View source for BDSM

{{Short description|Erotic practices involving domination and sadomasochism}}
{{About|consensual adult sadomasochistic activity|the medical condition involving non-consensual ideation or behaviour|Sexual sadism disorder|the medical condition in which pain/humiliation is required for sexual arousal and causes distress or impairment|Sexual masochism disorder}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox
| bodystyle        = width:23em;
| title            = BDSM
| titlestyle       = 
| image            = 
| imagestyle       = 
| caption          = Woman wearing a [[Collar (BDSM)|collar]] with attached chain
| captionstyle     = 
| headerstyle      = background:#ccf;
| labelstyle       = background:#ddf;width:40%;
| datastyle        = 
| header1          = Aspects
| header2          = 
| label2           = B&D, B/D, or BD
| data2            = [[Bondage (sexual)|Bondage]] and [[Discipline (BDSM)|discipline]]
| header3          = 
| label3           = D&s, D/s, or Ds
| data3            = [[Dominance and submission]]
| header4          = 
| label4           = S&M, S/M, or SM
| data4            = [[Sadomasochism|Sadism and masochism]]
| header5          = Roles
| header6          = 
| label6           = Top/dominant
| data6            = Partner who performs or controls the activity
| header7          = 
| label7           = Bottom/submissive
| data7            = Partner who receives or is controlled
| header8          = 
| label8           = Switch
| data8            = Switches between roles
}}
[[File:BDSM acronym.svg|thumb|275px|The BDSM initialism]]

'''BDSM''' is a variety of often [[Eroticism|erotic]] practices or [[Sexual roleplay|roleplaying]] involving [[Bondage (BDSM)|bondage]], [[Discipline (BDSM)|discipline]], [[dominance and submission]], [[sadomasochism]], and other related interpersonal dynamics. Given the wide range of practices, some of which may be engaged in by people who do not consider themselves to be practising BDSM, inclusion in the BDSM community or [[subculture]] often is said to depend on [[self-identification]] and shared experience.

The [[initialism]] ''BDSM'' is first recorded in a [[Usenet]] post from 1991,<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/14168#eid289098363|title = BDSM ''n.'' (in entry B, ''n.'')|date = June 2013|access-date = 29 November 2015|website = Oxford English Dictionary Online|publisher = Oxford University Press|edition = draft|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151231210447/http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/14168#eid289098363|archive-date = 31 December 2015|url-status = live}}</ref> and is interpreted as a combination of the abbreviations B/D (Bondage and Discipline), D/s (Dominance and submission), and S/M (Sadism and Masochism). ''BDSM'' is now used as a catch-all phrase covering a wide range of activities, forms of [[interpersonal relationship]]s, and distinct subcultures. BDSM communities generally welcome anyone with a non-normative streak who identifies with the community; this may include [[cross-dresser]]s, [[body modification]] enthusiasts, [[animal roleplay]]ers, [[rubber fetishism|rubber fetishists]], and others.

Activities and relationships in BDSM are often characterized by the participants' taking on roles that are complementary and involve inequality of power; thus, the idea of [[Consent (BDSM)|informed consent]] of both the partners is essential. The terms ''submissive'' and ''dominant'' are often used to distinguish these roles: the dominant partner ("dom") takes psychological control over the submissive ("sub"). The terms [[Top, bottom, switch|''top'' and ''bottom'']] are also used; the top is the instigator of an action while the bottom is the receiver of the action. The two sets of terms are subtly different: for example, someone may choose to act as bottom to another person, for example, by being whipped, purely recreationally, without any implication of being psychologically dominated, and submissives may be ordered to massage their dominant partners. Although the bottom carries out the action and the top receives it, they have not necessarily switched roles.

The abbreviations ''sub'' and ''dom'' are frequently used instead of ''submissive'' and ''dominant''. Sometimes the female-specific terms ''mistress'', ''domme'', and ''[[dominatrix]]'' are used to describe a dominant woman, instead of the sometimes gender-neutral term ''dom''. Individuals who change between top/dominant and bottom/submissive roles—whether from relationship to relationship or within a given relationship—are called ''[[Top, bottom, switch (BDSM)#Switch|switches]]''. The precise definition of roles and self-identification is a common subject of debate among BDSM participants.<ref name="Terms">{{cite web|last=Grau|first=Johnson|url=http://www.leathernroses.com/generalbdsm/ssbbfaqdefines.htm|title=What do B&D, S&M, D&S, "top", "bottom" mean|publisher=Leather Roses|date=1995|access-date=27 January 2008| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080111223259/http://www.leathernroses.com/generalbdsm/ssbbfaqdefines.htm| archive-date= 11 January 2008 | url-status=live}}</ref>
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Fundamentals ==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Man Cuffed to Bedrail.jpg
| width1 = 120
| alt1 = 
| caption1 = A [[Bondage cuffs|handcuffed]] and blindfolded man
| image2 = Male submissive wearing nipple clamps.JPG
| width2 = 140
| alt2 = 
| caption2 = A man with [[Gag (BDSM)|gagged]] mouth and [[Nipple clamp|clamped nipples]]
| footer = 
}}
''BDSM'' is an umbrella term for certain kinds of erotic behaviour between consenting adults, encompassing various [[subculture]]s. Terms for roles vary widely among the subcultures. ''[[Top (BDSM)|Top]]'' and ''[[Dominance and submission|dominant]]'' are widely used for those partner(s) in the relationship or activity who are, respectively, the physically active or controlling participants. ''Bottom'' and ''submissive'' are widely used for those partner(s) in the relationship or activity who are, respectively, the physically receptive or controlled participants. The interaction between tops and bottoms—where physical or mental control of the bottom is surrendered to the top—is sometimes known as "power exchange", whether in the context of an encounter or a relationship.<ref name="bdsmdict">{{Cite web |url=http://www.xeromag.com/fvbdglossary.html |title=Dictionary of BDSM Terms |access-date=26 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202105250/http://www.xeromag.com/fvbdglossary.html |archive-date=2 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

BDSM actions can often take place during a specific period of time agreed to by both parties, referred to as "play", a "scene", or a "session". Participants usually derive pleasure from this, even though many of the practices—such as inflicting pain or [[Erotic humiliation|humiliation]] or being restrained—would be unpleasant under other circumstances. Explicit [[Human sexual activity|sexual activity]], such as [[sexual penetration]], may occur within a session, but is not essential.<ref name='sexual'>{{Cite book |first1=Phillip |last1=Miller |first2=Molly |last2=Devon |first3=William A. |last3=Granzig |title=Screw the Roses, Send Me the Thorns: The Romance and Sexual Sorcery of Sadomasochism |url=https://archive.org/details/screwrosessendme00mill |url-access=limited |page=[https://archive.org/details/screwrosessendme00mill/page/n71 55] |publisher=Mystic Rose Books |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-9645960-0-9}}</ref> For legal reasons, such explicit sexual interaction is seen only rarely in public play spaces and is sometimes banned by the rules of a party or playspace. Whether it is a public "playspace"—ranging from a party at an established community dungeon to a hosted play "zone" at a nightclub or social event—the parameters of allowance can vary. Some have a policy of [[panties]]/[[nipple sticker]] for women (underwear for men) and some allow full [[nudity]] with explicit sexual acts.<ref name="bdsmdict" />

The fundamental principles for the exercise of BDSM require that it be performed with the informed consent of all parties. Since the 1980s, many practitioners and organizations have adopted the motto (originally from the statement of purpose of GMSMA—a gay SM activist organization) ''[[safe, sane and consensual]]'' (''SSC''), which means that everything is based on safe activities, that all participants are of sufficiently sound mind to consent, and that all participants do consent.<ref>Bill Henkin, Sybil Holiday: ''Consensual Sadomasochism : How to Talk About It and How to Do It Safely'', page 64, Publisher: Daedalus Publishing Company 2006, {{ISBN|978-1-881943-12-9}}</ref> Mutual consent makes a clear legal and ethical distinction between BDSM and such crimes as sexual assault and [[domestic violence]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://sexsupport.org/abusevsere.html|title = VICSS / Difference between Abuse and Power Exchange by the NLA, Dutch SM Media Information Center and Powerrotics|access-date = 10 December 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071216091307/https://sexsupport.org/abusevsere.html| archive-date= 16 December 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:3-D - Folsom Street Fair.jpg|thumb|Flogging of the bare [[buttocks]] as seen in this [[LGBT culture in New York City|New York]] street fair is a common practice in BDSM.]]
Some BDSM practitioners prefer a code of behaviour that differs from SSC. Described as "[[risk-aware consensual kink]]" (RACK), this code shows a preference for a style in which the ''individual'' responsibility of the involved parties is emphasized more strongly, with each participant being responsible for their own well-being. Advocates of RACK argue that SSC can hamper discussion of risk because no activity is truly "safe", and that discussion of even low-risk possibilities is necessary for truly informed consent. They further argue that setting a discrete line between "safe" and "not-safe" activities ideologically denies consenting adults the right to evaluate risks versus rewards for themselves; that some adults will be drawn to certain activities regardless of the risk; and that BDSM play—particularly higher-risk play or [[edgeplay]]—should be treated with the same regard as extreme sports, with both respect and the demand that practitioners educate themselves and practice the higher-risk activities to decrease risk. RACK may be seen as focusing primarily upon awareness and informed consent, rather than accepted safe practices.<ref>{{cite web |year=2003 |title=Rack vs. SSC |url=http://www.withinreality.com/rackssc.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070108212010/http://www.withinreality.com/rackssc.html |archive-date=8 January 2007 |access-date=13 November 2006 |website=Within Reality}}</ref>

Consent is the most important criterion. The consent and compliance for a [[sadomasochistic]] situation can be granted only by people who can judge the potential results. For their consent, they must have relevant information (the extent to which the scene will go, potential risks, if a safeword will be used, what that is, and so on) at hand and the necessary mental capacity to judge. The resulting consent and understanding is occasionally summarized in a written "[[Contract (BDSM)|contract]]", which is an agreement of what can and cannot take place.<ref>Dossie Easton, Janet W. Hardy: ''The New Topping Book'', Greenery Press (CA) 2002, {{ISBN|978-1-890159-36-8}}</ref>

BDSM play is usually structured such that it is possible for the consenting partner to withdraw their consent at any point during a scene;<ref>Dossie Easton, Janet W. Hardy: ''The New Topping Book'', page 72, Greenery Press (CA) 2002, {{ISBN|978-1-890159-36-8}}</ref> for example, by using a [[safeword]] that was agreed on in advance.<ref name=sm101>{{Cite book |author-link=Jay Wiseman |last=Wiseman |first=Jay |title=SM 101: A Realistic Introduction |publisher=Greenery Press |location=California |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-9639763-8-3 }}</ref><ref>Dossie Easton, Janet W. Hardy: ''The New Topping Book'', page 71, Greenery Press (CA) 2002</ref> Use of the agreed safeword (or occasionally a "safe symbol" such as dropping a ball or ringing a bell, especially when speech is restricted) is seen by some as an explicit withdrawal of consent. Failure to honor a safeword is considered serious misconduct and could constitute a crime, [[#Legal status|depending on the relevant law]],<ref name=sm101 /> since the bottom or top has explicitly revoked their consent to any actions that follow the use of the safeword. For other scenes, particularly in established relationships, a safeword may be agreed to signify a warning ("this is getting too intense") rather than explicit withdrawal of consent; and a few choose not to use a safeword at all.

=== Terminology and subtypes ===
[[File:Bondage model and rigger at BoundCon 2015 custom photoshoot 8.jpg|thumb|A male [[bondage rigger]] demonstrates to the audience how to do [[rope bondage]] at the 2015 [[BoundCon]] event in Germany. The bondage technique used here is [[Ushiro Takatekote|box tie]], a basic form of arm and [[breast bondage]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.restrainedelegance.com/preview/lexicon1/icons/index.php|title=The Restrained Elegance lexicon of slavegirl bondage poses and positions|website=www.restrainedelegance.com|access-date=8 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823184337/http://www.restrainedelegance.com/preview/lexicon1/icons/index.php|archive-date=23 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

The initialism ''BDSM'' stands for:<ref name="J. Shrage">[https://books.google.com/books?id=MNMRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT244 Philosophizing About Sex] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605220439/https://books.google.com/books?id=MNMRCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT244 |date=5 June 2021 }}, PT 244</ref>
* [[Bondage (BDSM)|Bondage]] and [[Discipline (BDSM)|discipline]] (''B&D'')
* [[Dominance and submission]] (''D&s'')
* [[Sadomasochism]] (or ''S&M'')
These terms replaced ''sadomasochism'', as they more broadly cover BDSM activities and focus on the submissive roles instead of psychological pain.<ref name="J. Shrage"/> The model is only an attempt at phenomenological differentiation. Individual tastes and preferences in the area of [[human sexuality]] may overlap among these areas.

Under the initialism BDSM, these psychological and physiological facets are also included:
*[[Male dominance (BDSM)|Male dominance]]
*[[Male submission]]
*[[Female dominance]]
*[[Female submission]]

The term ''bondage'' describes the practice of physical restraint. Bondage is usually, but not always, a sexual practice.<ref>Matthias T. J. Grimme: ''Das Bondage-Handbuch. Anleitung zum erotischen Fesseln''. Charon-Verlag, Hamburg 1999, {{ISBN|978-3-931406-16-5}}. (German)</ref> While bondage is a very popular variation within the larger field of BDSM, it is nevertheless sometimes differentiated from the rest of this field.<ref>Lee "Bridgett" Harrington: ''Shibari You Can Use: Japanese Rope Bondage and Erotic Macramé'', Mystic Productions 2007, {{ISBN|978-0-615-14490-0}}.</ref> A 2015 study of over 1,000 Canadians showed that about half of all men held fantasies of bondage, and almost half of all women did as well.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Joyal|first1=Christian C.|last2=Cossette|first2=Amélie|last3=Lapierre|first3=Vanessa|date=February 2015|title=What Exactly Is an Unusual Sexual Fantasy?|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|volume=12|issue=#2|pages=328–340|doi=10.1111/jsm.12734|pmid=25359122|s2cid=33785479 |issn=1743-6095}}</ref> In a strict sense, bondage means binding the partner by tying their appendages together; for example, by the use of handcuffs or ropes, or by lashing their arms to an object. Bondage can also be achieved by spreading the appendages and fastening them with chains or ropes to a [[Saint Andrew's Cross (BDSM)|St. Andrew's cross]] or [[spreader bar]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Jay |last=Wiseman |title=Jay Wiseman's Erotic Bondage Handbook |publisher=Greenery Press |location=CA |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-890159-13-9 }}</ref>

The term ''discipline'' describes the use of rules and punishment to control overt behaviour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-24 |title=Definition of DISCIPLINE |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/discipline |access-date=2024-10-26 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> Punishment can be pain caused physically (such as caning), humiliation caused psychologically (such as a public flagellation) or loss of freedom caused physically (for example, chaining the submissive partner to the foot of a bed). Another aspect is the structured training of the bottom.<ref>Bill Henkin, Sybil Holiday: ''Consensual Sadomasochism: How to Talk About It and How to Do It Safely'', page 71, Daedalus Publishing Company, 1996, {{ISBN|978-1-881943-12-9}}.</ref>

[[Dominance and submission (BDSM)|Dominance and submission]] (also known as ''D&s'', ''Ds'' or ''D/s'') is a set of behaviours, customs and rituals relating to the giving and accepting of control of one individual over another in an erotic or lifestyle context. It explores the more mental aspect of BDSM. This is also the case in many relationships not considering themselves as sadomasochistic; it is considered to be a part of BDSM if it is practiced purposefully. The range of its individual characteristics is thereby wide.<ref name=BBC20050922 >{{cite news |title=Face to face: Dominatrix and submissive |date=22 September 2005 |newspaper=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4271098.stm |access-date=22 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226171611/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4271098.stm |archive-date=26 December 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Bent forward strappado.jpg|thumb|[[Strappado bondage|Strappado]] with rope and a spreader bar. This practice has a distinct effect of immobilization and pain.]]

Often, [[Contract (BDSM)|BDSM contracts]] are set out in writing to record the formal consent of the parties to the power exchange, stating their common vision of the relationship dynamic.<ref name="bdsmdict" /> The purpose of this kind of agreement is primarily to encourage discussion and negotiation in advance and then to document that understanding for the benefit of all parties. Such documents have not been recognized as being legally binding, nor are they intended to be. These agreements are binding in the sense that the parties have the expectation that the negotiated rules will be followed. Often other friends and community members may witness the signing of such a document in a ceremony, and so parties violating their agreement can result in loss of face, respect or status with their friends in the community.

In general, as compared to conventional relationships, BDSM participants go to greater lengths to negotiate the important aspects of their relationships in advance, and to contribute significant effort toward learning about and following safe practices.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.evilmonk.org/a/wiseman10.cfm |title=Negotiation and Negotiation Forms |last1=Wiseman |first1=Jay |access-date=26 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202013015/http://www.evilmonk.org/a/wiseman10.cfm |archive-date=2 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In D/s, the dominant is the top and the submissive is the bottom. In S/M, the sadist is usually the top and the masochist the bottom, but these roles are frequently more complicated or jumbled (as in the case of being dominant, masochists who may arrange for their submissive to carry out S/M activities on them). As in B/D, the declaration of the top/bottom may be required, though sadomasochists may also play without any power exchange at all, with both partners equally in control of the play.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

=== Etymology ===
The term ''[[sadomasochism]]'' is derived from the words ''sadism'' and ''masochism''. These terms differ somewhat from the same terms used in psychology since those require that the sadism or masochism cause significant distress or involve non-consenting partners.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=McGreal |first1=Scott A. |date=July 25, 2013 |title=BDSM, Personality and Mental Health |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/unique-everybody-else/201307/bdsm-personality-and-mental-health |url-status=live |magazine=Psychology Today |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20191203141049/https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/unique%2Deverybody%2Delse/201307/bdsm%2Dpersonality%2Dand%2Dmental%2Dhealth |archive-date=3 December 2019 |access-date=26 November 2014}}</ref> ''Sadomasochism'' refers to the aspects of BDSM surrounding the exchange of physical or emotional pain. Sadism describes sexual pleasure derived by inflicting [[pain]], degradation, humiliation on another person or causing another person to suffer. On the other hand, the masochist enjoys being hurt, humiliated, or suffering within the consensual scenario.<ref name="bdsmdict" /> Sadomasochistic scenes sometimes reach a level that appears more extreme or cruel than other forms of BDSM—for example, when a masochist is brought to tears or is severely bruised—and is occasionally unwelcome at BDSM events or parties.{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}} Sadomasochism does not imply enjoyment through causing or receiving pain in other situations (for example, accidental injury, medical procedures).{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}}

[[File:Sade (van Loo).png|thumb|left|170px|''Portrait of [[Marquis de Sade]]'' by [[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]] (1761)]]
[[File:Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, portrait 3.jpg|thumb|left|170px|Portrait of [[Leopold von Sacher-Masoch]]]]
The terms ''sadism'' and ''masochism'' are derived from the names of the [[Marquis de Sade]] and [[Leopold von Sacher-Masoch]], based on the content of the authors' works. Although the names of de Sade and Sacher-Masoch are attached to the terms sadism and masochism respectively, the scenes described in de Sade's works do not meet modern BDSM standards of informed consent.<ref>cp: ''Marquis de Sade: The 120 Days of Sodom'', Pbl. ReadHowYouWant (1 December 2006), {{ISBN|978-1-4250-3448-1}}, pages 407–409 "'You'll have no further use for these,' he muttered, casting each article into a large grate. 'No further need for this mantelet, this dress, these stockings, this bodice, no,' said he when all had been consumed, 'all you'll need now is a coffin.'"</ref> BDSM is solely based on consensual activities, and based on its system and laws. The concepts presented by de Sade are not in accordance with the BDSM culture, even though they are sadistic in nature.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} In 1843, the Ruthenian physician [[Heinrich Kaan]] published ''{{Lang|la|[[Psychopathia Sexualis (Kaan book)|Psychopathia Sexualis]]}}'' (''Psychopathy of Sex''), a writing in which he converts the sin conceptions of Christianity into medical diagnoses. With his work, the originally theological terms ''perversion'', ''aberration'' and ''deviation'' became part of the scientific terminology for the first time.{{Dubious|date=January 2011}} The German psychiatrist [[Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing|Richard von Krafft-Ebing]] introduced the terms ''sadism'' and ''masochism'' to the medical community in his work ''{{Lang|de|Neue Forschungen auf dem Gebiet der Psychopathia sexualis}}'' (''New research in the area of Psychopathy of Sex'') in 1890.<ref>Details describing the development of the theoretical construct "perversion" by Krafft-Ebing and his relation to this terms, see Andrea Beckmann, ''Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture'', 2001; 8(#2) 66–95 online at [http://www.albany.edu/scj/jcjpc/vol8is2/beckmann.html Deconstructing Myths] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303170806/http://www.albany.edu/scj/jcjpc/vol8is2/beckmann.html |date=3 March 2016 }}</ref>

In 1905, [[Sigmund Freud]] described sadism and masochism in his ''[[Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality]]'' as diseases developing from an incorrect development of the child psyche and laid the groundwork for the scientific perspective on the subject in the following decades. This led to the first time use of the compound term ''sado-masochism'' (German ''{{Lang|de|sado-masochismus}}'') by the Viennese psychoanalytic [[Isidor Isaak Sadger]] in their work, "{{Lang|de|Über den sado-masochistischen Komplex}}" ("Regarding the sadomasochistic complex") in 1913.<ref>Isidor Isaak Sadger: "Über den sado-masochistischen Komplex" in: ''Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen'', Bd. 5, 1913, S. 157–232 (German)</ref>

In the later 20th century, BDSM activists have protested against these conceptual models, as they were derived from the philosophies of two singular historical figures. Both Freud and Krafft-Ebing were psychiatrists; their observations on sadism and masochism were dependent on psychiatric patients, and their models were built on the assumption of [[psychopathology]].<ref>Krueger & Kaplan 2001, p. 393: "The DSM nomenclature referring to sexual psychopathology has been criticized as being vague and not having undergone DSM field trials." ('''Note:''' "DSM" here is not related to "BDSM". It is the standard abbreviation for the ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]''.)</ref> BDSM activists{{Who|date=November 2014}} argue that it is illogical to attribute human behavioural phenomena as complex as sadism and masochism to the "inventions" of two historic individuals. Advocates of BDSM{{Who|date=November 2014}} have sought to distinguish themselves from widely held notions of antiquated psychiatric theory by the adoption of the term ''BDSM'' as a distinction from the now common usage of those psychological terms, abbreviated as ''S&M''.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

== Behavioural and physiological aspects ==
[[File:Le Rêve d'un flagellant by George Topfer.jpg|thumb|160px|BDSM is commonly misconceived to be "all about pain".<ref name="barker13"/> This 1921 art of a clothed male, naked female is an illustration of [[Male dominance (BDSM)|male dominance]] and [[female submission]].]]

BDSM is commonly mistaken as being "all about pain".<ref name="barker13">{{Harvnb|Barker|Iantaffi|Gupta|2007|p=13}}</ref> Freud was confounded by the complexity and counterintuitiveness of practitioners' doing things that are self-destructive and painful.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology, Fourth Edition Volume 4|last1=Weiner|first1=Irving B.|last2=Craighead|first2=W. Edward|date=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780470170243|location=Hoboken, NJ|pages=1488}}</ref> Rather than pain, BDSM practitioners are primarily concerned with power, humiliation, and pleasure.<ref name="barker13"/> The aspects of D/s and B/D may not include physical suffering at all, but include the sensations experienced by different emotions of the mind.<ref name="barker13"/>

Of the three categories of BDSM, only sadomasochism specifically requires pain, but this is typically a means to an end, as a vehicle for feelings of humiliation, dominance, etc.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sadomasochism {{!}} Definition, Behaviors, Pathologization, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/sadomasochism |access-date=2023-04-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> In psychology, this aspect becomes a deviant behaviour once the act of inflicting or experiencing pain becomes a substitute for or the main source of sexual pleasure.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mental Health and Psychiatric Nursing: A Caring Approach|last1=Davies|first1=Janet L.|last2=Janosik|first2=Ellen Hastings|date=1991|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=0867204427|location=Boston, MA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mentalhealthpsyc0000davi/page/390 390]|language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/mentalhealthpsyc0000davi/page/390}}</ref> In its most extreme, the preoccupation on this kind of pleasure can lead participants to view humans as insensate means of sexual gratification.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science|last1=Craighead|first1=W. Edward|last2=Nemeroff|first2=Charles B.|date=2004|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=0471220361|location=Hoboken, NJ|pages=562}}</ref>

Dominance and submission of power are an entirely different experience, and are not always psychologically associated with physical pain. Many BDSM activities involve no pain or humiliation, but just the exchange of power and control.<ref name="barker13" /> During the activities, the participants may feel [[endorphin]] effects comparable to "runner's high" and to the afterglow of [[orgasm]].<ref>Goldberg, Jeff (1988). ''Anatomy of a Scientific Discovery''. Bantam Books, 1988. {{ISBN|978-0-553-34631-2}}; {{ISBN|978-0-553-17616-2}} (British edition); {{ISBN|978-0-553-05261-9}}</ref> The corresponding [[trance]]-like mental state is also called ''[[Glossary of BDSM|subspace]]'', for the submissive, and ''[[Glossary of BDSM|domspace]]'', for the dominant. Some use ''body stress'' to describe this physiological sensation.<ref>Fries, DS (2002). "Opioid Analgesics". In Williams DA, Lemke TL. ''Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry'' (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. {{ISBN|978-0-683-30737-5}}</ref> The experience of [[algolagnia]] is important, but is not the only motivation for many BDSM practitioners. The philosopher [[Edmund Burke]] called the sensation of pleasure derived from pain "sublime".<ref>{{Cite book |title=On Taste: On the Sublime and Beautiful; Reflections on the French Revolution; A Letter to a Noble Lord; with Introduction, Notes and Illustrations |first=Edmund |last=Burke |publisher=P. F. Collier & Son |year=1909 |oclc=16729697 |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16729697 |access-date=13 April 2021 |archive-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413231913/https://www.worldcat.org/title/on-taste-on-the-sublime-and-beautiful-reflections-on-the-french-revolution-a-letter-to-a-noble-lord/oclc/16729697 |url-status=live }}</ref> Couples engaging in consensual BDSM tend to show hormonal changes that indicate decreases in stress and increases in emotional bonding.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sagarin|first1=BradJ.|last2=Cutler|first2=Bert|last3=Cutler|first3=Nadine|last4=Lawler-Sagarin|first4=Kimberly A.|last5=Matuszewich|first5=Leslie|date=1 April 2009|title=Hormonal Changes and Couple Bonding in Consensual Sadomasochistic Activity|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=38|issue=#2|pages=186–200|doi=10.1007/s10508-008-9374-5|issn=0004-0002|pmid=18563549|s2cid=15989116}}</ref>

There is an array of BDSM practitioners who take part in sessions in which they do not receive any personal gratification. They enter such situations solely with the intention to allow their partners to indulge their own needs or [[Sexual fetishism|fetishes]]. [[Professional dominant]]s do this in exchange for money, but non-professionals do it for the sake of their partners.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

In some BDSM sessions, the top exposes the bottom to a range of sensual experiences, such as pinching; biting; scratching with fingernails; [[erotic spanking]]; [[erotic electrostimulation]]; and the use of [[Crop (implement)|crops]], [[whip]]s, liquid [[wax]], [[ice cube]]s, and [[Wartenberg wheel]]s.<ref>William Brame, Gloria Brame: ''Different Loving: The World of Sexual Dominance and Submission'' (paperback), Villard, 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-679-76956-9}}</ref> Fixation by [[handcuffs]], [[rope]]s, or [[chain]]s may occur. The repertoire of possible "toys" is limited only by the imagination of both partners. To some extent, everyday items, such as [[clothespin]]s, [[wooden spoon]]s, and [[plastic wrap]], are used in sex play.<ref>Claudia Varrin: ''The Art Of Sensual Female Dominance: A Guide for Women'', Citadel, 2000, {{ISBN|978-0-8065-2089-6}}</ref> It is commonly considered that a pleasurable BDSM experience during a session depends strongly on the top's competence and experience and the bottom's physical and mental state. Trust and [[sexual arousal]] help the partners enter a shared mindset.<ref>John Warren, PhD: ''The Loving Dominant'', Greenery Press (CA), 2nd rev. ed., {{ISBN|978-1-890159-20-7}}</ref><ref>Bill Henkin, Sybil Holiday: ''Consensual Sadomasochism: How to Talk About It and How to Do It Safely'', Daedalus Publishing Company 1996, {{ISBN|978-1-881943-12-9}}</ref>

=== Types of play ===
[[File:Caged woman.jpg|thumb|[[Erotic humiliation]]: A submissive woman publicly caged at the [[Folsom Street Fair]] in U.S., with cane markings on her body.]]
Following are some of the types of BDSM play:
{{div col}}
* [[Animal roleplay]]
* [[Bondage (BDSM)]]
* [[Breast torture]]
* [[Cock and ball torture (sexual practice)|Cock and ball torture]]
* [[Diaper fetishism|Diaper play]]
* [[Edgeplay]]
* [[Erotic electrostimulation]]
* [[Erotic sexual denial]]
* [[Erotic spanking|Spanking]]
* [[Flogging]]
* [[Human furniture]]
* [[Japanese bondage]]
* [[Medical fetishism|Medical play]]
* [[Omorashi|Omorashi and bathroom use control]]
* [[Paraphilic infantilism]]
* [[Play piercing]]
* [[Predicament bondage]]
* Pussy torture
* [[Salirophilia]]
* [[Sexual roleplay]]
* [[Suspension bondage|Suspension]]
* [[Tickle torture]]
* [[Urolagnia]]
* [[Wax play]]
{{Div col end}}

=== Safety ===
{{See also|Risk-aware consensual kink}}
[[File:BoundCon 2013 custom photoshoot 8 picture 2.jpg|thumb|300px|A woman being put in [[suspension bondage]] at [[BoundCon]], Germany, 2013. Since the submissive is vulnerable to a potential fall, it is important that great care is taken.]]

Besides [[safe sex]], BDSM sessions often require a wider array of safety precautions than [[vanilla sex]] (sexual behaviour without BDSM elements).<ref name=sm101 /> To ensure consent related to BDSM activity, pre-play [[Negotiation (BDSM)|negotiations]] are commonplace, especially among partners who do not know each other very well. In practice, pick-up scenes at clubs or parties may sometimes be low in negotiation (much as pick-up sex from singles bars may not involve much negotiation or disclosure). These negotiations concern the interests and fantasies of each partner and establish a framework of both acceptable and unacceptable activities.<ref>David Stein: ''S/M's Copernican Revolution:From a Closed World to the Infinite Universe'' and ''Safe Sane Consensual: The Evolution of a Shibboleth'' available at [https://archive.today/20141004110503/http://www.alternativechannel.tv/?p=66 s/m-leather history]</ref> This kind of discussion is a typical "unique selling proposition" of BDSM sessions and quite commonplace.<ref>Bill Henkin, Sybil Holiday: ''Consensual Sadomasochism: How to Talk About It and How to Do It Safely'', pages 80–94, Daedalus Publishing Company 1996, {{ISBN|978-1-881943-12-9}}</ref> Additionally, [[safeword]]s are often arranged to provide for an immediate stop of any activity if any participant should so desire.<ref>Deborah Cameron, Don Kulick: ''Language and Sexuality'', Page 24, Cambridge University Press 2003, {{ISBN|978-0-521-00969-0}}</ref>

Safewords are words or phrases that are called out when things are either not going as planned or have crossed a threshold one cannot handle. They are something both parties can remember and recognize and are, by definition, not words commonly used playfully during any kind of scene. Words such as ''no'', ''stop'', and ''don't'', are often inappropriate as a safeword if the roleplaying aspect includes the illusion of non-consent.

''The traffic light system'' (TLS) is the most commonly used set of safewords.
* Red – meaning: stop immediately and check the status of your partner
* Yellow – meaning: slow down, be careful<ref>Tristan Taormino (ed.): ''The Ultimate Guide to Kink: BDSM, Role Play and the Erotic Edge'', page 26, Cleis Press 2012, {{ISBN|978-1573447799}}</ref>
* Green – meaning: I'm all good, we can start. If used it's normally uttered by everyone involved before the scene can start.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/love-sex/sex/a15879721/popular-safe-words/|title=The world's most popular 'safe words' have been revealed and wow|last=Gilmour|first=Paisley|date=2018-01-25|website=Cosmopolitan|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-01-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113182251/https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/love-sex/sex/a15879721/popular-safe-words/|archive-date=13 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://metro.co.uk/2018/02/22/safe-word-need-one-7333301/|title=What is a safe word and do you need one?|date=2018-02-22|website=Metro|language=en|access-date=2019-01-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113063023/https://metro.co.uk/2018/02/22/safe-word-need-one-7333301/|archive-date=13 January 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

At most clubs and group-organized BDSM parties and events, [[Dungeon Monitor|dungeon monitors]] (DMs) provide an additional safety net for the people playing there, ensuring that house rules are followed and safewords respected.

BDSM participants are expected to understand practical safety aspects, such as the potential for harm to body parts. [[Contusion]] or scarring of the skin can be a concern. Using crops, whips, or [[Cat of nine tails|floggers]], the top's fine motor skills and anatomical knowledge can make the difference between a satisfying session for the bottom and a highly unpleasant experience that may even entail severe physical harm.<ref>Joseph W. Bean: ''Flogging'', Greenery Press (CA), 2000, {{ISBN|978-1-890159-27-6}}</ref> The very broad range of [[Sex toy|BDSM "toys"]] and physical and psychological control techniques often requires a far-reaching knowledge of details related to the requirements of the individual session, such as [[anatomy]], [[physics]], and [[psychology]].<ref>Jack Rinella: The Toybag Guide series, Greenery Press (CA), e.g. ''The Toybag Guide to Hot Wax and Temperature Play'', {{ISBN|978-1-890159-57-3}}</ref><ref>Arne Hoffmann, ''Das Lexikon des Sadomasochismus. Der Inside-Führer zur dunklen Erotik: Praktiken und Instrumente, Personen und Institutionen, Literatur und Film, Politik und Philosophie'', page 42, Schwarzkopf & Schwarzkopf 2000, {{ISBN|978-3-89602-290-5}} (German)</ref><ref>Phillip Miller, Molly Devon, William A. Granzig: ''Screw the Roses, Send Me the Thorns: The Romance and Sexual Sorcery of Sadomasochism'', pp. 95, Mystic Rose Books 1995, {{ISBN|978-0-9645960-0-9}}</ref> Despite these risks, BDSM activities usually result in far less severe injuries than sports like boxing and football, and BDSM practitioners do not visit emergency rooms any more often than the general population.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barker|Iantaffi|Gupta|2007|p=6}}</ref>

It is necessary to be able to identify each person's psychological "[[squick]]s" or triggers in advance to avoid them. Such losses of emotional balance due to sensory or emotional overload are a fairly commonly discussed issue. It is important to follow participants' reactions [[Empathy|empathetically]] and continue or stop accordingly.<ref name=sm101 /><ref>Dossie Easton, Janet W. Hardy: ''The New Topping Book'', page 111</ref> For some players, sparking "freakouts" or deliberately using triggers may be the desired outcome. Safewords are one way for BDSM practices to protect both parties. However, partners should be aware of each other's psychological states and behaviours to prevent instances where the "freakouts" prevent the use of safewords.

After any BDSM activities, it is important that the participants go through sexual aftercare, to process and calm down from the activity. After the sessions, participants can need aftercare because their bodies have experienced trauma and they need to mentally come out of the role play.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Zane|first=Zachary|date=2019-10-04|title=What Is Sexual Aftercare, and Why Is It So Important?|url=https://www.menshealth.com/sex-women/a29341534/sexual-aftercare/|access-date=2020-07-20|website=Men's Health|language=en-US|archive-date=20 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720231424/https://www.menshealth.com/sex-women/a29341534/sexual-aftercare/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Social aspects ==
=== Types of relationships ===

;Long term
A 2003 study, the first to look at these relationships, fully demonstrated that "quality long-term functioning relationships" exist among practitioners of BDSM, with either sex being the top or bottom (the study was based on 17 heterosexual couples).<ref>{{Harvnb|Cutler|2003|p=99}}</ref> Respondents in the study expressed their BDSM orientation to be built into who they are, but considered exploring their BDSM interests an ongoing task, and showed flexibility and adaptability in order to match their interests with their partners.<ref name=autogenerated4>{{Harvnb|Cutler|2003|p=102}}</ref> The "perfect match" where both in the relationship shared the same tastes and desires was rare, and most relationships required both partners to take up or put away some of their desires.<ref name=autogenerated4 /> The BDSM activities that the couples partook in varied in sexual to nonsexual significance for the partners who reported doing certain BDSM activities for "couple bonding, stress release, and spiritual quests".<ref>{{Harvnb|Cutler|2003|p=103}}</ref> The most reported issue amongst respondents was not finding enough time to be in role with most adopting a lifestyle wherein both partners maintain their dominant or submissive role throughout the day.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{Harvnb|Cutler|2003|p=104}}</ref>

Amongst the respondents, it was typically the bottoms who wanted to play harder, and be more restricted into their roles when there was a difference in desire to play in the relationship.<ref name=autogenerated2 /><ref name=autogenerated3>{{Harvnb|Cutler|2003|p=107}}</ref> The author of the study, Bert Cutler, speculated that tops may be less often in the mood to play due to the increased demand for responsibility on their part: being aware of the safety of the situation and prepared to remove the bottom from a dangerous scenario, being conscious of the desires and limits of the bottom, and so on.<ref name=autogenerated3 /> The author of the study stressed that successful long-term BDSM relationships came after "early and thorough disclosure" from both parties of their BDSM interests.<ref name=autogenerated3 />

Many of those engaged in long-term BDSM relationships learned their skills from larger BDSM organizations and communities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cutler|2003|p=108}}</ref> There was a lot of discussion by the respondents on the amount of control the top possessed in the relationships but "no discussion of being better, or smarter, or of more value" than the bottom.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{Harvnb|Cutler|2003|p=109}}</ref> Couples were generally of the same mind of whether or not they were in an ongoing relationship, but in such cases, the bottom was not locked up constantly, but that their role in the context of the relationship was always present, even when the top was doing non-dominant activities such as household chores, or the bottom being in a more dominant position.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> In its conclusion the study states:

{{Blockquote|The respondents valued themselves, their partners, and their relationships. All couples expressed considerable goodwill toward their partners. The power exchange between the cohorts appears to be serving purposes beyond any sexual satisfaction, including experiencing a sense of being taken care of and bonding with a partner.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cutler|2003|p=110}}</ref>}}

The study further goes on to list three aspects that made the successful relationships work: early disclosure of interests and continued transparency, a commitment to personal growth, and the use of the dominant/submissive roles as a tool to maintain the relationship.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cutler|2003|p=111}}</ref> In closing remarks, the author of the study theorizes that due to the serious potential for harm, couples in BDSM relationships develop increased communication that may be higher than in mainstream relationships.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cutler|2003|p=112}}</ref>

;Professional services
A professional [[dominatrix]] or [[professional dominant]], often referred to within the culture as a ''pro-dom(me)'', offers services encompassing the range of bondage, discipline, and dominance in exchange for money. The term ''dominatrix'' is little-used within the non-professional BDSM scene. A non-professional dominant woman is more commonly referred to simply as a ''domme'', ''dominant'', or ''[[femdom]]'' (short for female dominance). [[Professional submissive]]s ("pro-subs"), although far more rare, do exist.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.professionalsubmissives.com/|title=Directory of Professional Submssives|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090209223852/http://professionalsubmissives.com/|archive-date=9 February 2009|access-date=6 October 2014}}</ref>

=== Scenes ===
In BDSM, a "scene" is the stage or setting where BDSM activity takes place, as well as the activity itself.<ref>{{cite web |title=BDSM Glossary |url=https://www.xeromag.com/fvbdglossary.html |website=Xeromag |access-date=5 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231044609/https://www.xeromag.com/fvbdglossary.html |archive-date=31 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.domsub.info/glossary.shtml |title=What is D/s |access-date=2012-01-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204120709/http://www.domsub.info/glossary.shtml |archive-date=4 February 2012 |df=dmy-all }} Dom Sub Glossary</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ober |first1=Lauren |title=Kink 101 |url=https://www.sevendaysvt.com/vermont/kink-101/Content?oid=2139583 |website=Seven Days |access-date=5 October 2018 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006000351/https://www.sevendaysvt.com/vermont/kink-101/Content?oid=2139583 |archive-date=6 October 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mistresssky.com/terms.html |title=DEFINITIONS OF BDSM TERMS |access-date=29 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224221722/http://www.mistresssky.com/terms.html |archive-date=24 February 2012 }} Mistress Sky terms</ref> The physical place where a BDSM activity takes place is usually called a dungeon, though some prefer less dramatic terms, including ''playspace'' or ''club''. A BDSM activity can, but need not, involve [[Human sexual activity|sexual activity]] or [[sexual roleplay]]. A characteristic of many [[BDSM relationship]]s is the [[Power exchange (BDSM)|power exchange]] from the bottom to the dominant partner, and bondage features prominently in BDSM scenes and sexual roleplay.

"The Scene" (including use of the definite article ''the'') is also used in the BDSM community to refer to the BDSM community as a whole. Thus someone who is on "the Scene", and prepared to play in public, might take part in "a scene" at a public [[Play party (BDSM)|play party]].<ref>*{{cite book|last = Aggrawal|first = Anil|year = 2008|title = Forensic and Medico-Legal Aspects of Sexual Crimes and Unusual Sexual Practices|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uNkNhPZQprcC|publisher = CRC Press|isbn = 978-1-4200-4308-2|access-date = 5 July 2010|archive-date = 26 July 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200726171855/https://books.google.com/books?id=uNkNhPZQprcC|url-status = live}} P.147-148, 154, 172, 174</ref>

A scene can take place in private between two or more people and can involve a domestic arrangement, such as [[Servitude (BDSM)|servitude]] or a casual or committed lifestyle [[Master/slave (BDSM)|master/slave relationship]]. BDSM elements may involve settings of [[Master/slave (BDSM)#Slave training|slave training]] or punishment for breaches of instructions.

A scene can also take place in a club, where the [[Play (BDSM)|play]] can be viewed by others. When a scene takes place in a public setting, it may be because the participants enjoy being watched by others, or because of the [[Bondage equipment|equipment]] available, or because having third parties present adds safety for play partners who have only recently met.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.novad.org/Primer/Definitions.html |title=Definition of Terms |access-date=2012-01-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101092731/http://www.novad.org/Primer/Definitions.html |archive-date=1 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }} Novad Primer Definitions</ref>

=== Etiquette ===
Most standard social etiquette rules still apply when at a BDSM event, such as not intimately touching someone you do not know, not touching someone else's belongings (including toys), and abiding by dress codes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dominantguide.com/325/basics-of-dungeon-etiquette/|title=Basics of Dungeon Etiquette|date=29 April 2013|author=Rev|website=Dominant Guide|access-date=5 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160831063125/http://dominantguide.com/325/basics-of-dungeon-etiquette/|archive-date=31 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Many events open to the public also have rules addressing alcohol consumption, recreational drugs, cell phones, and photography.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rascal's Club Rules|url=http://www.rascals-club.com/rules.html|website=Rascal's Club|access-date=25 May 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140929223310/http://www.rascals-club.com/rules.html|archive-date=29 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

A specific scene takes place within the general conventions and [[etiquette]] of BDSM, such as requirements for mutual [[Consent (BDSM)|consent]] and agreement as to the [[Limits (BDSM)|limits]] of any BDSM activity. This agreement can be incorporated into a [[Contract (BDSM)|formal contract]]. In addition, most clubs have additional rules which regulate how onlookers may interact with the actual participants in a scene.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kinkyplayspace.com/club-etiquette/ |title=General Club Etiquette for ANY Fetish Play Club |publisher=kinkyplayspace |access-date=25 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426013758/http://kinkyplayspace.com/club-etiquette/ |archive-date=26 April 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As is common in BDSM, these are founded on the catchphrase "safe, sane, and consensual".

=== Parties and clubs ===
BDSM [[Play party (BDSM)|play parties]] are events in which BDSM practitioners and other similarly interested people meet in order to communicate, share experiences and knowledge, and to "play" in an erotic atmosphere. BDSM parties show similarities to ones in the [[dark culture]], being based on a more or less strictly enforced [[dress code]]; often clothing made of latex, leather or vinyl/PVC, lycra and so on, emphasizing the body's shape and the primary and secondary sexual characteristics. The requirement for such dress codes differ. While some events have none, others have a policy in order to create a more coherent atmosphere and to prevent outsiders from taking part.<ref>[http://www.datenschlag.org/txt/smpabes.html datenschlag.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130185724/http://www.datenschlag.org/txt/smpabes.html |date=30 November 2007 }} (German)</ref>

At these parties, BDSM can be publicly performed on a stage, or more privately in separate "dungeons".<ref>Dossie Easton, Janet W. Hardy: ''The New Topping Book''. Page 163</ref> A reason for the relatively fast spread of this kind of event is the opportunity to use a wide range of "playing equipment", which in most apartments or houses is unavailable. Slings, St. Andrew's crosses (or similar restraining constructs), spanking benches, and punishing supports or cages are often made available. The problem of noise disturbance is also lessened at these events, while in the home setting many BDSM activities can be limited by this factor. In addition, such parties offer both [[Exhibitionism|exhibitionists]] and [[Voyeurism|voyeurs]] a forum to indulge their inclinations without social criticism. Sexual intercourse is not permitted within most public BDSM play spaces or not often seen in others, because it is not the emphasis of this kind of play. In order to ensure the maximum safety and comfort for the participants, certain standards of behaviour have evolved; these include aspects of [[courtesy]], [[privacy]], respect and safewords.<ref name=sm101 /> Today BDSM parties are taking place in most of the larger cities in the Western world.

This scene appears particularly on the Internet, in publications, and in meetings such as at [[fetish club]]s (like [[Torture Garden (fetish club)|Torture Garden]]), SM parties, gatherings called [[Munch (BDSM)|munches]], and erotic fairs like [[Venus Berlin]]. The annual [[Folsom Street Fair]] held in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] is the world's largest BDSM event.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://folsomstreetfair.org/|title=Folsom Street Fair|access-date=11 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215163221/http://folsomstreetfair.org/|archive-date=15 December 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> It has its roots in the gay leather movement. The weekend-long festivities include a wide range of sadomasochistic erotica in a public clothing optional space between 8th and 13th streets with nightly parties associated with the organization.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Folsom-Street-Fair-attracts-whippers-usual-5771032.php|title=Fantasy becomes reality at Folsom Street Fair|newspaper=Sfgate |access-date=13 February 2017|date=2014-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214183402/http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Folsom-Street-Fair-attracts-whippers-usual-5771032.php|archive-date=14 February 2017|url-status=live |last1=Fimrite |first1= Peter }}</ref>

There are also conventions such as [[National Leather Association International|Living in Leather]] and [[Black Rose (BDSM organization)|Black Rose]].

== Psychology ==
Research indicates that there is no evidence that a preference for BDSM is a consequence of childhood abuse.<ref name="a2">{{Cite journal|title=Demographic and Psychosocial Features of Participants in Bondage and Discipline, "Sadomasochism" or Dominance and Submission (BDSM): Data from a National Survey |url=http://www.niu.edu/user/tj0bjs1/bdsm/Richters,%20de%20Visser,%20Rissel,%20Grulich,%20&%20Smith%20(2008).pdf |journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine |date=1 July 2008 |issn=1743-6109 |pages=1660–1668 |volume=5 |issue=#7 |doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00795.x |first1=Juliet |last1=Richters |first2=Richard O. |last2=De Visser |first3=Chris E. |last3=Rissel |first4=Andrew E. |last4=Grulich |first5=Anthony M.A. |last5=Smith |pmid=18331257 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020021649/http://www.niu.edu/user/tj0bjs1/bdsm/Richters%2C%20de%20Visser%2C%20Rissel%2C%20Grulich%2C%20%26%20Smith%20%282008%29.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2016 }}</ref> Some reports suggest that people abused as children may have more BDSM injuries and have difficulty with safe words being recognized as meaning stop the previously consensual behaviour;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jozifkova|first=Eva|date=11 August 2013|title=Consensual Sadomasochistic Sex (BDSM): The Roots, the Risks, and the Distinctions Between BDSM and Violence|journal=Current Psychiatry Reports|language=en|volume=15|issue=#9|pages=392|doi=10.1007/s11920-013-0392-1|pmid=23933978|s2cid=29054687|issn=1523-3812}}</ref> thus, it is possible that people choosing BDSM as part of their lifestyle, who also were previously abused, may have had more police or hospital reports of injuries. In one study of three online surveys, many transgender adults remarked that BDSM influenced their individual experience of gender.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cook-Daniels|first1=Loree|last2=Munson|first2=Michael|date=5 May 2010|title=Sexual Violence, Elder Abuse, and Sexuality of Transgender Adults, Age 50+: Results of Three Surveys|journal=Journal of GLBT Family Studies|volume=6|issue=#2|pages=142–177|doi=10.1080/15504281003705238|issn=1550-428X|s2cid=57665777}}</ref>

Joseph Merlino, author and psychiatry adviser to the ''[[New York Daily News]]'', said in an interview that a sadomasochistic relationship, as long as it is consensual, is not a psychological problem:
{{Blockquote|It's a problem only if it is getting that individual into difficulties, if he or she is not happy with it, or it's causing problems in their personal or professional lives. If it's not, I'm not seeing that as a problem. But assuming that it did, what I would wonder about is what is his or her biology that would cause a tendency toward a problem, and dynamically, what were the experiences this individual had that led him or her toward one of the ends of the spectrum.<ref>[[n:Dr. Joseph Merlino on sexuality, insanity, Freud, fetishes and apathy#Gender identity and Heteronormativity|Interview with Dr. Joseph Merlino]], David Shankbone, ''[[Wikinews]]'', October 5, 2007.</ref>}}

Some psychologists agree that experiences during early [[Psychosexual development|sexual development]] can have a profound effect on the character of sexuality later in life. Sadomasochistic desires, however, seem to form at a variety of ages. Some individuals report having had them before puberty, while others do not discover them until well into adulthood. According to one study, the majority of male sadomasochists (53%) developed their interest before the age of 15, while the majority of females (78%) developed their interest afterward (Breslow, Evans, and Langley 1985). The prevalence of sadomasochism within the general population is unknown. Despite female sadists being less visible than males, some surveys have resulted in comparable amounts of sadistic fantasies between females and males.<ref name="Fedoroff640">{{harvnb|Fedoroff|2008|p=640}}: "...surveys have found no difference in frequency of sadistic fantasies in men and women."</ref> The results of such studies demonstrate that one's sex does not determine preference for sadism.<ref name="Fedoroff644">{{harvnb|Fedoroff|2008|p=644}}: "This review indicates that sexual sadism, as currently defined, is a heterogeneous phenomenon."</ref>

Following a phenomenological study of nine individuals involved in sexual masochistic sessions who regarded pain as central to their experience,<ref>Kurt, H., & Ronel, N. (in print). Addicted to Pain. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology.</ref> sexual masochism was described as an addiction-like tendency, with several features resembling that of drug addiction: craving, intoxication, tolerance and withdrawal. It was also demonstrated how the first masochistic experience is placed on a pedestal, with subsequent use aiming at retrieving this lost sensation, much as described in the descriptive literature on addiction.

=== Prevalence ===
[[File:Man flogged at xxxotica.jpg|thumb|[[Flogging]] of a bound man by a [[dominatrix]] at the [[Exxxotica]] adult event at the [[Jersey Shore]], [[New Jersey]], U.S.]]
[[File:David Shankbone interviews two dominatices about strange client requests.ogg|thumb|Two professional dominatrices interviewed by David Shankbone about the psychological aspects of some of their stranger requests<ref>[[n:BDSM as business: Interviews with Dominatrixes]]—full transcript.</ref>]]
BDSM occurs among people of all genders and sexual orientations, and in varied occurrences and intensities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Ashley |last2=Barker |first2=Edward D. |last3=Rahman |first3=Qazi |date=2020 |title=A Systematic Scoping Review of the Prevalence, Etiological, Psychological, and Interpersonal Factors Associated with BDSM |journal=The Journal of Sex Research |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=781–811 |doi=10.1080/00224499.2019.1665619 |pmid=31617765 |s2cid=204740964 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Breslow et al. ''On the Prevalence and Roles of Females in the Sadomasochistic Subculture: Report of an Empirical Study''. Archives of Sexual Behavior 14/1985, P. 303–17. In Thomas S. Weinberg: ''S&M: Studies in Dominance and Submission'', (ed.), Prometheus Books, New York, 1995 {{ISBN|978-0-87975-978-0}}</ref><ref>[[Gloria Brame|Gloria G. Brame]], [http://www.gloria-brame.com/therapy/kinkoverview.html BDSM/Fetish Sex: Overview and Study] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221063236/http://www.gloria-brame.com/therapy/kinkoverview.html |date=21 December 2007 }}. Retrieved on 9 November 2008.</ref> The spectrum ranges from couples with no connections to the subculture outside of their bedrooms or homes, without any awareness of the concept of BDSM, playing "tie-me-up-games", to public scenes on [[Saint Andrew's Cross (BDSM)|St. Andrew's crosses]] at large events such as the [[Folsom Street Fair]] in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. Estimation on the overall percentage of BDSM-related sexual behaviour varies.<ref name="a3" >{{cite journal | last1 = Kolmes | first1 = K. | last2 = Stock | first2 = W. | last3 = Moser | first3 = C. | year = 2006 | title = Investigating bias in psychotherapy with BDSM clients | journal = Journal of Homosexuality | volume = 50 | issue = #2–3| pages = 301–324 | doi=10.1300/j082v50n02_15| pmid = 16803769 | s2cid = 21097726 }}</ref>

[[Alfred Kinsey]] stated in his 1953 nonfiction book ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'' that 12% of females and 22% of males reported having an erotic response to a sadomasochistic story.<ref name="sbhf677">''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'', pp. 677-678</ref> In that book erotic responses to being bitten were given as:<ref name="sbhf677"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="border-bottom:2px solid black;"
! Erotic responses
! By females
! By males
|-
! Definite and/or frequent
| 26%
| 26%
|-
! Some response
| 29%
| 24%
|-
! Never
| 45%
| 50%
|- style="border-top:2px solid black;"
|+
! Number of cases
| 2200
| 567
|}

A non-representative survey on the sexual behaviour of American students published in 1997 and based on questionnaires had a response rate of about 8–9%. Its results showed 15% of homosexual and bisexual males, 21% of lesbian and female bisexual students, 11% of heterosexual males and 9% of female heterosexual students committed to BDSM related fantasies.<ref name="elliott" /> In all groups the level of practical BDSM experiences were around 6%. Within the group of openly lesbian and bisexual females, the quote was significantly higher, at 21%. Independent of their sexual orientation, about 12% of all questioned students, 16% of lesbians and female bisexuals and 8% of heterosexual males articulated an interest in spanking. Experience with this sexual behaviour was indicated by 30% of male heterosexuals, 33% of female bisexuals and lesbians, and 24% of the male gay and bisexual men and female heterosexual women.<ref name="elliott" /> Even though this study was not considered representative, other surveys indicate similar dimensions in differing target groups.<ref>Brokmann, Angela: ''Macht und Erotik'', 1996, Sexologisches Institut e. V. Hamburg, Hamburg (German)</ref><ref>Person, Ethel S. / Terestman, Nettie / Myers, Wayne A. / Goldberg, Eugene L. / Salvadori, Carol: "Gender differences in sexual behaviors and fantasies in a college population", 1989, in: ''Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy'', Bd. 15, No. 3, 1989, P. 187–198</ref><ref>Breslow, Norman: ''[https://archive.today/20120918113125/http://www.sexuality.org/l/nb/nbres.html SM Research Report, v1.1]'', 1999</ref>

A representative study done from 2001 to 2002 in Australia found that 1.8% of sexually active people (2.2% men, 1.3% women but no significant sex difference) had engaged in BDSM activity in the previous year. Of the entire sample, 1.8% of men and 1.3% of women had been involved in BDSM. BDSM activity was significantly more likely among bisexuals and homosexuals of both sexes. But among men in general, there was no relationship effect of age, education, language spoken at home or relationship status. Among women, in this study, activity was most common for those between 16 and 19 years of age and least likely for females over 50 years. Activity was also significantly more likely for women who had a regular partner they did not live with, but was not significantly related with speaking a language other than English or education.<ref name="a2" />

Another representative study, published in 1999 by the German Institut für rationale Psychologie, found that about 2/3 of the interviewed women stated a desire to be at the mercy of their sexual partners from time to time. 69% admitted to fantasies dealing with sexual submissiveness, 42% stated interest in explicit BDSM techniques, 25% in bondage.<ref>Arne Hoffmann, ''Lexikon der Tabubrüche'', Schwarzkopf&Schwarzkopf, 2003, {{ISBN|978-3-89602-517-3}} (German)</ref> A 1976 study in the general US population suggests three per cent have had positive experiences with Bondage or master-slave roleplaying. Overall 12% of the interviewed females and 18% of the males were willing to try it.<ref>"What's Really Happening on Campus", ''Playboy'' October 1976, S. 128–131, 160–164, 169. (see Charles Moser / Eugene E. Levitt: "An Exploratory-Descriptive Study of a Sadomasochistically Oriented Sample", in ''Journal of Sex Research'', Vol. 23, 1987, P. 322-337.)</ref><ref>Thomas S. Weinberg (Ed.): ''S&M: Studies in Dominance and Submission'', Prometheus Books, New York 1995, {{ISBN|978-0-87975-978-0}}</ref> A 1990 [[Kinsey Institute]] report stated that 5% to 10% of Americans occasionally engage in sexual activities related to BDSM, 11% of men and 17% of women reported trying bondage.<ref>Walter Lowe: ''The Playboy Readers' Sex Survey''. 1983.</ref><ref>Based on the 1983 "Playboy Readers Sex Survey" by Walter Lowe. [http://www.kinseyinstitute.org/resources/FAQ.html#bdsm kinseyinstitute.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420205301/http://www.kinseyinstitute.org/resources/FAQ.html#bdsm |date=20 April 2012 }}</ref> Some elements of BDSM have been popularized through increased media coverage since the middle 1990s. Thus both black leather clothing, sexual jewelry such as chains and dominance roleplay appear increasingly outside of BDSM contexts.

According to yet another survey of 317,000 people in 41 countries, about 20% of the surveyed have at least used masks, blindfolds or other bondage utilities once, and 5% explicitly connected themselves with BDSM.<ref name="Durex">Durex Global Sex Survey 2005, P.15 Online [http://www.durex.com/cm/gss2005results.asp Durex Global Sex Survey 2005] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090315002702/http://www.durex.com/cm/gss2005results.asp |date=15 March 2009 }}</ref> In 2004, 19% mentioned spanking as one of their practices and 22% confirmed the use of blindfolds or handcuffs.<ref name="Durex"/>

A 1985 study found 52 out of 182 female respondents (28%) were involved in sadomasochistic activities.<ref>Breslow, N., Evans, L., and Langley, J. (1985). "On the prevalence and roles of females in the sadomasochistic subculture: Report Of an empirical study". Arch. Sex. Behav. 14: 303-317.</ref>

;Recent surveys
A 2009 study on two separate samples of male undergraduate students in [[Canada]] found that 62 to 65%, depending on the sample, had entertained sadistic fantasies, and 22 to 39% engaged in sadistic behaviours during sex. The figures were 62 and 52% for bondage fantasies, and 14 to 23% for bondage behaviours.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Inferring Sexually Deviant Behavior From Corresponding Fantasies|year=2009|author1=Kevin M. Williams |author2=Barry S. Cooper |author3=Teresa M. Howell |author4=John C. Yuille |author5=Delroy L. Paulhus |s2cid=33364099|journal=Criminal Justice and Behavior|issue=#2|volume=36|pages=198–222|doi=10.1177/0093854808327277}}</ref> A 2014 study involving a mixed sample of Canadian college students and online volunteers, both male and female, reported that 19% of male samples and 10% of female samples rated the sadistic scenarios described in a questionnaire as being at least "slightly arousing" on a scale that ranged from "very repulsive" to "very arousing";<ref name=dawson>{{cite journal |title=Paraphilic Interests: An Examination of Sex Differences in a Nonclinical Sample|year=2014|author1=Samantha J. Dawson |author2=Brittany A. Bannerman |author3=Martin L. Lalumière |s2cid=541989|name-list-style=amp |journal=Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment|volume=28|issue=#1|pages=1–26|doi=10.1177/1079063214525645|pmid=24633420}}</ref> the difference was statistically significant.<ref name=dawson /> The corresponding figures for the masochistic scenarios were 15% for male students and 17% for female students, a non-significant difference.<ref name=dawson /> In a 2011 study on 367 middle-aged and elderly men recruited from the broader community in [[Berlin]], 21.8% of the men self-reported sadistic fantasies and 15.5% sadistic behaviors;<ref name=ahlers>{{cite journal |title=How unusual are the contents of paraphilias? Paraphilia-associated sexual arousal patterns in a community-based sample of men|year=2011|vauthors=Ahlers CJ, Schaefer GA, Mundt IA, Roll S, Englert H, Willich SN, Beier KM |journal=Journal of Sexual Medicine|issue=#5|volume=8|pages=1362–70|doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2009.01597.x|pmid=19929918}}</ref> 24.8% self-reported any such fantasy and/or behavior.<ref name=ahlers /> The corresponding figures for self-reported masochism were 15.8% for fantasy, 12.3% for behaviour, and 18.5% for fantasy and/or behaviour.<ref name=ahlers /> In a 2008 study on gay men in [[Puerto Rico]], 14.8% of the over 425 community volunteers reported any sadistic fantasy, desire or behaviour in their lifetime; the corresponding figure for masochism was 15.7%.<ref>{{cite report|title=Doctoral dissertation: Paraphilias among gay men in Puerto Rico|year=2008|author=Edward H. Fankhanel|url=http://www.esextherapy.com/dissertations/Edward%20H%20Fankhanel%20M.A.%20Ed.D.%20%20Paraphilias%20Among%20Gay%20Men%20in%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf|publisher=The American Academy of Clinical Sexologists|access-date=13 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322140811/http://www.esextherapy.com/dissertations/Edward%20H%20Fankhanel%20M.A.%20Ed.D.%20%20Paraphilias%20Among%20Gay%20Men%20in%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf|archive-date=22 March 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> A 2017 cross-sectional representative survey among the general Belgian population demonstrated a substantial prevalence of BDSM fantasies and activities; 12.5% of the population performed one of more BDSM-practices on a regular basis.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Fifty Shades of Belgian Gray: The Prevalence of BDSM-Related Fantasies and Activities in the General Population|year=2017|author1=Lien Holvoet |author2=Wim Huys |author3=Violette Coppens |author4=Jantien Seeuws |author5=Kris Goethals |author6=Manuel Morrens |journal=Journal of Sexual Medicine|issue=#14|volume=9|pages=1152–1159|doi=10.1016/j.jsxm.2017.07.003 |pmid=28781214|hdl=10067/1450920151162165141|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1"; style="text-align:center; width:80%"
|-
!Lifetime BDSM behaviors among North American medical students<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Impact of Sexual Orientation on Sexuality and Sexual Practices in North American Medical Students|year=2010|doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.01794.x|pmid=20384941|pmc=3607668|journal=[[Journal of Sexual Medicine]]|volume=7|issue=7|pages=2391–2400|last1=Breyer|first1=Benjamin N.|last2=Smith|first2=James F.|last3=Eisenberg|first3=Michael L.|last4=Ando|first4=Kathryn A.|last5=Rowen|first5=Tami S.|last6=Shindel|first6=Alan W.}}</ref>
!Straight men
!Gay men
!Bisexual men
!Straight women
!Gay women
!Bisexual women
|-
|Has been restrained for pleasure
|12%
|20%
|13%
|19%
|38%
|55%
|-
|Has restrained someone else for pleasure
|17.5%
|17%
|13%
|13%
|36%
|51%
|-
|Has received pain for pleasure
|4%
|6.5%
|18%
|8%
|10%
|36%
|-
|Has inflicted pain for pleasure
|5%
|6%
|9%
|4%
|6.5%
|26%
|}

Recent surveys on the spread of BDSM fantasies and practices show strong variations in the range of their results.<ref name="Fakten">{{cite web |title=Nackte Fakten – Statistik für Zahlenfetischisten |language=de |access-date=9 November 2008 |url=http://www.datenschlag.org/txt/statistik.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208192334/http://www.datenschlag.org/txt/statistik.html |archive-date=8 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Researchers believe that 5 to 25 per cent of the population practices sexual behaviour related to pain or dominance and submission. The population with related fantasies is believed to be even larger.<ref name="Fakten"/>

=== Medical categorization ===
{{See also|Sexual sadism disorder|Sexual masochism disorder}}
Reflecting changes in [[social norm]]s, modern medical opinion is now moving away from regarding BDSM activities as medical disorders, unless they are nonconsensual or involve significant distress or harm.

In 1995, Denmark became the first [[European Union]] country to have completely removed [[sadomasochism]] from its national classification of diseases. This was followed by Sweden in 2009, Norway in 2010, Finland in 2011, and Iceland in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.revisef65.org/Sweden.html|title=Fetish and SM diagnoses deleted in Sweden|publisher=ReviseF65|date=17 November 2008|access-date=4 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091227102407/http://www.revisef65.org/Sweden.html|archive-date=27 December 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.revisef65.org/friskmelding_eng.html|title=SM and fetish off the Norwegian sick list|publisher=[[ReviseF65]]|date=6 February 2010|access-date=4 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206222549/http://www.revisef65.org/friskmelding_eng.html|archive-date=6 February 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.revisef65.org/finland_eng.html|title=Finland joins Nordic sexual reform|publisher=[[ReviseF65]]|date=13 May 2011|access-date=7 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110621034733/http://www.revisef65.org/finland_eng.html|archive-date=21 June 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://revisef65.net/2018/11/17/iceland/|title=Iceland removes Sadomasochism as a diagnosis|date=17 November 2018|website=Revise F65|access-date=26 December 2018|archive-date=27 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227040705/https://revisef65.net/2018/11/17/iceland/|url-status=live}}</ref> 

==== DSM ====
In the past, the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM), the [[American Psychiatric Association]]'s manual, defined some BDSM activities as sexual disorders.<ref name=Gerson2015>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/01/bdsm-versus-the-dsm/384138/|title=BDSM Versus the DSM|last=Gerson|first=Merissa Nathan|date=2015-01-13|work=The Atlantic|access-date=2018-07-13|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713141700/https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/01/bdsm-versus-the-dsm/384138/|archive-date=13 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Following campaigns from advocacy organizations including the [[National Coalition for Sexual Freedom]],<ref name=Gerson2015/> the current version of the DSM, [[DSM-5]], excludes consensual BDSM from diagnosis when the sexual interests cause no harm or distress.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/Paraphilic%20Disorders%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |title=Paraphilic Disorders |date=2013 |website=dsm5.org |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |access-date=26 August 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724010712/https://www.dsm5.org/Documents/Paraphilic%20Disorders%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |archive-date=24 July 2016 |df=dmy }}</ref>

==== ICD ====
The [[World Health Organization]]'s [[International Classification of Diseases]] (ICD) has changed in regard to BDSM in recent years.

In Europe, an organization called [[:de:ReviseF65]] worked to remove sadomasochism from the ICD.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Reiersøl O, Skeid S |title=The ICD diagnoses of fetishism and sadomasochism |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |volume=50 |issue=#2–3 |pages=243–62 |year=2006 |pmid=16803767 |doi=10.1300/J082v50n02_12 |s2cid=7120928 }}</ref>

On 18 June 2018, the WHO ([[World Health Organization]]) published [[ICD-11]], in which sadomasochism, together with [[Sexual fetishism|fetishism]] and fetishistic transvestism ([[cross-dressing]] for sexual pleasure) are now removed as psychiatric diagnoses. Moreover, discrimination against fetish-having and BDSM individuals is considered inconsistent with human rights principles endorsed by the United Nations and The World Health Organization.<ref name=":ICD1" />

The classifications of sexual disorders reflect contemporary sexual norms and have moved from a model of pathologization or criminalization of non-reproductive sexual behaviors to a model that reflects sexual well-being and pathologizes the absence or limitation of consent in sexual relations.<ref name=":ICD1">{{Cite journal|last1=Krueger|first1=Richard B.|last2=Reed|first2=Geoffrey M.|last3=First|first3=Michael B.|last4=Marais|first4=Adele|last5=Kismodi|first5=Eszter|last6=Briken|first6=Peer|date=2017|title=Proposals for Paraphilic Disorders in the International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Eleventh Revision (ICD-11)|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=46|issue=5|pages=1529–1545|doi=10.1007/s10508-017-0944-2|issn=0004-0002|pmc=5487931|pmid=28210933}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Giami|first=Alain|date=2 May 2015|title=Between DSM and ICD: Paraphilias and the Transformation of Sexual Norms|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=44|issue=5|pages=1127–1138|doi=10.1007/s10508-015-0549-6|pmid=25933671|s2cid=21614140|issn=0004-0002}}</ref>

=== Coming out ===
[[File:BDSM Company on Taiwan Pride 2005.jpg|thumb|BDSM activists at Taiwan [[gay pride|Pride]] 2005, [[Taipei]]]]
[[File:Folsom Street Fair IMG 6259 (cropped).jpg|thumb|A [[sulky]] cart drawn by a pony-girl, an example of [[petplay]] at the [[Folsom Street Fair|Folsom Parade]], 2012. She is wearing a [[Gag (BDSM)#Bit|bit gag]] and a [[Collar (BDSM)|neck collar]], to which are attached a ''[[ring of O]]'' and a [[leash]]. Bells are hung from her [[Nipple piercing|pierced nipples]]. All these symbols indicate she is [[Sexual roleplay|roleplaying]] a '[[Sexual slavery (BDSM)|pet slave]]'.]]
[[File:Kink porn shoot 09.jpg|thumb|A [[bondage pornography]] shoot in the U.S., 2011]]

Some people who are interested in or curious about BDSM decide to [[come out of the closet]], although many sadomasochists remain [[Closet(ed)|closeted]]. Depending upon a survey's participants, about 5 to 25 per cent of the US population show affinity to the subject.<ref name="elliott">Elliott, Leland / Brantley, Cynthia, ''Sex on Campus'', 1997, Random House, New York</ref><ref>Janus, Samuel S. / Janus, Cynthia L., 1994 ''The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior'', Wiley, New York, {{ISBN|978-0-471-01614-4}}</ref> Other than a few artists and writers,<ref>{{Cite news |first=Jillian|last=Keenan|title=Finding the Courage to Reveal a Fetish|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/11/fashion/modern-love-a-spanking-fetish-is-not-revealed-easily.html|website=The New York Times|date=9 November 2012|access-date=13 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623212231/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/11/fashion/modern-love-a-spanking-fetish-is-not-revealed-easily.html|archive-date=23 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> practically no celebrities are publicly known as sadomasochists.

Public knowledge of one's BDSM lifestyle can have detrimental vocational and social effects for sadomasochists. Many face severe professional consequences<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Jillian|last=Keenan|title=Can You Really Be Fired for Being Kinky? Absolutely|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/outward/2014/10/28/the_jian_ghomeshi_case_echoes_many_kinksters_worst_fears_being_outed_and.html|journal=Slate|date=28 October 2014|access-date=13 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813225416/http://www.slate.com/blogs/outward/2014/10/28/the_jian_ghomeshi_case_echoes_many_kinksters_worst_fears_being_outed_and.html|archive-date=13 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> or [[social rejection]] if they are exposed, either voluntarily or involuntarily, as sadomasochists.

Within feminist circles, the discussion is split roughly into two camps: some who see BDSM as an aspect or reflection of oppression (for example, [[Alice Schwarzer]]) and, on the other side, pro-BDSM feminists, often grouped under the banner of [[sex-positive feminism]] (see [[Samois]]); both of them can be traced back to the 1970s.<ref>Alice Schwarzer: "Weiblicher Masochismus ist Kollaboration!" from ''EMMA Heft 2'', 1991</ref> Some feminists have criticized BDSM for eroticizing power and violence and reinforcing [[misogyny]]. They argue that women who engage in BDSM are making a choice that is ultimately bad for women.<ref>Alice Schwarzer, ''EMMA Heft 2'', 1991</ref> Feminist defenders of BDSM argue that consensual BDSM activities are enjoyed by many women and validate the sexual inclinations of these women.<ref>[http://bdsmreport.org/bdsm-and-feminism-an-insiders-view/ BDSM and Feminism: An Insider's View by Tammy Jo Eckhart] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529111714/http://bdsmreport.org/bdsm-and-feminism-an-insiders-view/ |date=29 May 2015 }}, May 2011</ref> They argue that there is no connection between consensual [[Kink (sexuality)|kinky]] activities and [[sex crimes]], and that feminists should not attack other women's sexual desires as being "anti-feminist". They also state that the main point of feminism is to give an individual woman free choices in her life; which includes her sexual desire. While some feminists suggest connections between consensual BDSM [[Scene (BDSM)|scenes]] and non-consensual rape and [[sexual assault]], other sex-positive ones find the notion insulting to women.<ref>[[Gayle Rubin]]: ''Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality''. In Carole S. Vance (Ed.), ''Pleasure and Danger: exploring female sexuality'', pp. 267–319. Routledge & Kegan Paul, Boston 1984. {{ISBN|978-0-04-440867-3}}</ref><ref>[[Wendy McElroy]]: ''A Woman's Right to Pornography''. Saint Martin's Press 1997, {{ISBN|978-0-312-15245-1}}</ref>

Roles are not fixed to [[gender]], but personal preferences. The dominant partner in a heterosexual relationship may be the woman rather than the man, or BDSM may be part of male/male or female/female sexual relationships. Finally, some people [[Switch (BDSM)|switch]], taking either a dominant or submissive role on different occasions. Several studies investigating the possibility of a correlation between BDSM pornography and the violence against women also indicate a lack of correlation. In 1991, a lateral survey came to the conclusion that between 1964 and 1984, despite the increase in amount and availability of sadomasochistic pornography in the U.S., Germany, Denmark and Sweden, there is no correlation with the national number of rapes to be found.<ref>[[Berl Kutchinsky]], "Pornography and Rape: Theory and Practice?" in: ''International Journal of Law and Psychiatry'', Vol. 14, 1991, P. 47–66</ref>

[[Operation Spanner]] in the U.K. proves that BDSM practitioners still run the risk of being [[Social stigma|stigmatized]] as criminals. In 2003, the media coverage of [[Jack McGeorge]] showed that simply participating and working in BDSM support groups poses risks to one's job, even in countries where no law restricts it.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Pleasure, Pain, and Saddam Hussein |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2074821/ |periodical=[[Slate.com]] |first1=Timothy |last1=Noah |date=3 December 2002 |access-date=9 November 2008 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081123071440/http://www.slate.com/id/2074821/| archive-date= 23 November 2008 | url-status=live}}</ref> Here a clear difference can be seen to the situation of homosexuality.{{Clarify|date=January 2015}} The psychological strain appearing in some individual cases is normally neither articulated nor acknowledged in public. Nevertheless, it leads to a difficult psychological situation in which the person concerned can be exposed to high levels of emotional stress.<ref name="moser">[[Charles Allen Moser|Charles Moser]], in ''Journal of Social Work and Human Sexuality'' 1988, (7;1, S.43–56)</ref>

In the stages of "self-awareness", he or she realizes their desires related to BDSM scenarios or decides to be open for such. Some authors call this ''internal coming-out''. Two separate surveys on this topic independently came to the conclusion that 58 per cent and 67 per cent of the sample respectively, had realized their disposition before their 19th birthday. Other surveys on this topic show comparable results.<ref>[[Andreas Spengler|Spengler, Andreas]]: ''Sadomasochisten und ihre Subkulturen'', Campus Verlag, 1979, Frankfurt am Main / New York (German)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.datenschlag.org/umfrage/dpb1_ergebnisse.html|title=Datenschlag Peinliche Befragung I - Alte Fragen neu gestellt Ergebnisse|website=Datenschlag survey|language=de|access-date=28 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725102732/http://www.datenschlag.org/umfrage/dpb1_ergebnisse.html|archive-date=25 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Independent of age, coming-out can potentially result in a difficult life crisis, sometimes leading to thoughts or acts of suicide. While homosexuals have created support networks in the last decades, sadomasochistic support networks are just starting to develop in most countries. In German-speaking countries they are only moderately more developed.<ref>Eva Daschek und Axel Konrad: ''Empirische Untersuchung über den Zusammenhang zwischen ausgewählten Faktoren und inklinierendem sexuellem Sadomasochismus'', online [http://www.schlagabtausch-hd.de/sm-studie.php sm-study] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071122135714/http://www.schlagabtausch-hd.de/sm-studie.php |date=22 November 2007 }} (German)</ref> The Internet is the prime contact point for support groups today, allowing for local and international networking. In the U.S., [[National Coalition for Sexual Freedom#Kink Aware Professionals|Kink Aware Professionals]] (KAP) a privately funded, non-profit service provides the community with referrals to psychotherapeutic, medical, and legal professionals who are knowledgeable about and sensitive to the BDSM, fetish, and leather community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncsfreedom.org/kap/index.php?option=com_keyword&id=270|title=ncsfreedom.org|access-date=6 October 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611150428/http://www.ncsfreedom.org/kap/index.php?option=com_keyword&id=270|archive-date=11 June 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In the U.S. and the U.K., the [[Woodhull Freedom Foundation & Federation]], [[National Coalition for Sexual Freedom]] (NCSF) and Sexual Freedom Coalition (SFC) have emerged to represent the interests of sadomasochists. The German [[Bundesvereinigung Sadomasochismus]] is committed to the same aim of providing information and driving press relations. In 1996, the website and mailing list Datenschlag went online in German and English providing the largest [[bibliography]], as well as one of the most extensive historical collections of sources related to BDSM.

=== Social (non-medical) research ===
Richters et al. (2008) found that people who engaged in BDSM were more likely to have experienced a wider range of sexual practices (e.g., [[Oral sex|oral]] or [[anal sex]], more than one partner, [[group sex]], [[phone sex]], viewed [[pornography]], used a [[sex toy]], [[fisting]], etc.). They were, however, not any more likely to have been coerced, unhappy, anxious, or experiencing [[Sexual dysfunction|sexual difficulties]]. On the contrary, men who had engaged in BDSM scored lower on a psychological distress scale than men who did not.<ref name="a2" />

There have been few studies on the psychological aspects of BDSM using modern scientific standards. Psychotherapist [[Charles Allen Moser|Charles Moser]] has said there is no evidence for the theory that BDSM has common symptoms or any common psychopathology, emphasizing that there is no evidence that BDSM practitioners have any special psychiatric other problems based on their sexual preferences.<ref name="moser" />

Problems sometimes occur with self-classification. During the phase of the "coming-out", self-questioning related to one's own "normality" is common. According to Moser, the discovery of BDSM preferences ''can'' result in fear of the current non-BDSM relationship's destruction. This, combined with the fear of discrimination in everyday life, leads in some cases to a double life which can be highly burdensome. At the same time, the denial of BDSM preferences can induce stress and dissatisfaction with one's own "vanilla"-lifestyle, feeding the apprehension of finding no partner. Moser states that BDSM practitioners having problems finding BDSM partners would probably have problems in finding a non-BDSM partner as well. The wish to remove BDSM preferences is another possible reason for psychological problems since it is not possible in most cases. Finally, the scientist states that BDSM practitioners seldom commit violent crimes. From his point of view, crimes of BDSM practitioners usually have no connection with the BDSM components existing in their life. Moser's study comes to the conclusion that there is no scientific evidence, which could give reason to refuse members of this group work- or safety certificates, adoption possibilities, custody or other social rights or privileges. The Swiss psychoanalyst Fritz Morgenthaler shares a similar perspective in his book, ''Homosexuality, Heterosexuality, Perversion'' (1988). He states that possible problems result not necessarily from the non-normative behavior, but in most cases primarily from the real or feared reactions of the social environment towards their own preferences.<ref>Fritz Morgenthaler: ''Homosexuality, Heterosexuality, Perversion'', Analytic, April 1988, {{ISBN|978-0-88163-060-2}}</ref> In 1940 psychoanalyst [[Theodor Reik]] reached implicitly the same conclusion in his standard work ''Aus Leiden Freuden. Masochismus und Gesellschaft''.<ref>Theodor Reik: ''Aus Leiden Freuden. Masochismus und Gesellschaft'', Fischer, 1983, {{ISBN|978-3-596-26768-2}} (German)</ref>

Moser's results are further supported by a 2008 Australian study by Richters ''et al.'' on the demographic and psychosocial features of BDSM participants. The study found that BDSM practitioners were no more likely to have experienced sexual assault than the control group, and were not more likely to feel unhappy or anxious. The BDSM males reported higher levels of psychological well-being than the controls. It was concluded that "BDSM is simply a sexual interest or subculture attractive to a minority, not a pathological symptom of past abuse or difficulty with 'normal' sex."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Richters | first1 = J. | last2 = De Visser | first2 = R. O. | last3 = Rissel | first3 = C. E. | last4 = Grulich | first4 = A. E. | last5 = Smith | first5 = A. | year = 2008 | title = Demographic and psychosocial features of participants in bondage and discipline, "sadomasochism" or dominance and submission (BDSM): Data from a national survey | journal = The Journal of Sexual Medicine | volume = 5 | issue = #7| pages = 1660–1668 | doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00795.x | pmid=18331257}}</ref>

=== Gender differences in research ===
{{See also|Feminist views on BDSM}}
Several recent studies have been conducted on the gender differences and personality traits of BDSM practitioners. Wismeijer and van Assen (2013) found that "the association of BDSM role and gender was strong and significant" with only 8% of women in the study being dominant compared to 75% being submissive.;<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wismeijer | first1 = Andreas | last2 = van Assen | first2 = Marcel | year = 2013 | title = Psychological Characteristics of BDSM Practitioners | journal = The Journal of Sexual Medicine | volume = 10 | issue = #8| pages = 1943–1952 | doi = 10.1111/jsm.12192 | pmid = 23679066 }}</ref> Hébert and Weaver (2014) found that 9% of women in their study were dominant compared to 88% submissive;<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hébert | first1 = Ali | last2 = Weaver | first2 = Angela | year = 2014 | title = An examination of personality characteristics associated with BDSM orientations | journal = The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality | volume = 24 | issue = #1| pages = 49–62 | doi = 10.3138/cjhs.2467 | s2cid = 143570286 }}</ref> Weierstall1 and Giebel (2017) likewise found a significant difference, with 19% of women in the study as dominant compared to 74% as submissive, and a study from Andrea Duarte Silva (2015) indicated that 61.7% of females who are active in BDSM expressed a preference for a submissive role, 25.7% consider themselves a switch, while 12.6% prefer the dominant role. In contrast, 46.6% of men prefer the submissive role, 24% consider themselves to be switches and 29.5% prefer the dominant role.<ref>{{cite thesis |title=Through Pain, More Gain? - A Survey into the Psychosocial Benefits of Sadomasochism |year=2015 |last1=Silva |first1=Andrea Duarte |pages=41 |url=https://www.duo.uio.no/handle/10852/48652 |access-date=26 February 2021 |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303222125/https://www.duo.uio.no/handle/10852/48652 |url-status=live }}</ref> They concluded that "men more often display an engagement in dominant practices, whereas females take on the submissive part. This result is inline with a recent study about mate preferences that has shown that women have a generally higher preference for a dominant partner than men do (Giebel, Moran, Schawohl, & Weierstall, 2015). Women also prefer dominant men, and even men who are aggressive, for a short-term relationship and for the purpose of sexual intercourse (Giebel, Weierstall, Schauer, & Elbert, 2013)".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Weierstall | first1 = Roland | last2 = Giebel | first2 = Gilda | year = 2017 | title = The Sadomasochism Checklist: A Tool for the Assessment of Sadomasochistic Behavior | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 46 | issue = #3| pages = 735–745 | doi = 10.1007/s10508-016-0789-0 | pmid = 27488306 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Similarly, studies on sexual fantasy differences between men and women show the latter prefer submissive and passive fantasies over dominant and active ones, with rape and force being common.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wilson | first1 = Glenn | year = 2010 | title = The Sex Fantasy Questionnaire: An update | journal = Sexual and Relationship Therapy | volume = 25 | issue = #1| pages = 68–72 | doi = 10.1080/14681990903505799 | s2cid = 144679434 }}</ref>

==== Gender differences in masochistic scripts ====
[[File:Female whipping two women.jpg|thumb|170px|A whipping scene where both dominant and submissives are female, Paris, 1930]]

One common belief of BDSM and [[Kink (sexuality)|kink]] is that women are more likely to take on masochistic roles than men. [[Roy Baumeister]] (2010) actually had more male masochists in his study than female, and fewer male dominants than female. The lack of statistical significance in these gender differences suggests that no assumptions should be made regarding gender and masochistic roles in BDSM. One explanation why we might think otherwise lies in our social and cultural ideals about [[femininity]]; masochism may emphasize certain stereotypically feminine elements through activities like [[Feminization (activity)|feminization]] of men and ultra-feminine clothing for women. But such tendencies of the submissive masochistic role should not be interpreted as a connection between it and the stereotypical female role—many masochistic scripts do not include any of these tendencies.<ref name="a4" >{{cite journal | last1 = Baumeister | first1 = R. F. | year = 1988 | title = Gender differences in masochistic scripts | journal = Journal of Sex Research | volume = 25 | issue = #4| pages = 478–499 | doi=10.1080/00224498809551477}}</ref>

Baumeister found that masochistic males experienced greater: severity of pain, frequency of humiliation (status-loss, degrading, oral), partner infidelity, active participation by other persons, and [[cross-dressing]]. Trends also suggested that male masochism included more bondage and oral sex than female (though the data was not significant). Female masochists, on the other hand, experienced greater: frequency in pain, pain as punishment for 'misdeeds' in the relationship context, display humiliation, genital intercourse, and presence of non-participating audiences. The exclusiveness of dominant males in a heterosexual relationship happens because, historically, men in power preferred multiple partners. Finally, Baumeister observes a contrast between the 'intense sensation' focus of male masochism to a more 'meaning and emotion' centred female masochistic script.<ref name="a4" />

Prior argues that although some of these women may appear to be engaging in traditional subordinate or submissive roles, BDSM allows women in both dominant and submissive roles to express and experience personal power through their sexual identities. In a study that she conducted in 2013, she found that the majority of the women she interviewed identified as bottom, [[Female submission|submissive]], captive, or slave/[[Sexual slavery (BDSM)|sex slave]]. In turn, Prior was able to answer whether or not these women found an incongruity between their sexual identities and feminist identity. Her research found that these women saw little to no incongruity, and in fact felt that their feminist identity supported identities of submissive and slave. For them, these are sexually and emotionally fulfilling roles and identities that, in some cases, feed other aspects of their lives. Prior contends that third wave feminism provides a space for women in BDSM communities to express their sexual identities fully, even when those identities seem counter-intuitive to the ideals of feminism. Furthermore, women who do identify as submissive, sexually or otherwise, find a space within BDSM where they can fully express themselves as integrated, well-balanced, and powerful women.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Prior|first1=Emily|title=Women's Perspectives of BDSM Power Exchange|journal=Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality|date=2013|volume=16|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA365455101&v=2.1&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=c799ed9c2682c1c57c56ec8c16af7e4d|access-date=4 March 2015|archive-date=25 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125033351/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA365455101&v=2.1&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=c799ed9c2682c1c57c56ec8c16af7e4d&userGroupName=anon%7Ece315a29|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Women in S/M culture ====
Levitt, Moser, and Jamison's 1994 study provides a general, if outdated, description of characteristics of women in the sadomasochistic (S/M) subculture. They state that women in S/M tend to have higher education, become more aware of their desires as young adults, are less likely to be married than the general population. The researchers found the majority of females identified as heterosexual and submissive, a substantial minority were versatile—able to switch between dominant and submissive roles—and a smaller minority identified with the dominant role exclusively. Oral sex, bondage and master-slave script were among the most popular activities, while feces/watersports were the least popular.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Levitt | first1 = E. E. | last2 = Moser | first2 = C. | last3 = Jamison | first3 = K. V. | year = 1994 | title = The prevalence and some attributes of females in the sadomasochistic subculture: A second report | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 23 | issue = #4| pages = 465–473 | doi=10.1007/bf01541410 | pmid=7993186| s2cid = 28743901 }}</ref>

=== Orientation observances in research ===
BDSM is considered by some of its practitioners to be a sexual orientation.<ref>Jillian Keenan, [http://www.slate.com/blogs/outward/2014/08/18/is_kink_a_sexual_orientation.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111130050/http://www.slate.com/blogs/outward/2014/08/18/is_kink_a_sexual_orientation.html|date=11 November 2014}}, ''Slate'', 18 August 2014</ref> The BDSM and [[Kink (sexuality)|kink]] scene is more often seen as a diverse pansexual community. Often this is a non-judgmental community where gender, sexuality, orientation, preferences are accepted as is or worked at to become something a person can be happy with.<ref>Weiss, M. D. (2006). Working at play: BDSM sexuality in the San Francisco Bay area. Anthropologica, 229-245.</ref> In research, studies have focused on bisexuality and its parallels with BDSM, as well as gay-straight differences between practitioners.
==== Asexuality  ====
It has been suggested that some [[asexuality|asexual]] people have found a language for navigating relationships through BDSM.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jolene Sloan |first1=Lorca  |date=2015-02-27 |title=Ace of (BDSM) clubs: Building asexual relationships through BDSM practice |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460714550907 |journal=Sexualities  |volume= 18|issue=5-6 |pages=548-563 |doi=10.1177/1363460714550907  |access-date=2024-08-28}}</ref>

==== Bisexuality ====
In Steve Lenius' original 2001 paper, he explored the acceptance of [[bisexuality]] in a supposedly [[Pansexuality|pansexual]] BDSM community. The reasoning behind this is that 'coming-out' had become primarily the territory of the gay and lesbian, with bisexuals feeling the push to be one or the other (and being right only half the time either way). What he found in 2001, was that people in BDSM were open to discussion about the topic of bisexuality and pansexuality and all controversies they bring to the table, but personal biases and issues stood in the way of actively using such labels. A decade later, Lenius (2011) looks back on his study and considers if anything has changed. He concluded that the standing of bisexuals in the BDSM and [[Kink (sexuality)|kink]] community was unchanged, and believed that positive shifts in attitude were moderated by society's changing views towards different sexualities and orientations. But Lenius (2011) does emphasize that the pansexual promoting BDSM community helped advance greater acceptance of alternative sexualities.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lenius | first1 = S | year = 2001 | title = Bisexuals and BDSM | journal = [[Journal of Bisexuality]] | volume = 1 | issue = #4| pages = 69–78 | doi=10.1300/j159v01n04_06| s2cid = 142599575 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lenius | first1 = S | year = 2011 | title = A Reflection on "Bisexuals and BDSM: Bisexual People in a Pansexual Community"—Ten Years Later (and a Preview of the Next Sexual Revolution) | journal = [[Journal of Bisexuality]] | volume = 11 | issue = #4| pages = 420–425 | doi=10.1080/15299716.2011.620466| s2cid = 143156292 }}</ref>

Brandy Lin Simula (2012), on the other hand, argues that BDSM actively resists gender-conforming and identified three different types of BDSM bisexuality: [[Gender bender|gender-switching]], gender-based styles (taking on a different gendered style depending on the gender of partner when playing), and rejection of gender (resisting the idea that gender matters in their play partners). Simula (2012) explains that practitioners of BDSM routinely challenge our concepts of sexuality by pushing the limits on pre-existing ideas of sexual orientation and gender norms. For some, BDSM and kink provides a platform in creating identities that are fluid, ever-changing.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Simula | first1 = B. L. | year = 2012 | title = Does Bisexuality 'Undo' Gender? Gender, Sexuality, and Bisexual Behavior Among BDSM Participants | journal = [[Journal of Bisexuality]] | volume = 12 | issue = #4| pages = 484–506 | doi=10.1080/15299716.2012.729430| s2cid = 144476771 }}</ref>

==== Comparison between gay and straight men in S/M ====
Demographically, Nordling et al.'s (2006) study found no differences in age, but 43% of gay male respondents compared to 29% of straight males had university-level education. The gay men also had higher incomes than the general population and tended to work in [[white-collar worker|white-collar]] jobs while straight men tended toward [[blue-collar]] ones. Because there were not enough female respondents (22), no conclusions could be drawn from them.

Sexually speaking, the same 2006 study by Nordling et al. found that gay males were aware of their S/M preferences and took part in them at an earlier age, preferring [[Leather subculture|leather]], [[anal sex]], [[rimming]], [[dildo]]s and special equipment or uniform scenes. In contrast, straight men preferred verbal humiliation, mask and blindfolds, [[Gag (BDSM)|gags]], [[Latex and PVC fetishism|rubber/latex]] outfits, [[caning]], [[vaginal sex]], [[straitjacket]]s, and [[cross-dressing]] among other activities. From the questionnaire, researchers were able to identify four separate sexual themes: [[Hypermasculinity|hyper-masculinity]], giving and receiving pain, physical restriction (i.e. bondage), and psychological humiliation. Gay men preferred activities that tended towards hyper-masculinity while straight men showed greater preference for humiliation, significantly higher [[Domination (BDSM)|master]]/[[Femdom|madame-slave]] role play at ≈84%. Though there were not enough female respondents to draw a similar conclusion with, the fact that there is a difference in gay and straight men suggests strongly that S/M (and BDSM in general) can not be considered a homogenous phenomenon. As Nordling et al. (2006) puts it, "People who identify as sadomasochists mean different things by these identifications." (54)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nordling | first1 = N. | last2 = Sandnabba | first2 = N. K. | last3 = Santtila | first3 = P. | last4 = Alison | first4 = L. | year = 2006 | title = Differences and similarities between gay and straight individuals involved in the sadomasochistic subculture | journal = Journal of Homosexuality | volume = 50 | issue = #2–3| pages = 41–57 | doi=10.1300/j082v50n02_03| pmid = 16803758 | s2cid = 25370996 }}</ref>

=== History of psychotherapy and current recommendations ===
Psychiatry has an insensitive history in the area of BDSM. There have been many involvements by institutions of political power to marginalize subgroups and sexual minorities.<ref name="a3" /> Mental health professionals have a long history of holding negative assumptions and stereotypes about the BDSM community. Beginning with the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]]-II, Sexual Sadism and Sexual Masochism were listed as sexually deviant behaviours. Sadism and masochism were also found in the personality disorder section.<ref>American Psychiatric Association. (1968). ''Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders'' (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.</ref> This negative assumption has not changed significantly which is evident in the continued inclusion of Sexual Sadism and Sexual Masochism as [[paraphilia]]s in the [[DSM-IV-TR]].<ref>American Psychiatric Association. (2000). ''Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders'' (4th ed. rev.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.</ref> The [[DSM-5|DSM-V]], however, has depathologized the language around [[paraphilia]]s in a way that signifies "the [[American Psychiatric Association|APA]]’s intent to not demand treatment for healthy consenting adult sexual expression".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ncsfreedom.org/press/blog/item/the-dsm-5-says-kink-is-ok.html|title=NCSF Blog|last=Admin|first=Blog|website=ncsfreedom.org|access-date=5 April 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422123917/https://ncsfreedom.org/press/blog/item/the-dsm-5-says-kink-is-ok.html|archive-date=22 April 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Still, biases and misinformation can result in pathologizing and unintentional harm to clients who identify as sadists and/or masochists and medical professionals who have been trained under older editions of the DSM can be slow to change in their ways of clinical practice.

According to Kolmes et al. (2006), major themes of biased and inadequate care to BDSM clients are:
* Considering BDSM to be unhealthy
* Requiring a client to give up BDSM activities in order to continue in treatment
* Confusing BDSM with abuse
* Having to educate the therapist about BDSM
* Assuming that BDSM interests are indicative of past family/spousal abuse
* Therapists misrepresenting their expertise by stating that they are BDSM-positive when they are not actually knowledgeable about BDSM practices

These same researchers suggested that therapists should be open to learning more about BDSM, to show comfort in talking about BDSM issues, and to understand and promote "safe, sane, consensual" BDSM.<ref name="a3" />

There has also been research which suggests BDSM can be a beneficial way for victims of sexual assault to deal with their trauma, most notably by Corie Hammers, but this work is limited in scope and, to date, has not undergone empirical testing as a treatment.{{Citation needed|date=January 2019}}

=== Clinical issues ===
Nichols (2006) compiled some common clinical issues: countertransference, non-disclosure, coming out, partner/families, and bleed-through.<ref name="a1" >{{cite journal | last1 = Nichols | first1 = M | year = 2006 | title = Psychotherapeutic issues with "kinky" clients: Clinical problems, yours and theirs | journal = Journal of Homosexuality | volume = 50 | issue = #2–3| pages = 281–300 | doi=10.1300/j082v50n02_14| pmid = 16803768 | s2cid = 37706751 }}</ref>

[[Countertransference]] is a common problem in clinical settings. Despite having no evidence, therapists may find themselves believing that their client's pathology is "self-evident". Therapists may feel intense disgust and aversive reactions. Feelings of countertransference can interfere with therapy. Another common problem is when clients conceal their sexual preferences from their therapists. This can compromise any therapy. To avoid non-disclosure, therapists are encouraged to communicate their openness in indirect ways with literature and artworks in the waiting room. Therapists can also deliberately bring up BDSM topics during the course of therapy. With less informed therapists, sometimes they over-focus on clients' sexuality which detracts from original issues such as family relationships, depression, etc. A special subgroup that needs counselling is the "newbie". Individuals just coming out might have internalized shame, fear, and self-hatred about their sexual preferences. Therapists need to provide acceptance, care, and model positive attitude; providing reassurance, [[psychoeducation]], and [[bibliotherapy]] for these clients is crucial. The average age when BDSM individuals realize their sexual preference is around 26 years.<ref name="a3" /> Many people hide their sexuality until they can no longer contain their desires. However, they may have married or had children by this point.{{Citation needed|date=January 2019}}

== History ==
=== Origins ===
[[File:Tomba Della Fustigazione.jpg|thumb|A [[fresco]] in the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] [[Tomb of the Whipping]], 5th century BC|215x215px]]
[[File:Sm2.jpg|thumb|289x289px|Copper engraving, about 1780]]
[[File:Édouard-Henri Avril (8).jpg|thumb|320x320px|Flagellation scene, illustration to ''[[Fanny Hill]]'' by [[Édouard-Henri Avril]], 1907]]

Practices of BDSM survive from some of the oldest textual records in the world, associated with rituals to the goddess [[Inanna]] ([[Ishtar]] in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]). [[Cuneiform script|Cuneiform]] texts dedicated to Inanna which incorporate domination rituals. In particular, she points to ancient writings such as Inanna and Ebih (in which the goddess dominates Ebih), and Hymn to Inanna describing cross-dressing transformations and rituals "imbued with pain and ecstasy, bringing about initation{{sic|?}} and journeys of altered states of consciousness; punishment, moaning, ecstasy, lament and song, participants exhausting themselves in weeping and grief."<ref>Nomis, Anne O. (2013) ''The History & Arts of the Dominatrix'' Mary Egan Publishing and Anna Nomis Ltd {{ISBN|978-0-9927010-0-0}} pp. 59-60</ref><ref>"Lady of the Largest Heart" or "A Hymn to Inana C" available at Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, University of Oxford http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section4/tr4073.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405163440/http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section4/tr4073.htm |date=5 April 2014 }} lines 80-90</ref>

During the 9th century BC, [[Flagellation#Association with religion|ritual flagellations]] were performed in [[Artemis Orthia]], one of the most important religious areas of ancient [[Sparta]], where the [[Cult of Orthia]], a pre-[[Olympic Gods|Olympic]] religion, was practiced. Here, ritual flagellation called ''diamastigosis'' took place, in which young adolescent men were whipped in a ceremony overseen by the priestess.<ref>Nomis, Anne O. (2013) "The Ancient Dominatrix Goddess and her Priestess Initiates" in ''The History & Arts of the Dominatrix'' Mary Egan Publishing and Anna Nomis Ltd, pp. 61-62</ref> These are referred to by a number of ancient authors, including [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanius]] (III, 16: 10–11).<ref>Pausanias III, 16: 10-11 viewable at: http://www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias3B.html#16 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131222224030/http://www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias3B.html#16 |date=22 December 2013 }}</ref>

One of the oldest graphical proofs of sadomasochistic activities is found in the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] [[Tomb of the Whipping]] near [[Tarquinia]], which dates to the 5th century BC. Inside the tomb, there is a [[fresco]] which portrays two men who flagellate a woman with a cane and a hand during an erotic situation.<ref>Mario Moretti/Leonard von Matt: ''Etruskische Malerei in Tarquinia''. Cologne 1974, Page 90, figs. 762-63, {{ISBN|978-3-7701-0541-0}}</ref> Another reference related to flagellation is to be found in the sixth book of the ''[[Satires (Juvenal)|Satires]]'' of the ancient Roman Poet [[Juvenal]] (1st–2nd century A.D.),<ref>[[Juvenal]]: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/juvenal-satvi.html Satires 6, Lines 474–511] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511081242/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/juvenal-satvi.html |date=11 May 2008 }}</ref> further reference can be found in [[Petronius]]'s ''[[Satyricon]]'' where a delinquent is whipped for sexual arousal.<ref>[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/petronius.html Petronius: Satyricon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080130090038/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/petronius.html |date=30 January 2008 }} (lat.)</ref> Anecdotal narratives related to humans who have had themselves voluntary bound, flagellated or whipped as a substitute for sex or as part of foreplay reach back to the 3rd and 4th century BC.{{Citation needed|date=September 2012}}
[[File:Dresseuses d'Hommes 3.jpg|thumb|305x305px|A woman flogging a man wearing stockings and heels, as a couple observe, from ''Dresseuses d'Hommes'' (1931)]]
In Pompeii, a whip-mistress figure with wings is depicted on the wall of the [[Villa of the Mysteries|Villa of Mysteries]], as part of an initiation of a young woman into the [[Mystery religion|Mysteries]]. The whip-mistress role drove the sacred initiation of ceremonial death and rebirth.<ref name="Nomis, Anne O. 2013 pp.62-64">Nomis, Anne O. (2013) "The Whipstress and the Mysteries" in ''The History & Arts of the Dominatrix'' Mary Egan Publishing & Anna Nomis Ltd, U.K. {{ISBN|978-0-9927010-0-0}} pp.62-64</ref> The archaic Greek [[Aphrodite]] may too once have been armed with an implement, with archaeological evidence of armed Aphrodites known from a number of locations in Cythera, Acrocorinth and Sparta,<ref>Pausanias refers to them as being at the sanctuary of Aphrodite Urania in Cythera, a temple of Aphrodite on Acrocorinth's summit, and an ancient temple to Aphrodite with an upper story in Sparta. See Pausanias III, 23:1, II, 5:1, III, 15:10.</ref> and which may have been a whip.<ref name="Nomis, Anne O. 2013 pp.62-64"/>

The ''[[Kama Sutra]]'' of India describes four different kinds of hitting during lovemaking, the allowed regions of the human body to target and different kinds of joyful "cries of pain" practiced by bottoms. The collection of historic texts related to sensuous experiences explicitly emphasizes that [[impact play]], biting and pinching during sexual activities should only be performed consensually since only some women consider such behavior to be joyful. From this perspective, the Kama Sutra can be considered one of the first written resources dealing with sadomasochistic activities and safety rules. Further texts with sadomasochistic connotation appear worldwide during the following centuries on a regular basis.<ref>''Kamasutra'' by Mallanaga Vatsyayana, translated by Wendy Doniger, Oxford University Press 2003, {{ISBN|978-0-19-283982-4}} Book II: Chapters 4, 5, 7, 8, pages 45–64.</ref>

There are anecdotal reports of people willingly being bound or whipped, as a prelude to or substitute for sex, during the 14th century. The medieval phenomenon of [[courtly love]] in all of its slavish devotion and ambivalence has been suggested by some writers to be a precursor of BDSM.<ref>Denis de Rougemont (1956), ''Love in the Western World: Describing the ideal of chaste love influenced by the [[Cathar]] doctrines''</ref><ref>Arne Hoffmann: ''In Leder gebunden. Der Sadomasochismus in der Weltliteratur'', page 11, Ubooks 2007, {{ISBN|978-3-86608-078-2}} (German)</ref> Some sources{{who|date=August 2014}} claim that BDSM as a distinct form of sexual behavior originated at the beginning of the 18th century when Western civilization began medically and legally categorizing sexual behavior (see [[#Etymology|Etymology]]).

Flagellation practiced within an erotic setting has been recorded from at least the 1590s evidenced by a [[John Davies (poet, born 1569)|John Davies]] epigram,<ref>Epigram 33: "In Francum"</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bromley|first=James M.|date=1 May 2010|title=Social Relations and Masochistic Sexual Practice in The Nice Valour|journal=Modern Philology|volume=107|issue=#4|pages=556–587|doi=10.1086/652428|s2cid=144194164|issn=0026-8232}}</ref> and references to "flogging schools" in [[Thomas Shadwell]]'s ''[[The Virtuoso (play)|The Virtuoso]]'' (1676) and Tim Tell-Troth's ''Knavery of Astrology'' (1680).<ref>Jones, M (2007) "Print of the Month: The Cully Flaug'd" in ''British Printed Images (BPI) to 1700'', viewable at: http://www.bpi1700.org.uk/research/printOfTheMonth/december2007.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101112/http://www.bpi1700.org.uk/research/printOfTheMonth/december2007.html |date=24 December 2013 }}</ref><ref>Nomis, Anne O. (2013) "Flogging Schools and Their Cullies" in ''The History & Arts of the Dominatrix'' Mary Egan Publishing and Anna Nomis Ltd, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-9927010-0-0}} pp.80-81</ref> Visual evidence such as mezzotints and print media is also identified revealing scenes of flagellation, such as "The Cully Flaug'd" from the British Museum collection.<ref>Jones, M. (2007) "Print of the Month: The Cully Flaug'd" in British Printed Images (BPI) to 1700, Viewable at: http://www.bpi1700.org.uk/research/printOfTheMonth/december2007.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101112/http://www.bpi1700.org.uk/research/printOfTheMonth/december2007.html |date=24 December 2013 }} & ibid.</ref>

[[John Cleland]]'s novel ''[[Fanny Hill]]'', published in 1749, incorporates a flagellation scene between the character's protagonist Fanny Hill and Mr Barville.<ref>John Cleland: ''Fanny Hill: Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure'', Penguin Classics, (7 January 1986), {{ISBN|978-0-14-043249-7}} Page 180 ff</ref> A large number of flagellation publications followed, including ''[[Fashionable Lectures: Composed and Delivered with Birch Discipline]]'' ({{circa|1761}}), promoting the names of women offering the service in a lecture room with rods and cat o' nine tails.<ref>''Fashionable Lectures Delivered With Birch Discipline'' (c. 1761) British Library Rare Books, cited in Nomis (2013) op cit.</ref>

[[File: Bizarre Honeymoon 02.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Foot worship]] of one of the feet of a [[dominatrix]] by a submissive man. Her other foot rests over the man's head, using it as a [[footstool]] ([[human furniture]]). This sketch is from a 1950 work named ''Bizarre Honeymoon''.]]

Other sources give a broader definition, citing BDSM-like behavior in earlier times and other cultures, such as the medieval flagellates and the physical [[ordeal ritual]]s of some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] societies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/ordeals1.html|title=European medieval ordeals|access-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814182655/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/ordeals1.html|archive-date=14 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

BDSM ideas and imagery have existed on the fringes of Western culture throughout the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tomazos|first1=Kostas|last2=O'Gorman|first2=Kevin|last3=MacLaren|first3=Andrew C|date=June 2017|title=From leisure to tourism: How BDSM demonstrates the transition of deviant pursuits to mainstream products|journal=Tourism Management|volume=60|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2016.10.018|url=https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/58212/1/Tomazos_etal_TM_2017_BDSM_demonstrates_the_transition_of_deviant_pursuits_to_mainstream_products.pdf|access-date=15 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715162357/https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/58212/1/Tomazos_etal_TM_2017_BDSM_demonstrates_the_transition_of_deviant_pursuits_to_mainstream_products.pdf|archive-date=15 July 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Robert Bienvenu attributes the origins of modern BDSM to three sources, which he names as "European Fetish" (from 1928), "American Fetish" (from 1934), and "Gay Leather" (from 1950).<ref>[http://www.americanfetish.net/sexresearch.us/Dissertation.html Robert Bienvenu: Doctoral Dissertation "The Development of Sadomasochism as a Cultural Style in the Twentieth-Century United States"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316215717/http://www.americanfetish.net/sexresearch.us/Dissertation.html |date=16 March 2010 }}</ref> Another source are the [[sexual game]]s played in [[brothel]]s, which go back to the 19th century, if not earlier. [[Charles Guyette]] was the first American to produce and distribute fetish related material (costumes, footwear, photography, props and accessories) in the U.S. His successor, [[Irving Klaw]], produced commercial sexploitation film and photography with a BDSM theme (most notably with [[Bettie Page]]) and issued fetish comics (known then as "chapter serials") by the now-iconic artists [[John Willie]], [[Gene Bilbrew]], and [[Eric Stanton]].

Stanton's model [[Bettie Page]] became at the same time one of the first successful models in the area of fetish photography and one of the most famous [[pin-up girl]]s of American mainstream culture. Italian author and designer [[Guido Crepax]] was deeply influenced by him, coining the style and development of European adult comics in the second half of the 20th century. The artists [[Helmut Newton]] and [[Robert Mapplethorpe]] are the most prominent examples of the increasing use of BDSM-related motives in modern photography and the public discussions still resulting from this.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20021112205909/http://www.uce.ac.uk/mapplethorpe/ University of Central England in Birmingham]: Attempted Confiscation of Mapplethorn book by Officials in 1997 for being obscene.</ref>

[[Alfred Binet]] first coined the term ''[[erotic fetishism]]'' in his 1887 book, ''Du fétichisme dans l'amour''<ref>Binet, A. (1887). "Du fétichisme dans l'amour" [=Fetishism in love] in: ''Revue Philosophique'', 24, pp. 143–167</ref> [[Richard von Krafft-Ebing]] saw BDSM interests as the end of a continuum.<ref>von Krafft-Ebing, R. ''Psychopathia sexualis with especial reference to the antipathic sexual instinct: A medico-forensic study''. Trans Rebman FJ from 12th German ed. New York: Special Books; 1965:129– 218, 533–543</ref>

=== Leather movement ===
{{Main|Leather subculture}}
[[File:Cologne Germany Cologne-Gay-Pride-2014 Parade-13.jpg|thumb|Leathermen participating in the [[Cologne Pride|Cologne Pride Parade]], 2014]]
Leather has been a predominantly gay male term to refer to one [[Sexual fetishism|fetish]], but it can stand for many more. Members of the gay male leather community may wear leathers such as motorcycle leathers, or may be attracted to men wearing leather. Leather and BDSM are seen as two parts of one whole. Much of the BDSM culture can be traced back to the gay male [[Leather subculture|leather culture]], which formalized itself out of the group of men who were soldiers returning home after World War II (1939–1945).<ref>Robert Bienvenu, ''The Development of Sadomasochism as a Cultural Style in the Twentieth-Century United States'', 2003, Doctoral Dissertation, Online as PDF on [http://www.americanfetish.net/ Sadomasochism as a Cultural Style] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116091202/http://www.americanfetish.net/ |date=16 November 2007 }}</ref> World War II was the setting where countless homosexual men and women tasted the life among homosexual peers. Post-war, homosexual individuals congregated in larger cities such as New York, Chicago, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. They formed leather clubs and bike clubs; some were fraternal services. The establishment of Mr. Leather Contest and Mr. Drummer Contest were made around this time. This was the genesis of the gay male leather community. Many of the members were attracted to extreme forms of sexuality, for which peak expression was in the pre-AIDS 1970s.<ref name="a4b" >{{cite journal | last1 = Lenius | first1 = S | year = 2001 | title = Bisexuals and BDSM | journal = Journal of Bisexuality | volume = 1 | issue = #4| pages = 69–78 | doi=10.1300/j159v01n04_06| s2cid = 142599575 }}</ref> This subculture is epitomized by the ''Leatherman's Handbook'' by [[Larry Townsend]], published in 1972, which describes in detail the practices and culture of gay male sadomasochists in the late 1960s and early 1970s.<ref>Townsend, Larry, ''The Leatherman's Handbook'', 1972 Olympia Press, seventh edition 2004 available from L.T. Publications, P.O. Box 302, Beverly Hills, California 90213-0302</ref><ref>compare [[Patrick Califia]] (ed.), Robin Sweeney (ed.): ''The Second Coming: A Leatherdyke Reader''. Alyson Pubns., 1996, {{ISBN|978-1-55583-281-0}}</ref>
In the early 1980s, lesbians also joined the leathermen as a recognizable element of the gay leather community. They also formed leather clubs, but there were some gender differences, such as the absence of leatherwomen's bars. In 1981, the publication of ''[[Coming to Power]]'' by lesbian-feminist group [[Samois]] led to a greater knowledge and acceptance of BDSM in the lesbian community.<ref>[[Gayle Rubin]]: "Samois", ''Leather Times'', 21:3–7., 2004, available from: [http://www.leatherarchives.org/resources/issue21.pdf leatherarchives.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327070824/http://www.leatherarchives.org/resources/issue21.pdf |date=27 March 2009 }}</ref> By the 1990s, the gay men's and women's leather communities were no longer underground and played an important role in the kink community.<ref name="a4b" />

Today, the leather movement is generally seen as a part of the BDSM-culture instead of as a development deriving from gay subculture, even if a huge part of the BDSM-subculture was gay in the past. In the 1990s, the so-called New Guard leather subculture evolved. This new orientation started to integrate psychological aspects into their play.{{Citation needed|date=August 2014}}

The [[Leather Archives and Museum]] (LA&M) in [[Chicago]] was founded in 1991 by [[Chuck Renslow]] and [[Tony DeBlase]] as a “community archives, library, and museum of leather, [[Kink (sexuality)|kink]], [[Sexual fetishism|fetish]], and BDSM history and culture.”<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the LA&M |url=https://leatherarchives.org/about/about-the-la-m |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=leatherarchives.org |language=en-us |archive-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703144039/https://leatherarchives.org/about/about-the-la-m |url-status=dead }}</ref> The LA&M has an extensive collection of leather- and BDSM-related artifacts, including one of three original [[Leather pride flag|leather pride flags]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Leather Pride Flag |url=https://leatherarchives.org/the-leather-pride-flag |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=leatherarchives.org |language=en-us |archive-date=28 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128224442/https://leatherarchives.org/the-leather-pride-flag |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The [[San Francisco South of Market Leather History Alley]] consists of four works of art along Ringold Alley honoring leather culture; it opened in 2017.<ref name="artandarchitecture-sf.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.artandarchitecture-sf.com/ringold-alleys-leather-memoir.html|title=Ringold Alley's Leather Memoir – Public Art and Architecture from Around the World|website=www.artandarchitecture-sf.com|access-date=23 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623193827/http://www.artandarchitecture-sf.com/ringold-alleys-leather-memoir.html|archive-date=23 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Jewish">{{cite news |last=Paull |first=Laura |url=https://www.jweekly.com/2018/06/21/honoring-gay-leather-culture-with-art-installation-in-soma-alleyway/ |title=Honoring gay leather culture with art installation in SoMa alleyway – J |newspaper=J |publisher=Jweekly.com |date=2018-06-21 |access-date=2018-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623221933/https://www.jweekly.com/2018/06/21/honoring-gay-leather-culture-with-art-installation-in-soma-alleyway/ |archive-date=23 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> One of the works of art is metal bootprints along the curb which honor 28 people (including Steve McEachern, owner of the [[Catacombs (sex club)|Catacombs]], a gay and lesbian S/M fisting club, and [[Cynthia Slater]], a founder of the [[Society of Janus]], the second oldest BDSM organization in the United States) who were an important part of the leather communities of San Francisco.<ref name="Jewish" /><ref name="artandarchitecture-sf.com" />

=== Internet ===
In the late 1980s, the Internet provided a way of finding people with specialized interests around the world as well as on a local level, and communicating with them anonymously.<ref name=sm101/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buzzle.com/articles/alternate-lifestyles-what-they-had-to-do-with-msn-chat.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130110170034/http://www.buzzle.com/articles/alternate-lifestyles-what-they-had-to-do-with-msn-chat.html|url-status=usurped|title=Alternate Lifestyles: What They Had to Do With MSN Chat|date=10 January 2013|archive-date=10 January 2013}}</ref> This brought about an explosion of interest and knowledge of BDSM, particularly on the [[usenet]] group [[alt.sex.bondage]]. When that group became too cluttered with [[Spamming|spam]], the focus moved to [https://groups.google.com/groups?q=soc.subculture.bondage-bdsm&btnG=Google+Search soc.subculture.bondage-bdsm]. With an increased focus on forms of social media, [[FetLife]] was formed, which advertises itself as "a social network for the BDSM and fetish community". It operates similarly to other social media sites, with the ability to make friends with other users, events, and pages of shared interests.

In addition to traditional sex shops, which sell sex paraphernalia, there has also been an explosive growth of online [[adult toy]] companies that specialize in leather/latex gear and BDSM toys. Once a very [[niche market]], there are now very few sex toy companies that do not offer some sort of BDSM or [[Sexual fetishism|fetish]] gear in their catalog. Kinky elements seem to have worked their way into "[[Vanilla sex|vanilla]]" markets. The former niche expanded to an important pillar of the business with adult accessories.<ref>{{cite web|last=Birch|first=Dr Robert W.|url=http://www.leathernroses.com/generalbdsm/drbirchsextoys.htm|title=Adult Sex Toys|publisher=Leather Roses|access-date=27 January 2008| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080223075418/http://www.leathernroses.com/generalbdsm/drbirchsextoys.htm| archive-date= 23 February 2008 | url-status=live}}</ref> Today practically all suppliers of sex toys do offer items which originally found usage in the BDSM subculture. Padded handcuffs, latex and leather garments, as well as more exotic items like soft whips for fondling and TENS for erotic electro stimulation, can be found in catalogs aiming at classical vanilla target groups, indicating that former boundaries increasingly seem to shift.

During the last years, the Internet also provides a central platform for networking among individuals who are interested in the subject. Besides countless private and commercial choices, there is an increasing number of local networks and support groups emerging. These groups often offer comprehensive background and health-related information for people who have been unwillingly outed as well as contact lists with information on [[psychologist]]s, physicians and lawyers who are familiar with BDSM-related topics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.leathernroses.com/generalbdsm/generalbdsm.htm#toys|title=Implements/Toys|publisher=Leather Roses|access-date=27 January 2008| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080129080540/http://www.leathernroses.com/generalbdsm/generalbdsm.htm#breathcontrol| archive-date= 29 January 2008 | url-status=live}}</ref>

=== University clubs ===
{{Main|List of universities with BDSM clubs}}
Increasingly, American universities are witnessing BDSM and [[Kink (sexual)|kink]] education by providing [[student club]]s, such as [[Columbia University|Columbia University's]] [[Conversio Virium]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://lionlink.columbia.edu/organization/conversiovirium |title=Columbia University |access-date=7 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221154438/https://lionlink.columbia.edu/organization/ConversioVirium |archive-date=21 December 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.conversiovirium.com|title=Conversio Virium|website=www.conversiovirium.com|access-date=9 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929225005/http://www.conversiovirium.com/|archive-date=29 September 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Iowa State University|Iowa State University's]] [[Cuffs (Iowa State University)|Cuffs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.stuorg.iastate.edu/site/cuffs|title=Home - Iowa State University - Student Organizations|website=www.stuorg.iastate.edu|access-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707063134/https://www.stuorg.iastate.edu/site/cuffs|archive-date=7 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> University BDSM clubs are also found in the U.K.,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.yusu.org/groups/fetsoc|title=Fetsoc @ University of York Students' Union|website=www.yusu.org|access-date=2 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724002325/https://www.yusu.org/groups/fetsoc|archive-date=24 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Fetish |url=https://www.uea.su/opportunities/society/7281/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107020024/https://www.uea.su/opportunities/society/7281/ |archive-date=7 Nov 2017 |access-date=11 Dec 2023 |website=UEA SU |publisher=University of East Anglia Students Union |place=Norwich, UK}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.guildofstudents.com/studentgroups/societies/7770/|title=Fetish|website=www.guildofstudents.com|access-date=2 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724032247/https://www.guildofstudents.com/studentgroups/societies/7770/|archive-date=24 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.imperialcollegeunion.org/activities/a-to-z/kinky-klub |title=Imperial College London |access-date=5 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030035644/https://www.imperialcollegeunion.org/activities/a-to-z/kinky-klub |archive-date=30 October 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Canada,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://leatherati.com/kinky-york-97c43ac7ae9|title=Kinky @ York – Leatherati Online|date=12 January 2010|access-date=7 November 2017|archive-date=25 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125033335/https://leatherati.com/kinky-york-97c43ac7ae9?gi=fb8b298b42e7|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.su.ucalgary.ca/event/bdsm-101/|title=BDSM 101 - Student Events - Students Union, U of C|access-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617043110/https://www.su.ucalgary.ca/event/bdsm-101/|archive-date=17 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Belgium,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kajira.ugent.be/|title=Kajira Gent - Homepage|website=kajira.ugent.be|access-date=13 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811192657/https://kajira.ugent.be/|archive-date=11 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://activity.osa.ntu.edu.tw/English/Club/Details/861?cat=%E5%AD%B8%E8%A1%93%E6%80%A7&btn=titleCommunity02v|title=National Taiwan University Student Activities Division-|website=activity.osa.ntu.edu.tw|access-date=13 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813111827/http://activity.osa.ntu.edu.tw/English/Club/Details/861?cat=%E5%AD%B8%E8%A1%93%E6%80%A7&btn=titleCommunity02v|archive-date=13 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Some American universities—such as [[Indiana University]] and [[Michigan State University]]—have professors who research and teach classes on BDSM.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiana.edu/~anthro/undergrad/courses.shtml|title=Undergraduate Program - Department of Anthropology - Indiana University Bloomington|website=www.indiana.edu|access-date=11 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405214103/http://www.indiana.edu/~anthro/undergrad/courses.shtml|archive-date=5 April 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thetab.com/us/2016/10/07/professor-bdsm-bondage-52584|title=Kink, thrills and consent: Meet the professor leading a double life as a BDSM expert|date=7 October 2016|access-date=11 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814001606/https://thetab.com/us/2016/10/07/professor-bdsm-bondage-52584|archive-date=14 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://my.gallaudet.edu/julie-fennell|title=Julie Fennell - my.Gallaudet|website=my.gallaudet.edu|access-date=11 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813210645/https://my.gallaudet.edu/julie-fennell|archive-date=13 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scienceofbdsm.com/people|title=People - The Science of BDSM|website=www.scienceofbdsm.com|access-date=11 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813210353/http://www.scienceofbdsm.com/people|archive-date=13 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mdweiss.faculty.wesleyan.edu/|title=Margot Weiss – Associate Professor of American Studies and Anthropology|website=mdweiss.faculty.wesleyan.edu|access-date=11 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814001553/http://mdweiss.faculty.wesleyan.edu/|archive-date=14 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01639625.2016.1156982?journalCode=udbh20 |title=Blacklisted: Boundaries, Violations, and Retaliatory Behavior in the BDSM Community |first=Karen |last=Holt |date=April 7, 2016 |journal=Deviant Behavior |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=917–930 |via=Taylor & Francis |doi=10.1080/01639625.2016.1156982 |s2cid=147465698}}</ref>

== Legal status ==
{{Main|BDSM and the law}}

=== Austria ===
[[File:Dripping wax on buttocks.jpg|thumb|Consensual giving or receiving of pain is legal in [[Austria]],<ref name='Aus'/> showing [[wax play]] at the Eros Pyramide [[sex show]] in 2009]]

Section 90 of the [[Austrian criminal code]] declares bodily injury (Sections 83–84) or the endangerment of physical security (Section 89) to not be subject to penalty in cases in which the victim has consented and the injury or endangerment does not offend moral sensibilities. Case law from the Austrian Supreme Court has consistently shown that bodily injury is only offensive to moral sensibilities, thus it is only punishable when a "serious injury" (damage to health or an employment disability lasting more than 24 days) or the death of the "victim" results. A ''light injury'' is generally considered ''permissible'' when the "victim" has consented to it. In cases of threats to bodily well being the standard depends on the probability that an injury will actually occur. If serious injury or even death would be a likely result of a threat being carried out, then even the threat itself is considered punishable.<ref name='Aus'>{{Cite web |url=http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/6386/file/Germany_CC_am2016_de.pdf |title=Strafgesetzbuch (StGB) |website=Legislation Online |access-date=25 May 2018 |language=de |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419105057/https://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/6386/file/Germany_CC_am2016_de.pdf |archive-date=19 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Canada ===
In 2004, a judge in Canada ruled that videos seized by the police featuring BDSM activities were not obscene and did not constitute violence, but a "normal and acceptable" sexual activity between two consenting adults.{{sfn|Barker|Iantaffi|Gupta|2007}}

In 2011, the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] ruled in ''[[R. v. J.A.]]'' that a person must have an active mind during the specific sexual activity in order to legally consent. The Court ruled that it is a criminal offence to perform a sexual act on an unconscious person—whether or not that person consented in advance.<ref>{{cite news |title=Woman can't consent to sex while unconscious, Supreme Court rules |author=Mike Blanchfield |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/998055--woman-can-t-consent-to-sex-while-unconscious-supreme-court-rules?bn=1 |newspaper=[[The Toronto Star]] |date=27 May 2011 |access-date=27 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110530000708/http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/998055--woman-can-t-consent-to-sex-while-unconscious-supreme-court-rules?bn=1 |archive-date=30 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Germany ===
[[File:2014 WGT 264 Umbra Et Imago.jpg|thumb|[[Human sexual activity|Sexual activity]] may occur in BDSM, but it is not essential part of BDSM.<ref name='sexual'/> Photo shows [[erotic humiliation]] of sexual nature being performed at {{lang|de|[[Wave-Gotik-Treffen]]|italic=no}} music festival, Germany, 2014. The submissive woman is [[Striptease|stripped]] [[naked]], [[Suspension bondage|hung upside down]], [[Whipping|whipped]] and a [[Master/slave (BDSM)|master]] doing [[sexual roleplay]] of a [[devil]] forces himself on her to cause vagina torture.]]

According to Section 194 of the German criminal code, the charge of insult (slander) can only be prosecuted if the defamed person chooses to press charges. False imprisonment can be charged if the victim—when applying an objective view—can be considered to be impaired in their rights of free movement. According to Section 228, a person inflicting a bodily injury on another person with that person's permission violates the law only in cases where the act can be considered to have violated good morals in spite of permission having been given. On 26 May 2004, the Criminal Panel No. 2 of the [[Bundesgerichtshof]] (German Federal Court) ruled that sado-masochistically motivated physical injuries are not per se indecent and thus subject to Section 228.<ref>Decision of the Bundesgerichtshof, 26 May 2004, 2 StR 505/03, which may be found at: BGHSt 49, 166 ([http://juris.bundesgerichtshof.de/cgi-bin/rechtsprechung/document.py?Gericht=bgh&Art=en&Datum=2004-5&Seite=0&nr=29672&pos=19&anz=244&Blank=1.pdf bundesgerichtshof.de] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118164537/http://juris.bundesgerichtshof.de/cgi-bin/rechtsprechung/document.py?Gericht=bgh&Art=en&Datum=2004-5&Seite=0&nr=29672&pos=19&anz=244&Blank=1.pdf |date=18 November 2018 }})</ref>

Following cases in which sado-masochistic practices had been repeatedly used as pressure tactics against former partners in custody cases, the Appeals Court of [[Hamm, North Rhine-Westphalia|Hamm]] ruled in February 2006 that sexual inclinations toward sado-masochism are no indication of a lack of capabilities for successful child-raising.<ref>Appeals Court of Hamm in its judgement of 1 February 2006, case number 10 UF 147/04, available online at the [http://www.justiz.nrw.de/ses/nrwesearch.php Portal of the North Rhine-Westfalian Ministry of Justice] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041217060746/http://www.justiz.nrw.de/ses/nrwesearch.php |date=17 December 2004 }} (German)</ref>

=== Italy ===
In Italian law, BDSM is right on the border between crime and legality, and everything lies in the interpretation of the legal code by the judge. This concept is that anyone willingly causing "injury" to another person is to be punished. In this context, though, "injury" is legally defined as "anything causing a condition of illness", and "illness" is ill-defined itself in two different legal ways. The first is "any anatomical or functional alteration of the organism" (thus technically including little scratches and bruises too); the second is "a significant worsening of a previous condition relevant to organic and relational processes, requiring any kind of therapy". This could make it somewhat risky to play with someone, as later the "victim" may call foul play citing even an insignificant mark as evidence against the partner. Also, any injury requiring over 20 days of medical care must be denounced by the professional medic who discovers it, leading to automatic indictment of the person who caused it.<ref>[http://www.ayzad.com/ Ayzad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214043804/http://www.ayzad.com/ |date=14 December 2007 }}, ''BDSM – Guida per esploratori dell'erotismo estremo'', Castelvecchi, 2004 {{ISBN|978-88-7615-025-8}}</ref>

=== Nordic countries ===
In September 2010, a Swedish court acquitted a 32-year-old man of assault for engaging in consensual BDSM play with a 16-year-old girl (the [[age of consent]] in Sweden is 15).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thelocal.se/29302/20100928|title=Man freed in landmark S&M case|access-date=6 October 2014|date=2010-09-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921220947/http://www.thelocal.se/29302/20100928|archive-date=21 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Norway's legal system has likewise taken a similar position,<ref>[http://www.revisef65.org/loven.html SM og loven] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625161819/http://www.revisef65.org/loven.html |date=25 June 2010 }} (Norwegian)</ref> that safe and consensual BDSM play should not be subject to criminal prosecution. This parallels the stance of the mental health professions in the Nordic countries which have removed sadomasochism from their respective lists of psychiatric illnesses.

=== Switzerland ===
The age of consent in Switzerland is 16 years, which also applies to BDSM play. Minors (i.e., those under 16) are not subject to punishment for BDSM play as long as the age difference between them is less than three years. Certain practices, however, require granting consent for light injuries, with only those over 18 permitted to give consent. On 1 April 2002, Articles 135 and 197 of the Swiss Criminal Code were tightened to make ownership of ''"objects or demonstrations [...] which depict sexual acts with violent content"'' a punishable offense. This law amounts to a general criminalization of sado-masochism since nearly every sado-masochist will have some kind of media that fulfills this criterion. Critics also object to the wording of the law which puts sado-masochists in the same category as [[Pedophilia|pedophiles]] and [[Pederasty|pederasts]].<ref>[http://www.ig-bdsm.ch/index.php?pid=24 Interessengemeinschaft BDSM Schweiz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228062604/http://www.ig-bdsm.ch/index.php?pid=24 |date=28 December 2007 }} (German)</ref>

=== United Kingdom ===
In British law, consent is an absolute defense to common assault, but not necessarily to actual bodily harm, where courts may decide that consent is not valid, as occurred in the case of ''[[R v Brown]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spannertrust.org/documents/sexualoffencesreview.asp|title=Spanner Trust submission to the Home Office Review Board on Sexual Offences|publisher=The Spanner Trust|access-date=27 January 2008| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071214235525/http://www.spannertrust.org/documents/sexualoffencesreview.asp| archive-date= 14 December 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref> Accordingly, consensual activities in the U.K. may not constitute "assault occasioning actual or grievous bodily harm" in law. The [[Spanner Trust]] states that this is defined as activities which have caused injury "of a lasting nature" but that only a slight duration or injury might be considered "lasting" in law.<ref>{{cite web|title=The History of the Spanner Case|url=http://www.spannertrust.org/documents/spannerhistory.asp|publisher=[[Spanner Trust]]|access-date=8 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517122950/http://www.spannertrust.org/documents/spannerhistory.asp|archive-date=17 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> The decision contrasts with the later case of ''R v Wilson'' in which conviction for non-sexual consensual branding within a marriage was overturned, the appeal court ruling that ''R v Brown'' was not an authority in all cases of consensual injury and criticizing the decision to prosecute.<ref>R v Wilson (1996). Text of ruling online at: {{cite web|title=R v Wilson (1996) 2 Cr App Rep 241|url=http://www.lawteacher.net/criminal-law/cases/consent-Wilson.php|publisher=LawTeacher.com|access-date=8 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228001313/http://www.lawteacher.net/criminal-law/cases/consent-Wilson.php|archive-date=28 December 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Following [[Operation Spanner]], the [[European Court of Human Rights]] ruled in January 1999 in ''[[Laskey, Jaggard and Brown v. United Kingdom]]'' that no violation of [[Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights|Article 8]] occurred because the amount of physical or psychological harm that the law allows between any two people, even consenting adults, is to be determined by the [[Jurisdiction (area)|jurisdiction]] the individuals live in, as it is the State's responsibility to balance the concerns of [[public health]] and well-being with the amount of control a State should be allowed to exercise over its citizens. In the Criminal Justice and Immigration Bill 2007, the British Government cited the Spanner case as justification for criminalizing images of consensual acts, as part of its proposed criminalization of possession of "[[extreme pornography]]".<ref>House of Commons: ''[https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmbills/130/en/07130x-n.htm#index_link_206 Criminal Justice And Immigration Bill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706232658/https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmbills/130/en/07130x-n.htm#index_link_206 |date=6 July 2017 }}''</ref> Another contrasting case was that of Stephen Lock in 2013, who was cleared of actual bodily harm on the grounds that the woman consented. In this case, the act was deemed to be sexual.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/gardener-cleared-of-assault-after-fifty-shades-of-greyinspired-sadomasochistic-sex-session-8461714.html | location=London | work=The Independent | first=Ben | last=Kendall | title=Gardener cleared of assault after Fifty Shades of Grey-inspired sadomasochistic sex session | date=22 January 2013 | access-date=24 August 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925160100/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/gardener-cleared-of-assault-after-fifty-shades-of-greyinspired-sadomasochistic-sex-session-8461714.html | archive-date=25 September 2015 | url-status=live }}</ref>

=== United States ===
[[File:S&M Dungeon 2 by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|Spanking with a [[Paddle (spanking)|paddle]] in a BDSM dungeon in [[Lower Manhattan]]]]
The United States Federal law does not list a specific criminal determination for consensual BDSM acts. Many BDSM practitioners cite the legal decision of ''[[People v. Jovanovic]]'', 95 N.Y.2d 846 (2000), or the "Cybersex Torture Case",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/ny-supreme-court/1144529.html |title=The PEOPLE of the State of New York, Plaintiff, v. Oliver JOVANOVIC, Defendant |date=September 25, 1997 |website=FindLAw |access-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413231913/https://caselaw.findlaw.com/ny-supreme-court/1144529.html |url-status=live }}</ref> which was the first U.S. appellate decision to hold (in effect) that one does not commit assault if the victim consents. However, many individual states do criminalize specific BDSM actions within their state borders. Some states specifically address the idea of "consent to BDSM acts" within their assault laws, such as the state of New Jersey, which defines "simple assault" to be "a disorderly persons offense unless committed in a fight or scuffle ''entered into by mutual consent'', in which case it is a petty disorderly persons offense".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://njlawman.com/legal%20research/2c.htm|title=New Jersey Criminal Offenses|website=njlawman.com|access-date=28 November 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104155828/http://njlawman.com/legal%20research/2c.htm|archive-date=4 November 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

[[Oregon Ballot Measure 9]] was a [[Popular initiative|ballot measure]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Oregon]] in 1992, concerning sadism, masochism, [[gay rights]], pedophilia, and [[public education]], that drew widespread national attention. It would have added the following text to the [[Oregon Constitution]]:
{{Blockquote|All governments in Oregon may not use their monies or properties to promote, encourage or facilitate [[homosexuality]], [[pedophilia]], [[Sadism and masochism|sadism]] or masochism. All levels of government, including [[public education]] systems, must assist in setting a standard for Oregon's youth which recognizes that these behaviors are abnormal, wrong, unnatural and perverse and they are to be discouraged and avoided.}}
It was defeated in the 3 November 1992 [[general election]] with 638,527 votes in favor, 828,290 votes against.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sos.oregon.gov/blue-book/Documents/elections/initiative.pdf|title=Oregon Blue Book: Initiative, Referendum and Recall: 1988-1995|website=state.or.us|access-date=28 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108224519/https://sos.oregon.gov/blue-book/Documents/elections/initiative.pdf|archive-date=8 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[National Coalition for Sexual Freedom]] collects reports about punishment for sexual activities engaged in by [[consenting adults]], and about its use in [[child custody]] cases.<ref>{{cite web |title=Incident Response |url=https://www.ncsfreedom.org/key-programs/incident-response-97241/incident-response |publisher=National Coalition for Sexual Freedom |access-date=11 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011195244/https://www.ncsfreedom.org/key-programs/incident-response-97241/incident-response |archive-date=11 October 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Cultural aspects ==
{{See also|BDSM in culture and media}}
Today, the BDSM culture exists in most Western countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwidebdsm.com/Club-&amp-Munch-Directory |title=Worldwide Club and Munch Directory |access-date=11 December 2007 |website=worldwidebdsm.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227032451/http://www.worldwidebdsm.com/Club-%26amp-Munch-Directory |archive-date=27 December 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This offers BDSM practitioners the opportunity to discuss BDSM relevant topics and problems with like-minded people. This culture is often viewed as a [[subculture]], mainly because BDSM is often still regarded as "unusual" by some of the public. Many people hide their leaning from society since they are afraid of the incomprehension and of social exclusion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bezreh |first1=Tanya |last2=Weinberg |first2=Thomas S. |last3=Edgar |first3=Timothy |date=January 2012 |title=BDSM Disclosure and Stigma Management: Identifying Opportunities for Sex Education |journal=American Journal of Sexuality Education |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=37–61 |doi=10.1080/15546128.2012.650984 |issn=1554-6128 |pmc=3382736 |pmid=22754406}}</ref>

In contrast to frameworks seeking to explain sadomasochism through psychological, psychoanalytic, medical or forensic approaches, which seek to categorize behaviour and desires and find a root "cause", Romana Byrne suggests that such practices can be seen as examples of "aesthetic sexuality", in which a founding physiological or psychological impulse is irrelevant. Rather, sadism and masochism may be practiced through choice and deliberation, driven by certain aesthetic goals tied to style, pleasure, and identity. These practices, in certain circumstances and contexts, can be compared with the creation of art.<ref>Romana Byrne (2013) [https://books.google.com/books/about/Aesthetic_Sexuality.html?id=uccTAgAAQBAJ Aesthetic Sexuality: A Literary History of Sadomasochism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922015035/https://books.google.com/books/about/Aesthetic_Sexuality.html?id=uccTAgAAQBAJ |date=22 September 2015 }}, New York: Bloomsbury, pp. 1-4.</ref>

=== Symbols ===
One of the most commonly used symbols of the BDSM community is a derivation of a [[triskelion]] shape within a circle.<ref name=Luminais>{{cite book|last1=Luminais|first1=Misty|title=In the Habit of Being Kinky: Practice and Resistance in a BDSM Community, Texas|date=May 2012|publisher=Washington State University|page=121|url=https://research.wsulibs.wsu.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/2376/4093/Luminais_wsu_0251E_10404.pdf?sequence=1|access-date=10 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110081425/https://research.wsulibs.wsu.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/2376/4093/Luminais_wsu_0251E_10404.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=10 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Various forms of triskele have had many uses and many meanings in many cultures; its BDSM usage derives from the ''Ring of O'' in the classic book ''[[Story of O]]''. The BDSM Emblem Project claims copyright over one particular specified form of the triskelion symbol; other variants of the triskelion are free from such copyright claims.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://emblemproject.sagcs.net|title=Emblem Home Page|access-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924193411/http://emblemproject.sagcs.net/|archive-date=24 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[triskelion]] as a BDSM symbol can easily be perceived as the three separate parts of the acronym BDSM; which are BD, DS, and SM (Bondage & Discipline, Dominance & Submission, Sadism & Masochism). They are three separate items, that are normally associated together.

[[File:Leather, Latex, and BDSM pride - Light.svg|150px|thumb|The [[leather pride flag]], a symbol of the BDSM and [[leather subculture]]]]
The [[leather pride flag]], shown to the right, is a symbol for the [[leather subculture]] and also widely used within BDSM. In continental Europe, the ''[[Ring of O]]'' is widespread among BDSM practitioners.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Piontek|first1=Wolf|title=über den "Ring der O": Der Ring der O als Fetish und BDSM Symbol|url=http://www.fetish-jewels.com/ueberdenringdero/index.html|website=Fetish Jewels|access-date=8 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912080452/http://www.fetish-jewels.com/ueberdenringdero/index.html|archive-date=12 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:BDSM-rights-flag-Tanos.svg|150px|alt=BDSM Rights Flag colour|thumb|The BDSM rights flag with [[triskelion]]-type emblem]]
The BDSM rights flag, shown to the right, was designed by Tanos, a [[Master/slave (BDSM)|Master]] from the [[United Kingdom]]. It is partially loosely based on the design of the [[leather pride flag]], and also includes a version of the BDSM Emblem (but not similar enough to fall within Steve Quagmyr's specific copyright claims for the Emblem). The BDSM rights flag is intended to represent the belief that people whose sexuality or relationship preferences include BDSM practices deserve the same human rights as everyone else, and should not be discriminated against for pursuing BDSM with consenting adults.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.informedconsent.org.uk/bdsmflag|title=Informed Consent: BDSM rights flag|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502055320/http://www.informedconsent.org.uk/bdsmflag|archive-date=2013-05-02}}</ref>{{Clear}}

The flag is inspired by the leather pride flag and BDSM emblem but is specifically intended to represent the concept of BDSM rights and to be without the other symbols' restrictions against commercial use. It is designed to be recognizable by people familiar with either the leather pride flag or BDSM triskelion (or triskele) as "something to do with BDSM"; and to be distinctive whether reproduced in full colour, or in black and white (or another pair of colours).<ref name="bdsmrights">{{cite web |title= BDSMrights.com |url= http://www.bdsmrights.com/ |access-date= 30 March 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110510022233/http://www.bdsmrights.com/ |archive-date= 10 May 2011 |url-status= live }}</ref>

BDSM and [[Fetish fashion|fetish items and styles]] have been spread widely in Western societies' everyday life by different factors, such as [[avant-garde]] fashion, [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]], [[goth subculture]], and science fiction TV series,<ref>Fuentes Rodríguez, César: ''Mundo Gótico''. (Quarentena Ediciones, 2007, {{ISBN|978-84-933891-6-1}})</ref> and are often not consciously connected with their BDSM roots by many people. While it was mainly confined to the [[Punk subculture|punk]] and BDSM subcultures in the 1990s, it has since spread into wider parts of Western societies.

=== Film and music ===
* In music: The Romanian singer-songwriter [[:ro:NAVI]] featured BDSM and [[Shibari]] scenes in her music video "Picture Perfect" (2014).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.libertatea.ro/detalii/articol/navi-picture-perfect-videoclip-bondage-bdsm-shibari-511725.html|title=Videoclipul Care Nu Te Poate Lăsa Indiferent! Navi, Târâtă Pe Jos, Trasă De Păr, Pălmuită Cât Se Poate De Adevărat şi Biciuită, în scene crunte de BDSM|language=ro|date=22 October 2014|website=libertatea.ro|access-date=28 November 2016}}</ref> The video was banned in Romania for its explicit content.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://shibaridojo.blogspot.ro/2015/04/navi-picture-perfect-video.html|title=Navi - Picture Perfect - Video|date=2015-04-29|website=shibaridojo.blogspot.ro|access-date=28 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128194943/http://shibaridojo.blogspot.ro/2015/04/navi-picture-perfect-video.html|archive-date=28 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010, [[Rihanna]]'s song "[[S&M (song)|S&M]]" and [[Christina Aguilera]]'s single "[[Not Myself Tonight]]" appeared, both full of BDSM imagery.
* In movies: While BDSM activity appeared initially in subtle form, in the 1960s famous works of literature like ''[[Story of O]]'' and ''[[Venus in Furs]]'' were filmed explicitly. With the release of the 1986 film ''[[9½ Weeks]]'', the topic of BDSM was transferred to mainstream cinema. From the 1990s, cinematic representation of alternative sexualities, including BDSM, increased dramatically, as seen in documentary productions such as ''[[Graphic Sexual Horror]]'' (a 2009 film based on the website [[Insex]]), ''[[Kink (film)|Kink]]'' (a 2013 film based on the website [[Kink.com]]), and movies such as ''[[Fifty Shades of Grey (film)|Fifty Shades of Grey]]'' (2015) and its two sequels ''[[Fifty Shades Darker (film)|Fifty Shades Darker]]'' (2017) and ''[[Fifty Shades Freed (film)|Fifty Shades Freed]]'' (2018).
** However, mistakenly considered in mainstream society as having BDSM activities that are, rather, abusive are the movies ''[[Fifty Shades of Grey (film)|Fifty Shades of Grey]]'' (2015) and its two sequels ''[[Fifty Shades Darker (film)|Fifty Shades Darker]]'' (2017) and ''[[Fifty Shades Freed (film)|Fifty Shades Freed]]'' (2018).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Falk|first1=G.|last2=Weinberg|first2=T.S.|title=Sadomasochism and Popular Western Culture|date=1983|publisher=NY Prometheus Books|location=Amherst, NY|pages=137–144}}</ref> "A lot of what happens in the main relationship of Fifty Shades of Grey is domestic abuse, both physical and emotional, and for people whose entire understanding of BDSM now comes from jiggle balls and rooms of pain this is a dangerous misconception to foster."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://amp.theguardian.com/society/2012/aug/25/fifty-shades-submissive-sophie-morgan |title=I like submissive sex but Fifty Shades is not about fun: it's about abuse |date=2012-08-25 |work=Sexuality |publisher=[[The Guardian]] |accessdate=2021-06-24 |archive-date=14 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914133729/https://amp.theguardian.com/society/2012/aug/25/fifty-shades-submissive-sophie-morgan |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Theater ===
Although it would be possible to establish certain elements related to BDSM in classical theater, not until the emergence of contemporary theater would some plays have BDSM as the main theme. Exemplifying this are two works: one Austrian, one German, in which BDSM is not only incorporated but integral to the storyline of the play.
* ''Worauf sich Körper kaprizieren'', Austria. Peter Kern directed and wrote the script for this comedy which is a present-day adaption of [[Jean Genet]]'s 1950 film, {{Lang|fr|[[Un chant d'amour]]}}. It is about a marriage in which the wife (film veteran Miriam Goldschmidt) submits her husband (Heinrich Herkie) and the butler (Günter Bubbnik) to her sadistic treatment until two new characters take their places.<ref>[[Der Standard]], edición del 3 September 2006</ref>
* ''Ach, Hilde'' (''Oh, Hilda''), Germany. This play by Anna Schwemmer premiered in Berlin. A young Hilde becomes pregnant, and after being abandoned by her boyfriend she decides to become a professional dominatrix to earn money. The play carefully crafts a playful and frivolous picture of the field of professional dominatrices.<ref>[[BILD]]-Zeitung, Berlín, 15 March 1998</ref>

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Sadism and masochism in fiction}}
{{See also|List of BDSM authors}}
[[File:Leopold von Sacher-Masoch with Fannie.jpg|thumb|Fanny Pistor (with whip) and Leopold von Sacher-Masoch. ''Venus in Furs'' was inspired by the author's own life where he was dominated by a woman.]]
Although examples of literature catering to BDSM and fetishistic tastes were created in earlier periods, BDSM literature as it exists today cannot be found much earlier than [[World War II]].

The word ''sadism'' originates from the works of [[Donatien Alphonse François, Marquis de Sade]], and the word ''masochism'' originates from [[Leopold von Sacher-Masoch]], the author of ''[[Venus in Furs]]''. However, it is worth noting that the Marquis de Sade describes non-consensual abuse in his works, such as in ''[[Justine (Sade novel)|Justine]]''. ''Venus in Furs'' describes a consensual dom-sub relationship.

A central work in modern BDSM literature is undoubtedly ''[[Story of O]]'' (1954) by [[Anne Desclos]] under the pseudonym [[Pauline Réage]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://herahaven.ai/blog/bdsm-what-is-it-and-how-can-you-experience-it/ |title=BDSM: What is it, and how can you experience it? |last=Withledon |first=Anna |date=Sep 28, 2024 |website=Hera Haven |access-date=Oct 14, 2024}}</ref>

Other notable works include ''[[9½ Weeks (book)|9½ Weeks]]'' (1978) by [[Elizabeth McNeill]], some works of the writer [[Anne Rice]] (''[[Exit to Eden]]'', and her ''[[The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty|Claiming of Sleeping Beauty]]'' series of books), [[Jeanne de Berg]] (''[[The Image (novel)|L'Image]]'' (1956) dedicated to [[Pauline Réage]]), the [[Gor]] series by [[John Norman]], and naturally all the works of [[Patrick Califia]], [[Gloria Brame]], the group [[Samois]] and many of the writer [[Georges Bataille]] (''Histoire de l'oeil-Story of the Eye'', Madame Edwarda, 1937), as well as those of [[Bob Flanagan (performance artist)|Bob Flanagan]] (''Slave Sonnets'' (1986), ''Fuck Journal'' (1987), ''A Taste of Honey'' (1990)). A common part of many of the poems of [[Pablo Neruda]] is a reflection on feelings and sensations arising from the relations of EPE or erotic exchange of power. The ''[[Fifty Shades trilogy|Fifty Shades]]'' trilogy is a series of very popular erotic romance novels by [[E. L. James]] which involves BDSM; however, the novels have been criticized for their inaccurate and harmful depiction of BDSM.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/culture/archive/2015/02/consent-isnt-enough-in-fifty-shades-of-grey/385267/ |title=Consent Isn't Enough: The Troubling Sex of Fifty Shades |last=Green |first=Emma |date=February 10, 2015 |website=The Atlantic |access-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413231913/https://www.theatlantic.com/culture/archive/2015/02/consent-isnt-enough-in-fifty-shades-of-grey/385267/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the 21st century, a number of prestigious university presses, such as [[Duke University]], [[Indiana University]] and [[University of Chicago]], have published books on BDSM written by professors, thereby lending academic legitimacy to this once taboo topic.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/Scholars-in-Bondage/139251|title=Scholars in Bondage|journal=The Chronicle of Higher Education|date=20 May 2013|access-date=11 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826214359/https://www.chronicle.com/article/Scholars-in-Bondage/139251|archive-date=26 August 2018|url-status=dead|last1=Paglia|first1=Camille}}</ref>

=== Art ===
{{See also|List of BDSM artists|List of BDSM photographers}}
* In photography: [[Eric Kroll]] and [[Irving Klaw]] (with [[Bettie Page]], the first well-known bondage model), and Japanese photographer [[Araki Nobuyoshi]], whose works are exhibited in several major art museums, galleries and private collections, such as the Baroness Marion Lambert, the world's largest holder of contemporary photographic art. Also [[Robert Mapplethorpe]], whose most controversial work is that of the underground BDSM scene in the late 1960s and early 1970s of New York. The homoeroticism of this work fuelled a national debate over the public funding of controversial artwork.
* Comic book drawings: [[Guido Crepax]] with ''Histoire d'O'' (1975), ''Justine'' (1979) and ''Venere in Pelliccia'' (1984); inspired by the work of [[Pauline Réage]], the [[Marquis de Sade]] and [[Leopold von Sacher-Masoch]]. [[John Willie]] and ''The Adventures of Sweet Gwendoline'' (1984) which was the basis for the film ''[[The Perils of Gwendoline in the Land of the Yik-Yak]]''. The ''[[Sunstone (comics)|Sunstone/Mercy]]'' (2011-ongoing) books by [[Stjepan Šejić|Stjepan Sejic]] have become very popular and are found in many conventional bookstores around the world.
* In graphic design: [[Eric Stanton]] and his work on dominance and female bondage, as well as [[Hajime Sorayama]] and Robert Bishop.
* In [[art deco]] sculpture: [[Bruno Zach]] produced perhaps his best known sculpture—called "The Riding Crop" ({{circa|1925}})—which features a scantily clad [[dominatrix]] wielding a [[Crop (implement)|riding crop]].<ref name=Bonhams>{{cite web |title=Bruno Zach's 'Riding Crop Girl' hits World Record $150,602 at Bonhams art auction |url=https://www.justcollecting.com/miscellania/bruno-zachs-riding-crop-girl-hits-world-record-150-602-at-bonhams-art-auction |date=June 26, 2015 |website=Just Collecting |access-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630174111/https://www.justcollecting.com/miscellania/bruno-zachs-riding-crop-girl-hits-world-record-150-602-at-bonhams-art-auction |archive-date=June 30, 2015}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Autosadism]]
* [[Dominance hierarchy]]
* [[Index of BDSM articles]]
* [[Glossary of BDSM]]
* [[List of BDSM equipment]]
* [[List of BDSM organizations]]
* [[List of bondage positions]]
* [[Leather subculture]]
* [[Outline of BDSM]]
* [[Vulnerability and care theory of love]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s10508-015-0524-2|pmid = 25795531|pmc = 4379392|title = Sensual, Erotic, and Sexual Behaviors of Women from the "Kink" Community|journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume = 44|issue = #4|pages = 825–836|year = 2015|last1 = Rehor|first1 = Jennifer Eve}}
* [[Guy Baldwin|Baldwin, Guy]]. ''Ties That Bind: SM/Leather/Fetish Erotic Style: Issues, Communication, and Advice'', Daedalus Publishing, 1993. {{ISBN|978-1-881943-09-9}}.
* {{cite web
| last1 = Barker
| first1 = Meg
| last2 = Iantaffi
| first2 = A.
| last3 = Gupta
| first3 = C.
| title = Kinky clients, kinky counselling? The challenges and potentials of BDSM
| website = [[Open Research Online]]
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2007
| url = http://oro.open.ac.uk/17272/2/4AD665D2.pdf
| access-date = 12 January 2011
| archive-date = 14 March 2011
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110314000828/http://oro.open.ac.uk/17272/2/4AD665D2.pdf
| url-status = live
}}
* [[Gloria G. Brame|Brame, Gloria G.]], Brame, William D., and Jacobs, Jon. ''Different Loving: An Exploration of the World of Sexual Dominance and Submission'' Villard Books, New York, 1993. {{ISBN|978-0-679-40873-4}}
* [[Gloria G. Brame|Brame, Gloria]]. ''Come Hither: A Commonsense Guide to Kinky Sex'', Fireside, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-684-85462-5}}.
* [[Pat Califia|Califia, Pat]]. ''Sensuous Magic''. New York, Masquerade Books, 1993. {{ISBN|978-1-56333-131-2}}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Cutler |first=Bert |title=Partner selection, power dynamics, and sexual bargaining in self-defined BDSM couples |publisher=The Institute for Advanced Study of Human Sexuality |location=San Francisco |date=February 2003}}
* {{cite journal |last=Fedoroff |first=Paul J. |year=2008 |title=Sadism, Sadomasochism, Sex, and Violence |journal=Canadian Journal of Psychiatry |volume=53 |issue=#10 |pages=637–646 |doi=10.1177/070674370805301003 |pmid=18940032 |doi-access=free }}
* Dollie Llama. ''Diary of an S&M Romance''., PEEP! Press (California), 2006, {{ISBN|978-0-9705392-5-0}}
* Henkin, Wiliiam A., Sybil Holiday. ''Consensual Sadomasochism: How to Talk About It and How to Do It Safely'', Daedalus Publishing, 1996. {{ISBN|978-1-881943-12-9}}.
* [[Samuel Janus|Janus, Samuel S.]], and Janus, Cynthia L. ''The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior'', John Wiley & Sons, 1994. {{ISBN|978-0-471-01614-4}}
* Masters, Peter. ''This Curious Human Phenomenon: An Exploration of Some Uncommonly Explored Aspects of BDSM''. The Nazca Plains Corporation, 2008. {{ISBN|978-1-934625-68-2}}
* [[A Defence of Masochism|Phillips, Anita]]. ''A Defence of Masochism'', Faber and Faber, new edition 1999. {{ISBN|978-0-571-19697-5}}
* Newmahr, Staci (2011). ''Playing on the Edge: Sadomasochism, Risk and Intimacy''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. {{ISBN|0-253-22285-0}}.
* Nomis, Anne O. (2013) ''The History & Arts of the Dominatrix''. Mary Egan Publishing & Anna Nomis Ltd, U.K. {{ISBN|978-0-9927010-0-0}}
* Rinella, Jack. ''The Complete Slave: Creating and Living an Erotic Dominant/submissive Lifestyle'', Daedalus Publishing, 2002. {{ISBN|978-1-881943-13-6}}.
* Saez, Fernando y Viñuales, Olga, ''Armarios de Cuero'', Ed. Bellaterra, 2007. {{ISBN|978-84-7290-345-6}}.
* [[Larry Townsend|Townsend, Larry]]. ''Leatherman's Handbook'', first edition 1972.
* Tupper, Peter. ''A Lover's Pinch: A Cultural History of Sadomasochism''. United States: [[Rowman & Littlefield]], 2018. {{ISBN|978-1538111178}}.
* [[Jay Wiseman|Wiseman, Jay]]. ''SM 101: A Realistic Introduction'' (1st ed., 1992); 2nd ed. [[Greenery Press]], 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-9639763-8-3}}.
* Byrne, Romana (2013) [https://books.google.com/books/about/Aesthetic_Sexuality.html?id=uccTAgAAQBAJ Aesthetic Sexuality: A Literary History of Sadomasochism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922015035/https://books.google.com/books/about/Aesthetic_Sexuality.html?id=uccTAgAAQBAJ |date=22 September 2015 }}, New York: Bloomsbury. {{ISBN|978-1-4411-0081-8}}
* Dominari, Rajan (2019). ''Welcome to the Darkside: A BDSM Primer''. AKO Publishing Company. {{ISBN|978-1734527100}}.
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|BDSM}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=2007-04-03|En-BDSM_(part_1).ogg|En-BDSM_(part_2).ogg}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081217085120/http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/pain/microsite/culture1.html "Pain and the erotic" by Lesley Hall] (archived 17 December 2008)
* {{cite web| url= https://thefetishistas.com/eric-stanton-november-cover| title= Eric Stanton and the History of the Bizarre Underground| publisher= The Fetishistas| first= Tony| last= Mitchell| date= 2018| access-date= December 4, 2018| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181205103321/https://thefetishistas.com/eric-stanton-november-cover/| archive-date= 5 December 2018| url-status= dead}}

{{BDSM}}
{{Human sexuality}}
{{Sex}}
{{Pornography}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:BDSM| ]]
[[Category:Spoken articles]]
[[Category:Control (social and political)]]
[[Category:Sexual acts]]