old Babylonian period already.[74] It bore the ceremonial name Eulla, "house of rejoicing."[75] It might have owned property in the city, as indicated by a reference to a field of Ninkarrak.[74][72] A year name of Buntaḫtun-ila, a local ruler of Sippar contemporary with Sumulael, states that he brought a lilissu drum to her temple.[76] A gate and a district of the city were also named after her.[59] She also occurs in theophoric names, such as Puzur-Ninkarrak and Ṣilli-Ninkarrak.[77] One bearer of the latter name was a scribe during the reign of Hammurabi of Babylon.[78]

In sources from Middle Babylonian Sippar, she occurs only on a single kudurru (boundary stone) inscription, which states that if anyone will transgress the listed regulations, she will "take away his seed."[79] Attestations from the Kassite and Middle Babylonian periods are infrequent overall: her name is only mentioned on three kudurru, never in clear association with a specific figure depicted, and on a single seal.[80]

Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II, who reigned from 605 to 562 BCE,[81] was apparently devoted to Ninkarrak[79] and rebuilt the Eulla.[75] Eight copies of an inscription commemorating this event are presently known.[82] The king states that he was tasked by Marduk with repairing it, and describes it previous state in the following terms: "the temple had not been kept in good repair, so that its ground plan had become obliterated and its outlines unrecognizable, covered with dust, (which) was no longer named together with the sanctuaries of the gods, (whose) regular offerings were cut off, they ceased to be mentioned, the cereal offerings were discontinued."[83] He also built temples dedicated to her in Borsippa and Babylon.[79] The latter, Ehursagsikilla,[84] "house, pure mountain," survived as late as the Parthian period.[85] A number of sources refer to it as a temple of Gula instead.[84] Andrew R. George refers to it as belonging to "Gula-Ninkarrak" and tentatively proposes that it was the same house of worship as the Egalmah.[85] Joan Goodnick Westenholz describes the temple in Borsippa in similar terms.[84]

Terqa

Ninkarrak was also present in the pantheon of the middle Euphrates area.[66] In Mari she appears in a list of deities and offerings to them from the reign of Zimri-Lim and in therapeutic incantations.[86] She was particularly strongly associated with nearby Terqa.[87][86] A temple excavated in this city has been identified as one dedicated to Ninkarrak based on a tablet with a list of offerings which starts with her name (most likely used as a point of reference by priests maintaining it), as well as seals mentioning her, and other epigraphic evidence.[87] 6637[88] beads made out of a variety of materials (agate, carnelian, gypsum, hematite, lapis lazuli and rock crystal), including some shaped like animals (a frog, a cow and a duck) and nine[89] Egyptian-style scarabs, all of which likely were originally an offering to Ninkarrak or a temple deposit, were also excavated.[90][89] Archaeologists found a number of small bronze figurines of dogs inside the temple as well.[87] Further excavations additionally uncovered a ceremonial axe and a scimitar with a devotional inscription mentioning Ninkarrak, both made out of bronze.[91] Early occupation of the structure has been dated to roughly the same period as the reigns of three kings of Terqa:

  • Yadikh-abu, a contemporary of Samsuiluna of Babylon, defeated by the latter in 1721 BCE[92]
  • Kashtiliash, initially estimated as ruling c. 1690 BCE;[92] a date later than 1650 BCE has been proposed as well, based on closer analysis of artifacts.[93] The beads, likely serving as a temple deposit, were specifically dated to his reign.[92] His name has Kassite origin.[94]
  • Shunuhru-ammu, ruling c. 1650 BCE according to the initial estimates.[92]

However the temple remained in use later as well.[92] Archaeologists assume that it was remodeled multiple times.[88]

The scarabs from the temple of Ninkarrak are considered a find of particular achaeoloigcal importance, as they represent the easternmost known example of such objects in a sealed deposit dated to the Old Babylonian period,[88] in addition to being possible to date with relative accuracy, as certain features evident in them aren't attested before 1650-1640 BCE (the reign of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt).[95] The hieroglyphs inscribed on them are regarded as "poorly executed and sometimes misunderstood," indicating Levantine, rather than Egyptian, origin, with similar ones being known from Byblos, Sidon and Ugarit.[95]

Other Mesopotamian attestations

In documents from the Old Assyrian period Ninkarrak is the only healing goddess attested, and a reference to the property of a temple dedicated to her is known.[96] Later Assyrian sources mentioning her include the Takultu text, listing deities greeted by the king during a long ritual, and a number of hymns from Assur,[22] though she was not a major goddess in this area in the first millennium BCE.[80] In the kingdom of Apum also located in the north of Mesopotamia, in the upper Khabur valley, she was one of the deities invoked in oath formulas in treaties, and a statue of her might have been present during related ceremonies.[97] However, Klaas R. Veenhof argues that it cannot be said for sure if Ninkarrak appears in documents from this kingdom as a local deity or if she instead belonged to the pantheon of the other signatory of the treaty.[98]

A temple of Ninkarrak was also located somewhere in the proximity of the Diyala River, though its ceremonial name and precise location are unknown.[99] It is known that she was worshiped in Shaduppum, where a festival involving offerings of sesame oil was held in her honor, in Išḫali, where she is attested in incantations, and in Nuzi, where she appears in the theophoric names (Ninkarrak-ummī and Ninkarrak-ṣillī).[100]

Ninkarrak was sometimes worshiped in locations more closely related to the cult of other healing goddesses: she had a small chapel in Nippur (where the main healing goddess was Nintinugga) and possibly in Isin.[101] A year name of one of the kings from the dynasty of Isin, Suen-magir, mentions the digging of a canal named after her.[102] She is also present in a small number of personal names from the former of these two locations.[80] While she is overall sparsely attested in sources from the Mesopotamian heartland before the end of the Old Babylonian period,[103] sporadic references to her are also known from the southernmost cities, notably Larsa and Uruk.[101] However, in the latter case the only evidence is a letter with the formula "just as I do not turn my back on Ninkarrak, I do not turn my back on you," which might only reflect the personal devotion of the author or the professional community he belonged to, and as such does not necessarily confirm that she belonged to the local pantheon.[103]

Outside Mesopotamia

A goddess known from texts from Ebla who might correspond to Ninkarrak, Ninkar,[20] appears in one of the offering lists, following Resheph of Hadani and his spouse Adamma.[104] An offering of a mace to her is also attested, though Alfonso Archi considers it to be unusual.[105]

Attestations of Ninkarrak are known from sources from both Emar and Ugarit in modern Syria and according to Joan Goodnick Westenholz might support the theory that she originated in the northwest of Mesopotamia.[13] In the former of these two cities she had no temple and does not appear in theophoric names.[106] A curse formula invokes her alongside Ishara and implores both of them to react if anyone damages the rest of the text by destroying "his seed and his name."[107] In Ugarit she mentioned in a formula against eye disease written in Akkadian.[108] It is presumed to have Babylonian origin.[109] In addition to her, it also invokes Damu.[110] Both of them are mentioned in an incantation against the demon Lamashtu from the same city as well, in this case following the pair Ea and Asalluḫi.[111]

A copy of the Adapa myth from Amarna, presumably a part of a scribal school's curriculum, mentions Ninkarrak.[112]

References

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Bibliography

External links

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