View source for Pallava dynasty

{{Short description|Indian dynasty between the 3rd and 9th centuries CE}}
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{{redirect|Pallava}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Pallava dynasty
| common_name            = Pallava Country
| era                    = [[Classical India]]
| status                 = Dynasty
| year_start             = 275 CE
| year_end               = 897 CE
| p1                     = Kalabhra dynasty
| p2                     = Satavahana dynasty
| s1                     = Chola Empire
| s2                     = Kadamba dynasty
| s3                     = Western Ganga dynasty
| image_map              = Pallava territories.png
| image_map_caption      = Pallava territories during Narasimhavarman I {{circa}} 645. This includes the Chalukya territories occupied by the Pallavas.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=146, map XIV.2 (e)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=183}}</ref>
| capital                = [[Kanchipuram]]
| common_languages       = {{plainlist|
*[[Sanskrit]]<ref>{{cite book| author= Jan E.M. Houben| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOP7EAAAQBAJ&dq=Pallava+Prakrit&pg=PA251|title=Ideology and Status of Sanskrit - Contributions to the History of the Sanskrit Language |publisher= Brill |year=2023|language=en|page=251| isbn=978-90-04-64477-9 |accessdate=29 September 2024}}</ref>
*[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
*[[Prakrit]] (Rarely)<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.16652/page/n298/mode/1up Vaidya C.V., Medieval History of Hindu India Volume 1, pg.281]</ref>
}}
| languages_type         = Spoken languages
| religion               = [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]]
| government_type        = [[Monarchy]]
| leader1                = [[Simhavarman I]]
| year_leader1           = 275–300
| leader2                = [[Aparajitavarman]]
| year_leader2           = 885–897
| today                  = India<br />[[Sri Lanka]]<ref>Ancient Jaffna: Being a Research Into the History of Jaffna from Very Early Times to the Portuguese Period, C. Rasanayagam, p.241, Asian Educational Services 1926</ref>
| demonym                = 
| area_km2               = 
| area_rank              = 
| p3                     = 
}}
{{Pallava}}
The '''Pallava dynasty''' existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a significant portion of [[South India|the Deccan]], also known as [[Tondaimandalam]]. The Pallavas played a crucial role in shaping  in particular southern Indian history and heritage.<ref>{{Citation |last=Sen |first=Aloka Parasher |title=Defining the Early Deccan: A Re-think* |date=2021-02-28 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003155607-2 |work=Settlement and Local Histories of the Early Deccan |pages=39–60 |access-date=2023-05-14 |publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781003155607-2 |isbn=978-1-003-15560-7 |s2cid=229492642 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Francis |first=Emmanuel |date=2021-10-28 |title=Pallavas |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00499 |journal=The Encyclopedia of Ancient History |pages=1–4 |doi=10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00499|isbn=978-1-119-39991-9 |s2cid=240189630 }}</ref>  The dynasty rose to prominence after the downfall of the [[Satavahanas|Satavahana Empire]], whom they had formerly served as [[feudatories]].<ref>The journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Volume 51, p.109</ref><ref>Alī Jāvīd and Tabassum Javeed. (2008). World heritage monuments and related edifices in India, p.107 [https://books.google.com/books?id=54XBlIF9LFgC&pg=PA107]</ref>

The Pallavas became a major [[South India|southern Indian]] power during the reign of [[Mahendravarman I]] (600–630 CE) and [[Narasimhavarman I]] (630–668 CE), and dominated the southern [[Andhra Pradesh|Telugu region]] and the northern parts of the [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil]] region for about 600 years, until the end of the 9th century. Throughout their reign, they remained in constant conflict with both the [[Chalukyas]] of [[Badami|Vatapi]] to the north, and the Tamil kingdoms of [[Chola Dynasty|Chola]] and [[Pandyas]] to their south. The Pallavas were finally defeated by the [[Chola]] ruler [[Aditya I]] in the 9th century CE.<ref>{{citation |title=The Pallavas |author=Gabriel Jouveau-Dubreuil |publisher=Asian Educational Services, 1995 - Art, Indic - 86 pages |page=83}}</ref>

The Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of Hindu Vaishnava temple architecture, the finest example being the [[Shore Temple]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in [[Mamallapuram]]. [[Kanchipuram|Kancheepuram]] served as the capital of the Pallava kingdom. The dynasty left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, and are recognized to have established the foundations of medieval southern Indian architecture, which some scholars believe the ancient Hindu treatise [[Manasara]] inspired.<ref>{{citation |title=Past and present: Manasara (English translation) 
|date=14 May 2020 |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/manasara-english-translation}}</ref> They developed the [[Pallava alphabet|Pallava script]],  from which [[Grantha alphabet|Grantha]] ultimately took form. This script eventually gave rise to several other Southeast Asian scripts such [[Khmer language|Khmer]]. The Chinese traveller [[Xuanzang]] visited [[Kanchipuram]] during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule.

== Etymology ==
The word Pallava means a creeper or branch in Sanskrit.<ref name="Proceedings">{{citation |author=South Indian History Congress. |title=Proceedings of the First Annual Conference |volume=1 |date= 17 February 1980 |publisher=The Congress and The Madurai Kamaraj University Co-op Printing Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9gpuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Tondai+means+a+creeper+and+Pallava+conveyed+a+similar+meaning%22}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Copper Plate Inscriptions of the State Museum, Volume 3, Issues 28-29 of Arch. series |author=N. Ramesan |publisher=Government of Andhra Pradesh, 1960 |page=55}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Past and present: ethnoarchaeology in India |author=Gautam Sengupta, Suchira Roychoudhury, Sujit Som |publisher=Pragati Publications in collaboration with Centre for Archaeological Studies and Training, Eastern India, 2006 |page=133}}</ref> Pallava also means arrow or spruce in Tamil.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ValaiTamil |title=Pallava, பல்லவம் Tamil Agaraathi, tamil-english dictionary, english words, tamil words |url=http://www.valaitamil.com/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D--tamil-dictionary106638.html |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=ValaiTamil}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pallavas |url=https://tamilnation.org/heritage/pallava/ |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=tamilnation.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=About Tamil Nadu {{!}} Tamil Nadu Government Portal |url=https://www.tn.gov.in/tamilnadustate |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=www.tn.gov.in}}</ref>

==Origins==
[[File:Vaikunta Perumal Temple.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Tiru Parameswara Vinnagaram|Vaikuntha Perumal Temple]], [[Kanchipuram]], [[Tamil Nadu]], considered as the oldest temple, glorified in the [[Nalayira Divya Prabandham]], the early medieval Tamil canon of the [[Alvar]] saints from the 500 to 800 CE. It is one among the 108 [[Divya Desam]]s dedicated to [[Vishnu|Maha Vishnu]].]]
[[File:7th century Sri Kailashnathar Temple Kanchipuram Tamil Nadu India 01 (11).jpg|thumb|300px|[[Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchi]] one of the oldest temples in the city]]
The origins of the Pallavas have been debated by scholars.{{sfn|Sathianathaier|1970|pp=255–256}} The available historical materials include three copper-plate grants of Sivaskandavarman in the first quarter of the 4th century CE, all issued from [[Kanchipuram]] but found in various parts of [[Andhra Pradesh]], and another inscription of [[Simhavarman I]] half century earlier in the [[Palnadu district|Palnadu]] (Pallava Nadu) area of the western [[Guntur district]].<ref>{{harvnb|Aiyangar|Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=315–316}}{{Missing long citation|date=July 2023}}: "This view, which till recently was no more than an intelligent guess, seems to gain support from a Prakrit Brahmi inscription recently discovered in the Palnad taluk of the Guntur district. In spite of its mutilated condition, it clearly mentions Sihavamma [[Simhavarman I]] of the ''Palava'' dynasty and Bharadaya gotta... This is the earliest Pallava inscription so far known."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rama Rao|1967|pp=47–48}}: "The Manchikallu Prakrt inscription mentions a Simhavamma or Simhavarman of the Pallava family and the Bharadvaja gotra and registers gifts made by him after performing ''Santi'' and ''Svastyayana'' for his victory and increase of strength."</ref> All the early documents are in [[Prakrit]], and scholars find similarities in paleography and language with the [[Satavahanas]] and the [[Mauryas]].{{sfn|Aiyangar|Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=315–316}} Their early coins are said to be similar to those of Satavahanas.<ref>{{citation |last=Subramanian |first=K. R. |title=Buddhist Remains in Andhra and the History of Andhra Between 225 and 610 A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnO2BMPdYEoC&pg=PA71 |page=71 |year=1989 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0444-5 |orig-year=1932}}</ref> Two main theories regarding the origins of the Pallavas have emerged based on available historical data. The first theory suggests that the Pallavas were initially subordinate to the Satavahanas, a ruling dynasty in the Andhradesa region (north of the Penna River in modern-day [[Andhra Pradesh]]<ref>{{citation |last=Gopalachari |first=K. |title=A Comprehensive History of India, II: The Mauryas and Satavahanas 325 SC.-AD 300 |year=1957 |editor=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri |at=pp.&nbsp;296–297, note 1 |chapter=The Satavahana Empire |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532644/page/n5 |location=Calcutta |publisher=Indian History Congress/Orient Longman |editor-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri}}: "The Andhradesa of our period was limited in the north by Kalinga and in the east by the sea; in the south it did not extend far beyond the northern part of the Nellore district (the Pallava ''Karmarashtra''), in the west it extended far into the interior."</ref>). According to this theory, the Pallavas later expanded their influence southward, eventually establishing their power in Kanchi (modern-day [[Kanchipuram]]). The second theory proposes that the Pallavas originated in Kanchi itself, where they initially rose to prominence. From there, they expanded their dominion northward, reaching as far as the Krishna River. Another theory posits that the Pallavas were descendants of Chola Prince [[Ilandiraiyan]] and had their roots in [[Tondaimandalam]], the region around Kanchi. These theories provide different perspectives on the Pallavas' early history and territorial expansion, but the exact origins of the Pallava dynasty continue to be a subject of debate among historians.

{{multiple image
  |align     = right
  |direction = vertical
  |width     = 300
  |footer    = 
  |image2    = Kailasawaathar innercourt.jpg
  |alt2      = 
  |caption2  = Inner court or the circumambulatory passage with 58 subshrines. [[Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple|Kailasanathar Temple]], [[Kanchipuram]]
  |image1    = Vaikuntha Perumal Temple Kanchipuram India - panoramio (4).jpg
  |alt1      = 
  |caption1  = Sculptures of the legends of pallavas in the [[Tiru Parameswara Vinnagaram|Vaikuntha Perumal Temple]], [[Kanchipuram]]
  |image3    = Vaikuntha Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram, dedicated to Vishnu, Pallava period, 8th century (5).jpg
  |alt3      = 
  |caption3  = Sculpture of [[Maha Vishnu]] as the '''Supreme deity''' in [[Tiru Parameswara Vinnagaram|Vaikuntha Perumal Temple]], [[Kanchipuram]]
}}

The proponents of the Andhra origin theory include [[S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar]] and [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]]. They believe that Pallavas were originally feudatories of the Satavahanas in the south-eastern part of their empire who became independent when the Satavahana power declined.<ref>{{harvnb|Aiyangar|Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=314–316}}: "There is much in favour of the thesis that the Pallavas rose into prominence in the service of the Satavahanas in the south-eastern division of their empire, and attained independence when that power declined."</ref> They are seen to be "strangers to the Tamil country", unrelated to the ancient lines of Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas. Since Simhavarman's grant bears no regal titles, they believe that he might have been a subsidiary to the [[Andhra Ikshvakus]] who were in power in ''Andhradesa'' at that time. In the following half-century, the Pallavas became independent and expanded up to Kanchi.{{sfn|Aiyangar|Nilakanta Sastri|1960|pp=314–316}}<ref>{{harvnb|Sathianathaier|1970|p=256}}: "S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar regards the Pallavas as the feudatories of the Satavahanas—officers and governors of the south-eastern part of their empire, equates the term Pallava with the terms Tondaiyar and Tondaman (people and rulers of Tonda-mandalam), and says that, after the fall of the Satavahana Empire, those feudatories 'founded the new dynasty of the Pallavas, as distinct from the older chieftains, the Tondamans of the region.'"</ref>

[[S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar|S. Krishnaswami Aiyengar]] also speculates that the Pallavas were natives of [[Tondaimandalam]] and the name Pallava is identical with the word Tondaiyar.<ref name=":1" /> [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] Prince [[Ilandiraiyan]] is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Pallava dynasty.{{sfn|Ramaswamy|2007|p=80}} Ilandiraiyan is referred to in the literature of the [[Sangam period]] such as the [[Pathupattu]]. In the Sangam epic [[Manimekalai]], he is depicted as the son of [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] king Killi and the Naga princess Pilivalai, the daughter of king Valaivanan of [[Nainativu|Manipallavam]].

Another theory is propounded by historians R. Sathianathaier{{sfn|Sathianathaier|1970|pp=255–256}} and [[D. C. Sircar]],{{sfn|Sircar|1970|pp=275–276}} with endorsements by [[Hermann Kulke]], [[Dietmar Rothermund]]{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=120}} and [[Burton Stein]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stein |first1=Burton |s2cid=144817627 |title=Book Reviews : Kancipuram in Early South Indian History, by T. V. Mahalingam (Madras : Asia Publishing House, 1969), pp. vii-243 |journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review |volume=7 |issue=2 |year=2016 |pages=317–321 |issn=0019-4646 |doi=10.1177/001946467000700208}}: "...the rather well argued and plausible stand that the Palavas were indigenous to the central Tamil plain, Tondaimandalam..."</ref> Sircar points out that the family legends of the Pallavas speak of an ancestor descending from [[Ashwatthama]], the legendary warrior of ''Mahabharata'', and his union with a ''Naga'' princess. According to [[Ptolemy]], the ''Aruvanadu'' region between the northern and southern Penner rivers ([[Penna River|Penna]] and [[Ponnaiyar River|Ponnaiyar]]<ref>{{citation |last=Sircar |first=Dines Chandra |title=The Early Pallavas |url=https://archive.org/details/earlypallavas035062mbp/page/n5 |publisher=Jitendra Nath De |location=Calcutta |year=1935 |pages=5–6}}: "There can hardly be any doubt that this Aruvanadu between the Northern and Southern Pennars is the Arouarnoi of Ptolemy's Geography. This Arouarnoi is practically the same as the Kanci-mandala, i.e. the district round Kanci."</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Aiyangar |first=S. K. |chapter=Introduction |editor=R. Gopalan |title=History of the Pallavas of Kanchi |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfThePallavasOfKanchi |year=1928 |publisher=University of Madras |pages=xi-xii}}: "... River South Pennar where began the division known as ''Aruvānādu'', which extended northwards along the coast almost as far as the Northern Pennar."</ref>) was ruled by a king Basaronaga around 140 CE. By marrying into this ''Naga'' family, the Pallavas would have acquired control of the region near Kanchi.{{sfn|Sircar|1970|pp=275–276}} While Sircar allows that Pallavas might have been provincial rulers under the later Satavahanas with a partial northern lineage, Sathianathaier sees them as natives of [[Tondaimandalam]] (the core region of Aruvanadu). He argues that they could well have adopted northern Indian practices under the Mauryan [[Asoka]]'s rule. He relates the name "Pallava" to [[Pulinda]]s, whose heritage is borne by names such as "Pulinadu" and "Puliyurkottam" in the region.{{sfn|Sathianathaier|1970|pp=256-257}}

According to [[Harold Stuart|Sir H. A. Stuart]] the Pallavas were [[Kurumba (tribe)|Kurumbas]] and [[Kuruba]]s their modern representatives.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=H.V. Nanjundayya|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.38701/page/n57/mode/2up?q=Kuruba+pallava|title=The Mysore tribes and castes, Vol 4|last2=L.K. Anathakrishna|date=1988|publisher=Mysore, Mysore University|page=30|oclc=830766457|quote=The following extract from the Census Report of Madras for 1891, gives them a higher status than they usually claim :— “They (the Kurubas) are the modern representatives of the ancient Kurumbas or Pallavas, who were once so powerful, throughout South India, but very little trace of their greatness now remains.}}</ref> This is supported by Marathi historian [[Ramchandra Chintaman Dhere|R. C. Dhere]] who stated that Pallavas were originally pastoralists that belonged to Kuruba lineages.<ref name="Dhere">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jUeeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA243 |title=Rise of a Folk God: Vitthal of Pandharpur, South Asia Research |publisher=Oxford University Press |first=Ramchandra Chintaman |last=Dhere |author-link=Ramchandra Chintaman Dhere |others=Feldhaus, Anne (trans.) |year=2011 |page=243 |isbn=978-0-19977-764-8|quote=The history of South India shows clearly that all the southern royal dynasties who arose from pastoralist, cowherd groups gained Kshatriya status by claiming to be Moon lineage Kshatriyas, by taking Yadu as their ancestor, and by continually keeping alive their pride in being 'Yadavas'. Many dynasties in South India, from the Pallavas to the Yadavarayas, were originally members of pastoralist, cowherd groups and belonged to Kuruba lineages.}}</ref> The territory of Pallavas was bordered by the [[Coromandel Coast]] along present Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh. Out of the coins found here, the class of gold and silver coins belonging to the 2nd-7th century CE period contain the Pallava emblem, the maned lion, together with [[Kannada]] or [[Sanskrit]] inscription which showed that the Pallavas used Kannada too in their administration along with Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil.<ref name="EJRapsonKannada">{{Cite book |last=Rapson |first=Edward James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjcEAAAAIAAJ&q=canarese |title=Indian Coins-Numismatics |publisher=K.J. Trübner |year=1897 |pages=37}}</ref>

Overlaid on these theories is another hypothesis of Sathianathaier which claims that "Pallava" is a derivative of [[Pahlava]] (the Sanskrit term for Parthians). According to him, partial support for the theory can be derived from a crown shaped like an elephant's scalp depicted on some sculptures, which seems to resemble the crown of [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]].{{sfn|Sathianathaier|1970|pp=255–256}}

==Rivalries==
===With Cholas===
{{South Asia in 350 CE}}
The Pallavas captured Kanchi from the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] as recorded in the Velurpalaiyam Plates, around the reign of the fifth king of the Pallava line Kumaravishnu I.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} Thereafter Kanchi figures in inscriptions as the capital of the Pallavas. The Cholas drove the Pallavas away from Kanchi in the mid-4th century, in the reign of [[Vishnugopa]], the tenth king of the Pallava line.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} The Pallavas re-captured Kanchi from the [[Kalabhra dynasty|Kalabhras]] in the mid-6th century, {{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}possibly in the reign of [[Simhavishnu]],{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}} the fourteenth king of the Pallava line, whom the Kasakudi plates state as "the lion of the earth". Thereafter the Pallavas held on to [[Kanchi]] until the 9th century, until the reign of their last king, [[Aparajita Varman|Vijaya-Nripatungavarman]].<ref name="HH 1931">Rev. H Heras, SJ (1931) Pallava Genealogy: An attempt to unify the Pallava Pedigrees of the Inscriptions, Indian Historical Research Institute</ref>

===With Kadambas===
The Pallavas were in conflict with major kingdoms at various periods of time. A contest for political supremacy existed between the early Pallavas and the [[Kadamba Dynasty|Kadambas]]. Numerous Kadamba inscriptions provide details of Pallava-Kadamba hostilities.<ref name="SKR 106-109">KR Subramanian. (1989). Buddhist remains in Āndhra and the history of Āndhra between 224 & 610 A.D, p.106-109</ref>

===With Kalabhras===
During the reign of Vishnugopavarman II (approx. 500–525), political convulsion engulfed the Pallavas due to the [[Kalabhra dynasty|Kalabhra]] invasion of the Tamil country. Towards the close of the 6th century, the Pallava Simhavishnu stuck a blow against the Kalabhras. The Pandyas followed suit. Thereafter the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas in the north with [[Kanchipuram]] as their capital, and Pandyas in the south with [[Madurai]] as their capital.<ref name="sen">{{citation | first=Sailendra Nath |last=Sen |year=1999 |title=Ancient Indian History And Civilization |page=445 |publisher=New Age International |isbn=9788122411980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA445}}</ref>

==Birudas==
The royal custom of using a series of descriptive honorific titles, ''Birudas'', was particularly prevalent among the Pallavas. The Birudas of Mahendravarman I are in Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu. The Telugu Birudas show Mahendravarman's involvement with the Andhra region continued to be strong at the time he was creating his cave-temples in the Tamil region. The suffix "Malla" was used by the Pallava rulers.<ref name="HM & PMI 109-130">Marilyn Hirsh (1987) Mahendravarman I Pallava: Artist and Patron of Māmallapuram, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 48, Number 1/2 (1987), pp. 109-130</ref> Mahendravarman I used the Biruda, ''Shatrumalla'', "a warrior who overthrows his enemies", and his grandson Paramesvara I was called ''Ekamalla'' "the sole warrior or wrestler". Pallava kings, presumably exalted ones, were known by the title ''Mahamalla'' ("great wrestler").<ref name="RMD 189-241">{{cite journal |first=Michael D |last=Rabe |year=1997 |title=The Māmallapuram Praśasti: A Panegyric in Figures |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=57 |issue=3/4 |pages=189–241 |jstor=3249929 |doi=10.2307/3249929 }}</ref>

==Languages used==
[[File:Pallavas of Coromandel.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Coin of the Pallavas of Coromandel, king Narasimhavarman I. (630-668 AD).'''Obv''' Lion left '''Rev''' Name of Narasimhavarman with solar and lunar symbols around.]]
Pallava inscriptions have been found in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], 
[[Prakrit]] and [[Sanskrit]]. 

Tamil was main language used by the Pallavas in their inscriptions  although a few records continued to be in Sanskrit.<ref name="venkayya" /> At the time of the time of [[Parameswaravarman I|Paramesvaravarman I]], the practice came into vogue of inscribing a part of the record in Sanskrit and the rest in Tamil. Almost all the copper plate records, viz., Kasakudi, Tandantottam, Pattattalmangalm, Udayendiram and Velurpalaiyam are composed both in Sanskrit and Tamil.<ref name="venkayya" />

Many Pallava royal inscriptions were in Sanskrit or Prakrit, considered the official languages. Similarly, inscriptions found in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka State are in Sanskrit and Prakrit.<ref name="RK 40-78">Rajan K. (Jan-Feb 2008). Situating the Beginning of Early Historic Times in Tamil Nadu: Some Issues and Reflections, Social Scientist, Vol. 36, Number 1/2, pp. 40-78</ref> Sanskrit was widely used by [[Simhavishnu]] and [[Narasimhavarman II]] in literature. The phenomenon of using Prakrit as official languages in which rulers left their inscriptions and epigraphies continued till the 6th century. It would have been in the interest of the ruling elite to protect their privileges by perpetuating their hegemony of Prakrit in order to exclude the common people from sharing power (Mahadevan 1995a: 173–188). The Pallavas in their Tamil country used Tamil and Sanskrit in their inscriptions.<ref name="herasp38">[[#Heras|Heras]], p 38</ref><ref name="venkayya">{{cite journal |last1=Venkayya |first1=V |author-link=V. Venkayya |title=Velurpalaiyam Plates of Nandivarman III |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |date=April 1911 |pages=521–524 |jstor=25189883|volume=43|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00041617 |s2cid=163316246 }}</ref>

===Writing system===
{{Main|Pallava alphabet}}
Under the Pallava dynasty, a unique form of [[Grantha script]], a descendant of Pallava script which is a type of [[Brahmic script]], was used. Around the 6th century, it was exported eastwards and influenced the genesis of almost all Southeast Asian scripts.

==Religion==
Pallavas were followers of Hinduism and made gifts of land to gods and Brahmins. In line with the prevalent customs, some of the rulers performed the ''[[Aswamedha]]'' and other [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic sacrifices]].<ref name=sastri92/> They were, however, tolerant of other faiths. The Chinese monk [[Xuanzang]] who visited [[Kanchipuram]] during the reign of Narasimhavarman I reported that there were 100 Buddhist monasteries, and 80 Hindu temples in Kanchipuram.<ref>Kulke and Rothermund, pp121–122</ref> The semi-legendary founder of [[Zen Buddhism]], [[Bodhidharma]], is in an Indian tradition regarded to be the third son of a  Pallava king.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hemanth |first=Ungal Anban |date=2021-01-03 |title=History of Bodhidharma — Mysteries & Secrets (Indian Pallava Prince) |url=https://medium.com/lessons-from-history/history-of-bodhidharma-mysteries-secrets-indian-pallava-prince-81157bedb948 |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=Lessons from History |language=en}}</ref>

==Pallava architecture==
[[File:Shore Temple (Detail of North Face, 2011-05-28).jpg|thumb|300px|The Shore Temple at [[Mamallapuram]] built by [[Narasimhavarman II]]]][[File:Pallava Pillar Mandagappattu.png|300px|left|Early Pallava style pillar, 7th c.]]{{Further|Pallava art and architecture}}The Pallavas were instrumental in the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone temples. The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610 to 690 and structural temples between 690 and 900. A number of rock-cut cave temples bear the inscription of the Pallava king, Mahendravarman I and his successors.<ref>Nilakanta Sastri, pp412–413</ref><ref name="Lochtefeld2002p399">{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC&pg=PA399 |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M |author=James G. Lochtefeld |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8 |page=399}}</ref><ref name="Unesco2">{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249/ |title=Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram |publisher=UNESCO.org |access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref><ref name="Advisory">{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/249.pdf |title=Advisory body evaluation |publisher=UNESCO.org |access-date=23 October 2012}}</ref>

Among the accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples at [[Mamallapuram]]. There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as ''Rathas'' in Mahabalipuram. Early temples were mostly dedicated to [[Shiva]]. The Kailasanatha temple in [[Kanchipuram]] and the [[Shore Temple]] built by [[Narasimhavarman II]], rock cut temple in [[Mahendravadi]] by Mahendravarman are fine examples of the Pallava style temples.<ref>Nilakanta Sastri, p139</ref> The temple of [[Nalanda Gedige]] in [[Kandy]], [[Sri Lanka]] is another. The famous [[Tondeswaram temple]] of [[Dondra Head|Tenavarai]] and the ancient [[Koneswaram temple]] of [[Trincomalee]] were patronised and structurally developed by the Pallavas in the 7th century.<ref name="Unesco2"/><ref>[http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_mahabalipuram_detail.asp Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, Dist. Kanchipuram] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529204944/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_mahabalipuram_detail.asp |date=29 May 2018 }}, Archaeological Survey of India (2014)</ref>

==Pallava society==
The Pallava period beginning with Simhavishnu (575 CE{{Dash}}900 CE) was a transitional stage in southern Indian society with monument building, foundation of devotional (bhakti) sects of [[Alvars]] and [[Nayanars]], the flowering of rural Brahmanical institutions of Sanskrit learning, and the establishment of ''chakravartin'' model of kingship over a territory of diverse people; which ended the pre-Pallavan era of territorially segmented people, each with their culture, under a tribal chieftain.<ref>{{citation |author=Burton Stein |title=Peasant state and society in medieval South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1980 |pages=63–64}}</ref> While a system of ranked relationship among groups existed in the [[Sangam period|classical period]], the Pallava period extolled ranked relationships based on ritual purity as enjoined by the ''shastras''.<ref name="stein">{{citation |author=Burton Stein |title=Peasant state and society in medieval South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1980 |page=70}}</ref> Burton distinguishes between the ''chakravatin'' model and the ''kshatriya'' model, and likens kshatriyas to locally based warriors with ritual status sufficiently high enough to share with Brahmins; and states that in south India the kshatriya model did not emerge.<ref name=stein/> As per Burton, south India was aware of the Indo-Aryan ''varna'' organised society in which decisive secular authority was vested in the ''kshatriyas''; but apart from the Pallava, Chola and Vijayanagar line of warriors which claimed ''chakravartin'' status, only few locality warrior families achieved the prestigious kin-linked organisation of northern warrior groups.<ref name=stein/>

==Chronology==

===Sastri chronology===

The earliest documentation on the Pallavas is the three copper-plate grants, now referred to as the ''Mayidavolu'' (from [[Maidavolu]] village in [[Guntur district]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]]), ''Hirehadagali'' (from Hire Hadagali of [[Karnataka]]) and the ''British Museum'' plates (Durga Prasad, 1988) belonging to Skandavarman I and written in [[Prakrit]].<ref name="sastri91">Nilakanta Sastri, ''A History of South India'', p.91</ref> Skandavarman appears to have been the first great ruler of the early Pallavas, though there are references to other early Pallavas who were probably predecessors of Skandavarman.<ref>Nilakanta Sastri, ''A History of South India'', p.91–92</ref> Skandavarman extended his dominions from the [[Krishna River|Krishna]] in the north to the [[Pennar]] in the south and to the [[Bellary]] district in the West. He performed the ''Aswamedha'' and other Vedic sacrifices and bore the title of "Supreme King of Kings devoted to dharma".<ref name=sastri91/>

The Hirahadagali copper plate (Bellary District) record in Prakrit is dated in the eighth year of Sivaskanda Varman to 283 CE and confirms the gift made by his father who is described merely as "Bappa-deva" (revered father) or Boppa. It will thus be clear that this dynasty of the Prakrit charters beginning with "Bappa-deva" were the historical founders of the Pallava dominion in southern India.<ref name=":0">{{citation |chapter-url=https://chestofbooks.com/history/india/South-India-Culture/Chapter-VIII-Early-History-Of-The-Pallavas.html |title=Some Contributions Of South India To Indian Culture |last=Aiyangar |first=S. Krishnaswami |publisher=Cosmo Publications (15 July 2003) |year=2003 |isbn=978-8170200062 |chapter=Early History Of The Pallavas}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RUX8-PzWohgC&q=bappa-deva+pallava+%22hirehadagalli%22&pg=PA6 |title=The Kadamba Kula: A History of Ancient and Mediaeval Karnataka |last=Moraes |first=George M. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1995 |isbn=9788120605954 |pages=6}}</ref>

The Hirahadagalli Plates were found in Hirehadagali, [[Ballari district|Bellary district]] and is one of the earliest copper plates in [[Karnataka]] and belongs to the reign of early Pallava ruler Shivaskanda Varma. Pallava King Sivaskandavarman of Kanchi of the early Pallavas ruled from 275 to 300 CE, and issued the charter in 283 CE in the eighth year of his reign.

As per the Hirahadagalli Plates of 283 CE, Pallava King Sivaskandavarman granted an immunity viz the garden of Chillarekakodumka, which was formerly given by Lord Bappa to the Brahmins, freeholders of Chillarekakodumka and inhabitants of Apitti. Chillarekakodumka has been identified by some as ancient village Chillarige in Bellary, Karnataka.<ref name=":0" />

In the reign of [[Simhavarman II]], who ascended the throne in 436, the territories lost to the [[Vishnukundin]]s in the north up to the mouth of the Krishna were recovered.<ref>{{citation |last=Arunkumar |first=R. |chapter=Political History of Ancient South India |title=Caste system in ancient South India |publisher=Gulbarga University/Shodhganga |year=2014 |hdl=10603/28091 |chapter-url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/28091/5/05_chapter%202.pdf |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/28091}}</ref> The early Pallava history from this period onwards is furnished by a dozen or so copper-plate grants in [[Sanskrit]]. They are all dated in the regnal years of the kings.<ref name="sastri92">Nilakanta Sastri, ''A History of South India'', p.92</ref> <!--  -->

The following chronology was composed from these charters by [[Nilakanta Sastri]] in his [[A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar|''A History of South India'']]:<ref name=sastri92/>

====Early Pallavas====
{{TNhistory}}
{{History of Andhra Pradesh}}
* [[Simhavarman I]] (275–300)
* Shivskandvarman (unknown) 
* Vijayskandavarman (unknown) 
* Skandavarman (unknown)
* [[Vishnugopa I]] (350–355)
* Kumaravishnu I (350–370)
* Skandavarman II (370–385)
* Viravarman (385–400)
* Skandavarman III (400–436)
* [[Simhavarman II]] (436–460)
* Skandavarman IV (460–480)
* Nandivarman I (480–510)
* Kumaravishnu II (510–530)
* Buddhavarman (530–540)
* Kumaravishnu III (540–550)
* [[Simhavarman III]] (550–560)

====Later Pallavas====

[[File:Mahabalipuram, Pancha Rathas, Tamil Nadu, India.jpg|thumb|The rock-cut temples at [[Mamallapuram]] constructed during the reign of [[Narasimhavarman I]]]]
[[File:Elephant mpuram.jpg |thumb|Elephant carved out of a single-stone]]
The incursion of the [[Kalabhras]] and the confusion in the Tamil country was broken by the [[Pandya]] [[Kadungon]] and the Pallava [[Simhavishnu]].<ref>Kulke and Rothermund, p.120</ref> [[Mahendravarman I]] extended the Pallava Kingdom and was one of the greatest sovereigns. Some of the most ornate monuments and temples in southern India, carved out of solid rock, were introduced under his rule. He also wrote the play ''[[Mattavilasa Prahasana]]''.<ref name="sen2">{{citation |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=41–42}}</ref>

The Pallava kingdom began to gain both in territory and influence and were a regional power by the end of the 6th century, defeating kings of [[Ceylon]] and mainland Tamilakkam.<ref name="kulke111">Kulke and Rothermund, p111</ref> [[Narasimhavarman I]] and [[Paramesvaravarman I]] stand out for their achievements in both military and architectural spheres. [[Narasimhavarman II]] built the [[Shore Temple]].

* [[Simhavishnu]] (575–600)<ref name=sen2/>
* [[Mahendravarman I]] (600–630)<ref name=sen2/>
* [[Narasimhavarman I]] (Mamalla) (630–668)<ref name=sen2/>
* [[Mahendravarman II]] (668–672)
* [[Paramesvaravarman I]] (670–695)<ref name=sen2/>
* [[Narasimhavarman II]] (Raja Simha) (695–722)<ref name=sen2/>
* [[Paramesvaravarman II]] (705–710)

===== Later Pallavas of the Kadava Line =====
The kings that came after Paramesvaravarman II belonged to the collateral line of Pallavas and were descendants of Bhimavarman, the brother of Simhavishnu. They called themselves as [[Kadava]]s, Kadavesa and Kaduvetti. Hiranyavarman, the father of Nandivarman Pallavamalla is said to have belonged to the Kadavakula in epigraphs.<ref name=kadavakula/> Nandivarman II himself is described as "one who was born to raise the prestige of the Kadava family".<ref>{{citation |title=South Indian Inscriptions, Volume 12 |author=Eugen Hultzsch |publisher=Manager of Publications, 1986 |page=viii}}</ref>
*[[Nandivarman II]] (Pallavamalla) (732–796) son of Hiranyavarman of Kadavakula<ref name=kadavakula/><ref name=sen2/>
* [[Dantivarman]] (795–846)<ref name=sen2/>
* [[Nandivarman III]] (846–869)<ref name=sen2/>
* [[Aparajitavarman]] (879–897)<ref name=sen2/>

===Aiyangar chronology===

According to the available inscriptions of the Pallavas, historian [[S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar]] proposes the Pallavas could be divided into four separate families or dynasties; some of whose connections are known and some unknown.<ref name="Aiyangar">S.Krishnaswami Aiyangar. Some Contributions Of South India To Indian Culture. [http://chestofbooks.com/history/india/South-India-Culture/Chapter-VIII-Early-History-Of-The-Pallavas.html Early History of the Pallavas]</ref> Aiyangar states <blockquote> We have a certain number of charters in Prakrit of which three are important ones. Then follows a dynasty which issued their charters in Sanskrit; following this came the family of the great Pallavas beginning with Simha Vishnu; this was followed by a dynasty of the usurper Nandi Varman, another great Pallava. We are overlooking for the present the dynasty of the Ganga-Pallavas postulated by the Epigraphists. The earliest of these Pallava charters is the one known as the Mayidavolu 1 (Guntur district) copper-plates.</blockquote>

Based on a combination of dynastic plates and grants from the period, Aiyangar proposed their rule thus:

====Early Pallavas====
* Bappadevan, chola prince (250–275){{spaced ndash}}married a Naga of Mavilanga (Kanchi){{Citation needed|date=October 2020}} – ''The Great Founder of a Pallava lineage''
* Shivaskandavarman I (275–300)
* Simhavarman (300–320)
* Bhuddavarman (320–335)
* Bhuddyankuran (335–340)

====Middle Pallavas====
* Visnugopa (340–355) (''Yuvamaharaja Vishnugopa'')
* Kumaravisnu I (355–370)
* Skanda Varman II (370–385)
* Vira Varman (385–400)
* Skanda Varman III (400–435)
* Simha Varman II (435–460)
* Skanda Varman IV (460–480)
* Nandi Varman I (480–500)
* Kumaravisnu II ({{circa}} 500–510)
* Buddha Varman ({{circa}} 510–520)
* Kumaravisnu III ({{circa}} 520–530)
* Simha Varman III ({{circa}} 530–537)

====Later Pallavas====
*[[Simhavishnu]] (537–570)
*[[Mahendravarman I]] (571–630)
*[[Narasimhavarman I]] (Mamalla) (630–668)
*[[Mahendravarman II]] (668–672)
*[[Paramesvaravarman I]] (672–700)
*[[Narasimhavarman II]] (Raja Simha) (700–727)
*[[Paramesvaravarman II]] (705–710)

===== Later Pallavas of the Kadava Line =====
*[[Nandivarman II]] (Pallavamalla) (732–796) son of Hiranyavarman of Kadavakula<ref name="kadavakula">{{citation |title=History of Kongu, Volume 1 |author=V. Ramamurthy |publisher=International Society for the Investigation of Ancient Civilization, 1986 |page=172}}</ref>
*[[Dantivarman]] (775–825)
*[[Nandivarman III]] (825–869)
*Nirupathungan (869–882)
*[[Aparajitavarman]] (882–896)

===Genealogy of Māmallapuram Praśasti===

The genealogy of Pallavas mentioned in the ''Māmallapuram Praśasti'' is as follows:<ref name="RMD 189-241"/>
* Vishnu
* Brahma
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Bharadvaja
* Drona
* Ashvatthaman
* Pallava
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Simhavarman I ({{circa}} 275)
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Simhavarman IV (436–{{circa}} 460)
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Skandashishya
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Simhavisnu ({{circa}} 550–585)
* Mahendravarman I ({{circa}} 571–630)
* Maha-malla Narasimhavarman I (630–668)
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Paramesvaravarman I (669–690)
* Rajasimha Narasimhavaram II (690–728)
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Pallavamalla Nandivarman II (731–796)
* Unknown / undecipherable
* Nandivarman III (846–869)

=== Relation with the Cholas ===
According to historian [[S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar|S. Krishnaswami Aiyengar]], the Pallavas were natives of [[Tondaimandalam]] and the name Pallava is identical with the word Tondaiyar.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|author=T. V. Mahalingam|title=Kāñcīpuram in early South Indian history|publisher=Asia Pub. House, 1969|page=22}}</ref> [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] Prince [[Ilandiraiyan]] is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Pallava dynasty.{{sfn|Ramaswamy|2007|p=80}} Ilandiraiyan is referred to in the literature of the [[Sangam period]] such as the [[Pathupattu]]. In the Sangam epic [[Manimekalai]], he is depicted as the son of [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] king Killi and the Naga princess Pilivalai, the daughter of king Valaivanan of [[Nainativu|Manipallavam]]. When the boy grew up the princess wanted to send her son to the Chola kingdom. So she entrusted the prince to a merchant who dealt in woolen blankets called Kambala Chetty when his ship stopped in the island of Manipallavam. During the voyage to the Chola kingdom, the ship was wrecked due to rough weather and the boy was lost. He was later found washed ashore with a Tondai twig (creeper) around his leg. So he came to be called Tondaiman Ilam Tiraiyan meaning ''the young one of the seas or waves''. When he grew up the northern part of the Chola kingdom was entrusted to him and the area he governed came to be called [[Tondaimandalam]] after him.He was a poet himself and four of his songs are extant even today.{{sfn|Sastri|1961|p=126}}  He ruled from [[Tondaimandalam]] and was known as "Tondaman."{{sfn|Ramaswamy|2007|p=80}}

==Other relationships==
Pallava royal lineages were influential in the [[History of Kedah|old kingdom of Kedah]] of the Malay Peninsula under Rudravarman I, [[History of Champa|Champa]] under [[Bhadravarman I]] and the Kingdom of the [[Funan]] in Cambodia.<ref>{{citation |title = The Indianized States of South-East Asia |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iDyJBFTdiwoC |publisher = University of Hawaii Press |date = 1 January 1968 |isbn = 9780824803681 |first = George |last = Cœdès}}</ref> Some historians have claimed the present Palli [[Vanniyar]] caste are descendants of the Pallavas who ruled the Andhra and Tamil countries between the 6th and 9th centuries.{{Citation needed|date=October 2022}} Tamil scholar M. Srinivasa Iyengar claimed claimed the Pallis were one of the communities who served often in Pallava armies.{{Sfn|Venkatasubramanian|1986|p=35}}

The similarity of the name ending "-[[Varman (surname)|varman]]" of Pallava rulers with that of [[Hindu king]]s during the [[History of Indonesia#Hindu-Buddhist civilisations|Hindu/Buddhist era]] of [[Indonesia]] such as king [[Mulavarman]] of the [[Kutai|Kutai Martadipura Kingdom]], king [[Purnawarman]] of the [[Tarumanagara]] kingdom, king [[Adityawarman]] of the [[Pagaruyung Kingdom|Malayapura]] kingdom, etc. has been commented upon by historians since discovery.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=VOGEL |first1=J. Ph. |title=The Yupa Inscriptions of King Mulavarman, from Koetei (East Borneo) |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië |date=1918 |volume=74 |issue=1/2 |pages=167–232 |jstor=20769898 |issn=1383-5408}}</ref> There have been possible high relations and connections of the Hindu kingdoms of Indonesia with the Pallava dynasty and other Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms of India back then.

== List of feudatories ==
* [[Salankayana dynasty]]{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}

==See also==
* [[List of Tamil monarchs]]
*[[Kadava dynasty]]
*[[Pallar]]
*[[Nolamba dynasty]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |last1=Aiyangar |first1=S. K. |author-link1=S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar |last2=Nilakanta Sastri |first2=K. A. |author-link2=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri |chapter=The Pallavas |editor1=R. C. Majumdar |editor2=K. K. Dasgupta |title=A Comprehensive History of India, Volume III, Part 1: A.D. 300–985 |publisher=Indian History Congress/People's Publishing House |location=New Delhi |year=1960 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.98114/page/n337 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.98114/page/n5}}
* {{citation |first=Burjor |last=Avari |year=2007 |title=India: The Ancient Past |publisher=Routledge |location=New York }}
* {{citation |first= Kulke  |last= Hermann |author2=Rothermund D |orig-year= 2000 |year=2001 |title= A History of India |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 0-415-32920-5}}
** {{Citation |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |year=2004 |title=A History of India |publisher=Routledge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C |edition=Fourth|isbn=9780415329194 }}
* {{citation |first=Cadambi |last=Minakshi |author-link= C. Minakshi |year=1938 |title=Administration and Social Life Under the Pallavas |publisher=University of Madras |location=Madras }}
* {{citation |first=Durga |last=Prasad |year=1988 |title= History of the Andhras up to 1565 A.D. |publisher=P.G. Publishers |location=Guntur, India }}
* {{citation |first=R. |last=Sathianathaier |chapter=Dynasties of South India |pages=255–275 |title=The Classical Age |edition=Third |editor1-last=Majumdar |editor1-first=R. C. |editor2-last=Pusalkar |editor2-first=A. D. |series=History and Culture of Indian People |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1970 |orig-year=first published 1954 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.108270/page/n315 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.108270}}
* {{citation |first=D. C. |last=Sircar |chapter=Genealogy and Chronology of the Pallavas |pages=275–290 |title=The Classical Age |edition=Third |editor1-last=Majumdar |editor1-first=R. C. |editor2-last=Pusalkar |editor2-first=A. D. |series=History and Culture of Indian People |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1970 |orig-year=first published 1954 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.108270/page/n335 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.108270}}
* {{citation |first = R |last = Raghava Iyengar |year = 1949 |title = Perumbanarruppatai, a commentary |publisher = Annamalai University Press |location = Chidambaram, India}}
{{refend}}

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