Jump to content

Talk:Étienne Perier (governor)/Archive 3: Difference between revisions

Page contents not supported in other languages.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Undid revision 1031276080 by Tcr25 (talk) restore current working version
create dff vs. Belyny's proposal
Tag: Reverted
Line 1: Line 1:
This is a sandbox/working group page for the rewrite of the section of the article covering Étienne de Perier's time as governor.
This is a sandbox/working group page for the rewrite of the section of the article covering Étienne de Perier's time as governor.


(work in progress)
(work in progress) create diff for Belyny's proposal


==Governor of Louisiana (1726–1733)==
==Governor of the French Louisiana (1726-1733)==
=== Nomination ===
In August 1726, after then governor of [[Louisiana (New France)|French Louisiana]] [[Pierre Dugué de Boisbriant]] was recalled to France,<ref name="Sumners1998">{{cite book|last=Sumners|first=Cecil L.|title=The Governors of Mississippi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p8qBC3V-qgcC|year=1998|publisher=Pelican Publishing|location=Gretna, Louisiana|isbn=978-1-4556-0521-7|page=12}}</ref> Perier was appointed commandant general of the territory, overseeing military matters and relations with the Native Americans.<ref name="McGuire2010">{{cite book|last1=McGuire|first1=Jack B.|chapter=Etienne de Perier|editor-last1=Cowan|editor-first1=Walter Greaves|editor-last2=McGuire|editor-first2=Jack B.|title=Louisiana Governors: Rulers, Rascals, and Reformers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-0-kmu4vk0C|year=2010|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|location=Jackson, Mississippi|isbn=978-1-60473-320-4|page=25}}</ref> He arrived in New Orleans in October 1726<ref name="Fortier1904">{{cite book|last=Fortier|first=Alcée|title=A History of Louisiana: Early Explorers and the Domination of the French (1512-1768)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sg7UDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|volume=1|year=1904|publisher=Manzi, Joyant & Co.|location=New York, New York|page=103|id=GGKEY:CSYD4YCWBUH}}</ref> and established his home at 613 Royal Street, a townhouse that in 1963 became the [[Louisiana Creole cuisine|Creole]] restaurant The Court of Two Sisters.<ref name="Brown2021">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Alan|title=Louisiana Legends & Lore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09AHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59|year=2021|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|location=Mount Pleasant, South Carolina|isbn=978-1-4671-4751-4|page=59}}</ref>
In August 1726, after then governor of [[Louisiana (New France)|French Louisiana]] [[Pierre Dugué de Boisbriant]] was recalled to France,<ref name="Sumners1998">{{cite book|last=Sumners|first=Cecil L.|title=The Governors of Mississippi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p8qBC3V-qgcC|year=1998|publisher=Pelican Publishing|location=Gretna, Louisiana|isbn=978-1-4556-0521-7|page=12}}</ref> Perier was appointed commandant general of the territory, overseeing military matters and relations with the Native Americans.<ref name="McGuire2010">{{cite book|last1=McGuire|first1=Jack B.|chapter=Etienne de Perier|editor-last1=Cowan|editor-first1=Walter Greaves|editor-last2=McGuire|editor-first2=Jack B.|title=Louisiana Governors: Rulers, Rascals, and Reformers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-0-kmu4vk0C|year=2010|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|location=Jackson, Mississippi|isbn=978-1-60473-320-4|page=25}}</ref> He arrived in New Orleans in October 1726<ref name="Fortier1904">{{cite book|last=Fortier|first=Alcée|title=A History of Louisiana: Early Explorers and the Domination of the French (1512-1768)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sg7UDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103|volume=1|year=1904|publisher=Manzi, Joyant & Co.|location=New York, New York|page=103|id=GGKEY:CSYD4YCWBUH}}</ref> and established his home at 613 Royal Street. a modest house made of wood and mud.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ffxYAAAAMAAJ&q=%22en+r%C3%A9alit%C3%A9+modeste+maison+en+bois+et+en+torchis%22&dq=%22en+r%C3%A9alit%C3%A9+modeste+maison+en+bois+et+en+torchis%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj1p6aUy77xAhUzkmoFHdpZA9QQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg Marc de Villiers du Terrage, ''La Louisiane de Chateaubriand'', Au siège de la Société, 1924, page 147. </ref> At this place was built in 1832 a new house that became in 1963 the [[Louisiana Creole cuisine|Creole]] restaurant The Court of Two Sisters.<ref name="Brown2021">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Alan|title=Louisiana Legends & Lore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09AHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59|year=2021|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|location=Mount Pleasant, South Carolina|isbn=978-1-4671-4751-4|page=59}}</ref>


Despite Perier's lack of experience in colonial administration, the Company of the Indies felt they had a long-time employee who would be a pliant administrator focused on the Company’s goals.<ref name="Balesi1992">{{cite book|last=Balesi|first=Charles John|title=The Time of the French in the Heart of North America, 1673-1818|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fYITAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=21 June 2021|year=1992|publisher=Alliance Française Chicago|location=Chicago, Illinois|isbn=978-1-881370-00-0|page=175}}</ref> To ensure this, the Company granted him an annual salary of 10,000 [[French livre]]s,<ref name="Giraud1991">{{cite book|last=Giraud|first=Marcel|title=A History of French Louisiana: The Company of the Indies, 1723–1731|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y12d_DC3l1YC|year=1991|translator-last=Pearce|translator-first=Brian|publisher=LSU Press|location=Baton Rouge, Louisiana|isbn=978-0-8071-1571-8|page=54}}</ref>{{efn|10,000 livres in 1725 is equivalent to about {{currency|151,000|EUR}} in 2021. ({{URL|1=https://convertisseur-monnaie-ancienne.fr/?Y=1726&E=0&L=10000&S=0&D=0|2=Convertisseur de Monnaie d'Ancien Régime}}) }} {{convert|10|acre|hectare}} of riverfront land, and eight [[Atlantic slave trade|enslaved people]] a year so long as he remained in office.<ref name="Gayarré1854">{{cite book|last=Gayarré|first=Charles|title=History of Louisiana: The French Domination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3IFAAAAQAAJ|volume=1|year=1854|publisher=Redfield|location=New York, New York|page=372}}</ref> He sold the land, which is in the modern [[McDonoghville]] neighborhood, in 1737.<ref name="Swanson2003">{{cite book|last=Swanson|first=Betsy|title=Historic Jefferson Parish: From Shore to Shore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wrmf-bMMq7UC|accessdate=21 June 2021|year=2003|publisher=Pelican Publishing|location=Gretna, Louisiana|isbn=978-1-4556-0576-7|page=110}}</ref>
Despite Perier's lack of experience in colonial administration, the Company of the Indies felt they had a long-time employee who would be a pliant administrator focused on the Company’s goals.<ref name="Balesi1992">{{cite book|last=Balesi|first=Charles John|title=The Time of the French in the Heart of North America, 1673-1818|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fYITAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=21 June 2021|year=1992|publisher=Alliance Française Chicago|location=Chicago, Illinois|isbn=978-1-881370-00-0|page=175}}</ref> To ensure this, the Company granted him an annual salary of 10,000 [[French livre]]s,<ref name="Giraud1991">{{cite book|last=Giraud|first=Marcel|title=A History of French Louisiana: The Company of the Indies, 1723–1731|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y12d_DC3l1YC|year=1991|translator-last=Pearce|translator-first=Brian|publisher=LSU Press|location=Baton Rouge, Louisiana|isbn=978-0-8071-1571-8|page=54}}</ref>{{efn|10,000 livres in 1725 is equivalent to about {{currency|151,000|EUR}} in 2021. ({{URL|1=https://convertisseur-monnaie-ancienne.fr/?Y=1726&E=0&L=10000&S=0&D=0|2=Convertisseur de Monnaie d'Ancien Régime}}) }} {{convert|10|acre|hectare}} of riverfront land, and eight [[Atlantic slave trade|enslaved people]] a year so long as he remained in office.<ref name="Gayarré1854">{{cite book|last=Gayarré|first=Charles|title=History of Louisiana: The French Domination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3IFAAAAQAAJ|volume=1|year=1854|publisher=Redfield|location=New York, New York|page=372}}</ref> He sold the land, which is in the modern [[McDonoghville]] neighborhood, in 1737.<ref name="Swanson2003">{{cite book|last=Swanson|first=Betsy|title=Historic Jefferson Parish: From Shore to Shore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wrmf-bMMq7UC|accessdate=21 June 2021|year=2003|publisher=Pelican Publishing|location=Gretna, Louisiana|isbn=978-1-4556-0576-7|page=110}}</ref>


The Company directed Perier to increase the profitability of the colony, enforce discipline and loyalty, and keep the English from entering the territory. {{sfn|Haudrère|1996|pp=87–100}} He was specifically tasked with completing improvements to secure the health and safety of New Orleans, as well as to visit the Company settlement in [[History of Natchez, Mississippi#Colonial history (1716–1783)|Natchez]].{{sfn|Gayarré|1854|pp=372–375}} Pierer also sought to diffuse some of the partisan, religious, and familial cliques that had made running the colony difficult for his predecessors.{{sfn|Giraud|1991|p=58}} In this he had some initial successes, particularly in managing the dispute between Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries.{{snf|Giraud|1991|pp=58, 102}}
The Company directed Perier to increase the profitability of the colony, enforce discipline and loyalty, and keep the English from entering the territory. {{sfn|Haudrère|1996|pp=87–100}} He was specifically tasked with completing improvements to secure the health and safety of New Orleans, as well as to visit the Company settlement in [[History of Natchez, Mississippi#Colonial history (1716–1783)|Natchez]].{{sfn|Gayarré|1854|pp=372–375}} Perier also sought to diffuse some of the partisan, religious, and familial cliques that had made running the colony difficult for his predecessors.{{sfn|Giraud|1991|p=58}} In this he had some initial successes, particularly in managing the dispute between Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries.{{snf|Giraud|1991|pp=58, 102}}


Perier's taking office marked the end of the indigenous policy pursued by Governor Bienville.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ekznzbNCQwYC&pg=PA16&dq=labandon+de+la+politique+indig%C3%A8ne+de+Bienville&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj74t2e0r7xAhV4lGoFHamYAUwQ6AEwAHoECAcQAg#v=onepage&q=%22l'abandon%20de%20la%20politique%20indig%C3%A8ne%20de%20Bienville%22&f=falseKhalil Saadani, ''La Louisiane française dans l'impasse: 1731-1743'', Editions L'Harmattan, 2008, page 16.}</ref>

===Achievements===
Perier launched a large public works effort, overseeing the construction of the first levees on the Mississippi,<ref name="Rightor1900">{{cite book|last=Rightor|first=Henry|title=Standard History of New Orleans, Louisiana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1ITAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA81|year=1900|publisher=The Lewis Publishing Co.|location=Chicago, Illinois|page=81}}</ref> cleared forests and brush from the land between the city and [[Lake Pontchartrain]],<ref name="Rightor1900" /> and dug a canal from the Mississippi to connect the river to a rice mill on the king's plantation and [[Bayou St. John]].<ref>{{cite report|title=Cultural Resources Survey of Four Construction Items Below New Orleans|first1=Herschel A.|last1=Franks|first2=Jill-Karen|last2=Yakubik|year=1994|number=COELMN/PD-91/02|publisher=[[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]]|location=New Orleans, Louisiana|page=245|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA281285}}</ref> He also welcomed the [[History of the Ursulines in New Orleans|Ursuline nuns]] to the city; his wife, Catherine, laid the cornerstone for the nun's [[Old Ursuline Convent, New Orleans|first convent]] in the city.<ref name="Cruzat1919">{{cite journal|last=Cruzat|first=Heloise Hulse|title=The Ursulines of Louiana|journal=Louisiana Historical Quarterly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ukkUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12|volume=1|number=1|year=1919|page=12}}</ref>
Perier launched a large public works effort, overseeing the construction of the first levees on the Mississippi,<ref name="Rightor1900">{{cite book|last=Rightor|first=Henry|title=Standard History of New Orleans, Louisiana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1ITAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA81|year=1900|publisher=The Lewis Publishing Co.|location=Chicago, Illinois|page=81}}</ref> cleared forests and brush from the land between the city and [[Lake Pontchartrain]],<ref name="Rightor1900" /> and dug a canal from the Mississippi to connect the river to a rice mill on the king's plantation and [[Bayou St. John]].<ref>{{cite report|title=Cultural Resources Survey of Four Construction Items Below New Orleans|first1=Herschel A.|last1=Franks|first2=Jill-Karen|last2=Yakubik|year=1994|number=COELMN/PD-91/02|publisher=[[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]]|location=New Orleans, Louisiana|page=245|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA281285}}</ref> He also welcomed the [[History of the Ursulines in New Orleans|Ursuline nuns]] to the city; his wife, Catherine, laid the cornerstone for the nun's [[Old Ursuline Convent, New Orleans|first convent]] in the city.<ref name="Cruzat1919">{{cite journal|last=Cruzat|first=Heloise Hulse|title=The Ursulines of Louiana|journal=Louisiana Historical Quarterly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ukkUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12|volume=1|number=1|year=1919|page=12}}</ref>


===Slavery policies===
===Slavery policies (Ok for this title)===
Achieving these public works required the labor of enslaved Africans. As the Company had a monopoly on the slave trade, they tended to put enslaved people to work on projects until they were auctioned off to local slavehoders.<ref>{{cite journal|title=From African Captivity to American Slavery: The Introduction of Black Laborers to Colonial Louisiana|last=Usner Jr.|first=Daniel H.|date=1979|journal=Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association|volume=20|number=1|page=32|jstor=4231866}}</ref> To increase the available workforce, Perier began conscripting enslaved people for 30 days at a time. In most cases, they were conscripted when the Company first brought them to Louisiana, before delivering them to their purchasers, which raised the ire of Louisiana slaveholders.<ref name="Hall1995">{{cite book|last=Hall|first=Gwendolyn Midlo|title=Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century|publisher=LSU Press|location=Baton Rouge, Louisiana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mYz_THytJ38C|year=1995|isbn=978-0807119990|page=127}}</ref> Perier instituted an apprenticeship program where enslaved people were loaned to craftsmen for three years to train them as brickmakers, joiners, masons, carpenters, and other skilled trades necessary to the growth and development of the colony.{{snf|Usner Jr.|1979|p=34}} He also put enslaved Africans to work on Company ships, navigating the coast and rivers.{{sfn|Greenwald|2011|p=193}}
Achieving of public works required the labor of enslaved Africans. As the Company had a monopoly on the slave trade, they tended to put enslaved people to work on projects until they were auctioned off to local slavehoders.<ref>{{cite journal|title=From African Captivity to American Slavery: The Introduction of Black Laborers to Colonial Louisiana|last=Usner Jr.|first=Daniel H.|date=1979|journal=Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association|volume=20|number=1|page=32|jstor=4231866}}</ref> To increase the available workforce, Perier began conscripting enslaved people for 30 days at a time. In most cases, they were conscripted when the Company first brought them to Louisiana, before delivering them to their purchasers, which raised the ire of Louisiana slaveholders.<ref name="Hall1995">{{cite book|last=Hall|first=Gwendolyn Midlo|title=Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century|publisher=LSU Press|location=Baton Rouge, Louisiana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mYz_THytJ38C|year=1995|isbn=978-0807119990|page=127}}</ref> Perier also instituted an apprenticeship program where enslaved people were loaned to craftsmen for three years to train them as brickmakers, joiners, masons, carpenters, and other skilled trades necessary to the growth and development of the colony.{{snf|Usner Jr.|1979|p=34}} He also put enslaved Africans to work on Company ships, navigating the coast and rivers.{{sfn|Greenwald|2011|p=193}}


[[History of slavery in Louisiana|At the time]], both Africans and Native Americans were enslaved by French settlers. Perier was increasingly concerned about alliances among enslaved people, and he encouraged slaveholders to keep enslaved Africans apart from enslaved Native Americans for fear of the two groups forming alliances. He was particularly concerned that Native Americans who escaped from slavery would induce enslaved Africans to also escape and seek the protection of Native tribes.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Divide and Rule: Red, White, and Black in the Southeast|last=Willis|first=William S.|date=July 1963|journal=The Journal of Negro History|volume=48|number=3|page=162|jstor=2716338}}</ref> To foster mistrust between the two groups, Perier used armed enslaved Black troops to attack neighboring Native Americans,<ref name="Blackbird2018">{{cite thesis|title=Entwined Threads of Red and Black: The Hidden History of Indigenous Enslavement in Louisiana, 1699-1824|first=Leila K.|last=Blackbird|publisher=University of New Orleans|location=New Orleans, Louisiana|date=2018|type=MA|page=47–48|url=https://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/2559}}</ref> and he continued the policy of rewarding Native Americans for capturing escapees and disrupting [[maroon]] communities.{{sfn|Usner Jr.|1979|p=44}}
[[History of slavery in Louisiana|At the time]], both Africans and Native Americans were enslaved by French settlers. Perier was increasingly concerned about alliances among enslaved people, and he encouraged slaveholders to keep enslaved Africans apart from enslaved Native Americans for fear of the two groups forming alliances. He was particularly concerned that Native Americans who escaped from slavery would induce enslaved Africans to also escape and seek the protection of Native tribes.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Divide and Rule: Red, White, and Black in the Southeast|last=Willis|first=William S.|date=July 1963|journal=The Journal of Negro History|volume=48|number=3|page=162|jstor=2716338}}</ref> To foster mistrust between the two groups, Perier used armed enslaved Black troops to attack neighboring Native Americans,<ref name="Blackbird2018">{{cite thesis|title=Entwined Threads of Red and Black: The Hidden History of Indigenous Enslavement in Louisiana, 1699-1824|first=Leila K.|last=Blackbird|publisher=University of New Orleans|location=New Orleans, Louisiana|date=2018|type=MA|page=47–48|url=https://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/2559}}</ref> and he continued the policy of rewarding Native Americans for capturing escapees and disrupting [[maroon]] communities.{{sfn|Usner Jr.|1979|p=44}}


===Native American policies===
===Native American policies===
It was in addressing relations with Native Americans in the colony where Perier had his greatest challenges. Despite having been encouraged to learn from what Bienville had written about relations with the Native Americans{{sfn|Giraud|1991|p=36}} and recognizing the need to improve relations to forestall British advancement into the territory,{{sfn|Greenwald|2011|p=191}} Perier entrusted the Sieur de Chépart (in some sources d'Etcheparre) with command of [[Fort Rosalie]] and overseeing trade with the [[Natchez people|Natchez]].{{sfn|Blackbird|2018|p=46}} Louisiana's colonial administrators at the time tried to balance the need to maintain good relations with Native Americans with demands from settlers for more and better land;<ref name="Kline2000">{{cite report|title=Louisiana: European Explorations and the Louisiana Purchase — A Special Presentation from the Geography and Map Division of the Library of Congress|last=Klein|first=Michael|date=2000|publisher=Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C.|page=21|url=https://www.loc.gov/static/collections/louisiana-european-explorations-and-the-louisiana-purchase/images/lapurchase.pdf}}</ref> however, Perier's policies did not recognize Native American ownership of their traditional lands, including the rich lands of the [[Grand Village of the Natchez|Grand Village]] and other Natchez villages.<ref name="Kline2000" />
Despite having been encouraged to learn from what Bienville had written about relations with the Native Americans{{sfn|Giraud|1991|p=36}} and recognizing the need to improve relations to forestall British advancement into the territory,{{sfn|Greenwald|2011|p=191}} Perier did not deal with the Indians and treat them as equals as did the former governor [[Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville|Bienville]] Louisiana's colonial administrators at the time tried to balance the need to maintain good relations with Native Americans with demands from settlers for more and better land;<ref name="Kline2000">{{cite report|title=Louisiana: European Explorations and the Louisiana Purchase — A Special Presentation from the Geography and Map Division of the Library of Congress|last=Klein|first=Michael|date=2000|publisher=Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C.|page=21|url=https://www.loc.gov/static/collections/louisiana-european-explorations-and-the-louisiana-purchase/images/lapurchase.pdf}}</ref> but Perier refuse to recognize Native American ownership of their traditional lands, including the rich lands of the [[Grand Village of the Natchez|Grand Village]] and other Natchez villages.<ref name="Kline2000" /><ref name="McGuire2010">{{cite book|last1=McGuire|first1=Jack B.|chapter=Etienne de Perier|editor-last1=Cowan|editor-first1=Walter Greaves|editor-last2=McGuire|editor-first2=Jack B.|title=Louisiana Governors: Rulers, Rascals, and Reformers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-0-kmu4vk0C|year=2010|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|location=Jackson, Mississippi|isbn=978-1-60473-320-4|page=25}}</ref>

Perier tried to control the Indians with fear and armed a group of Black [[Slavery|slaves]] and sent them against a small group of peaceful [[Chickasaw]] Indians who lived South [[New Orleans]].<ref name="Fabulous">{{cite book|last=Saxon|first=Lyle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtiZBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT106|title=Fabulous New Orleans|publisher=Pelican Publishing Co.|year=1989|isbn=978-1-4556-0402-9|location=Greta, Louisiana}}</ref> Carter Godwin in ''The Journal of Negro History'' writes: "Perier's logic was reactionary. Since he had used blacks to murder Indians in order to make bad blood between the races, the Indians retaliated by using blacks to murder white men".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Woodson|first1=Carter Godwin|last2=Logan|first2=Rayford Whittingham|title=The Journal of Negro History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H46G40FQlq8C&pg=PA370|year=1916|publisher=Association for the Study of Negro Life and History|location=Chicago, Illinois|page=370}}</ref>

Lyle Saxon in ''Fabulous New Orleans'' states "another record of horror" : "Soldiers from the New Orleans barracks managed to capture four men and two women of the [[Natchez people|Natchez nation]], and Governor Perier had them burned at the stake on the levee in front of the Place d'Armes.<ref name="Fabulous"/> Perier said: "Since their flight, I have had fifty of them killed or taken prisoners. I buried here six of them, four men and two women".<ref name="Cushman">{{cite book|last=Cushman|first=Horatio Bardwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qdrsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA547|title=History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez Indians|publisher=Headlight Printing House|year=1899|isbn=978-1-5485-1119-7|location=Greenville, Texas|pages=547–548}}</ref> Perier was criticised severly by some of his owns officers for this piece of brutal stupididy.<ref name="Fabulous"/>

It wasn’t the last time Perier burned [[Natchez people|Natchez]] prisoners alive. A [[Natchez people|Natchez]] woman was captured and Governor Perier had her burned to death on a high platform erected especially for the ceremony, and deto witness which all [[New Orleans]] again turned out in state<ref name="Cushman" />

Such policy wa blamed by the French Government. The Comptrolleur General was horrified and wrote to Perier : "What do you expect the natives will think when they witness the destruction of whole nations who have given you no offense? … Is it not equivalent to forcing them to look upon the French as barbarians who must be driven out or massacred?"<ref>[https://rla.unc.edu/Louisiane/articles/Delanglez%201934%20LHQ%20(Perier).pdf Rev. John Delanglez, ''The Natchez massacre and governor Perier'', 1934, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 1934, page 640.]</ref>

===Partnership with Chepart for a plantation on Natchez land===
Perier Wished to establish for himself a large plantation near the Natchez village. He entered into a partnership with a sieur Chepart (or d'Etcheparre), known as a drunkard and brash person and promised him an interest in the futur plantation if he could secure the Natchez land.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=usxWAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Governor+Perier+sent+a+new+commandant+,+a+certain+Captain+Chepart+,+to+Fort+Rosalie+and+promised+him+an+interest%22&dq=%22Governor+Perier+sent+a+new+commandant+,+a+certain+Captain+Chepart+,+to+Fort+Rosalie+and+promised+him+an+interest%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwidwfqa8q7xAhVE6J4KHWt0CSIQ6AEwAXoECAMQAg Edwin Adams Davis, ''The story of Louisiana'', J.F. Hyer Publishing Company, 1960, page 59.]</ref><ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=my5L0Ek-UxUC&pg=PA10&dq=%22Perier+entered+into+a+partnership+with%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjI5ffz6b_xAhVTk2oFHbCKBNQQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg#v=onepage&q=%22Perier%20entered%20into%20a%20partnership%20with%22&f=false D. Clayton James, ''Antebellum Natchez'', LSU Press, 1993, page 10.]</ref>


Together they planed to operate this plantation on the rich lands held by the Natchez<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=diASAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Perier+and+De+Chepart+decided+to+establish+a+plantation+together%22&dq=%22Perier+and+De+Chepart+decided+to+establish+a+plantation+together%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwinmI6LsKXxAhXVu54KHYXbAgkQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg Wolfgang Binder, Creoles and Cajuns: French Louisiana, Peter Lang, 1998, page 4.]</ref> and Perier appointed Chepart as new commandant of Fort Rosalie.
In [[Illinois Country|Illinois]], at the border between France's Canada and Louisiana territories, the [[Meskwaki]] (Fox tribe) in 1728 again [[Fox Wars#Second Fox War|declared war on France]]. Pereir, his counterpart in Canada the [[Charles de la Boische, Marquis de Beauharnois|Marquis de Beauharnois]], and the local commanders pursued a policy of complete destruction against the Meskwaki, despite the ill will it generated with other Native American tribes in the region.<ref name="Rushforth2006">{{cite journal|last=Rushforth|first=Brett|title=Slavery, the Fox Wars, and the Limits of Alliance|page=215|journal=The William and Mary Quarterly|volume=63|number=1|date=January 2006|jstor=3491725}}</ref><ref name="Cleland1992">{{cite book|last=Cleland|first=Charles E.|title=Rites of Conquest: The History and Culture of Michigan's Native Americans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GX5eybKyxHcC|year=1992|publisher=University of Michigan Press|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|isbn=0-472-06447-9|pages=117–118}}</ref>


Immediately, Chepart tyrannized the people and abused his power. His presence had to be tolerated because of his friendship with governor Périer and his protection.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=91MTAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Captain+Detch%C3%A9parre+,+a+tyrannical+individual+whose+presence+had+to+be+tolerated+because+of+his+friendship+with+Governor+P%C3%A9rier%22&dq=%22Captain+Detch%C3%A9parre+,+a+tyrannical+individual+whose+presence+had+to+be+tolerated+because+of+his+friendship+with+Governor+P%C3%A9rier%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjv6tL52KbxAhWEt54KHTuMAxwQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg Louisiana History, Louisiana Historical Association, 1978, page 432.]</ref> Finally Chepart was summoned before the Superior Council which found him guilty, but Perier pardoned Chepart and restored him to his command. Chepart could return to Natchez to pursue his plans to establish concessions for both himself and governor Perier on Indian Territory<ref name="Usner 26">[https://books.google.com/books?id=0S6n0VOSXE8C&pg=PA26&dq=%22for+both+himself+and+Perier%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjwydqU5b_xAhVmhq0KHYDjDEIQ6AEwAXoECAMQAg#v=onepage&q=%22for%20both%20himself%20and%20Perier%22&f=false Daniel H. Usner, Jr., ''American Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley: Social and Economic Histories'', U of Nebraska Press, 1998, page 26.]</ref>
⚫
====Natchez revolt and retaliation====
{{See also|Natchez revolt}}
The Company was working to increase [[tobacco]] farming in the colony, and Chépart and Perier eyed the Natchez territory along the Mississippi as a ripe opportunity for a new plantation that would benefit them personally. Chépart issued an order for the Natchez to begin planning for their complete removal from White Apple Village and other Natchez territory. These actions sparked the [[Natchez revolt]]. On November 28, 1729, the Natchez Chief Great Sun led his warriors into Fort Rosalie and captured the settlement, killing between 229 and 285 colonists and enslaved people and taking about 450 captives, mostly French women and enslaved people. A about a month later, the Natchez's allies, the [[Yazoo people|Yazoo]], made a similar attack on [[Fort St. Pierre Site|Fort St. Pierre]].<ref name="James1968">{{cite book|last=James|first=D. Clayton|title=Antebellum Natchez|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=my5L0Ek-UxUC&pg=PA10|year=1968|publisher=LSU Press|location=Baton Rouge, Louisiana|isbn=978-0-8071-1860-3|page=10}}</ref> Ahead of the attack, the Natchez also recruited several enslaved Africans, arguing that driving off the colonists would mean freedom for them too.{{sfn|Usner Jr.|1979|p=45}}


Chepart told the Natchez that he wished to seize land for a plantation in the center of White Apple, where the Natchez had a temple of their people's graves.{{sfn|Barnett|2007|pp=80–85}}{{sfn|Le Page du Pratz|1758|pp=230–31}}{{sfn|Usner|1998|p=26}} Governor Périer sided with Chépart and planted a cross on the land he sought.{{sfn|Dumont de Montigny|2012|pp=227–28}}{{sfn|Usner|1998|p=26}}
In response to the Natchez revolt, Perier sought the [[genocide of indigenous peoples|complete destruction]] of the Natchez and their allies to ensure the safety of the colony.{{sfn|Gayarré|1854|p=443}} He began by authorizing an attack on the unaligned [[Chaouacha]] tribe south of New Orleans by enslaved Black volunteers in December 1729. In January 1730, French and allied Choctaw soldiers caught the Natchez by surprise and recovered 54 women and children and 100 enslaved people.{{sfn|Usner Jr.|1979|p=45}} Throughout 1730, Perier sought to make examples of captured Natchez men and women, including torturing them and burning them alive in public executions.<ref name="Fabulous">{{cite book|last=Saxon|first=Lyle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtiZBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT106|title=Fabulous New Orleans|publisher=Pelican Publishing Co.|year=1989|isbn=978-1-4556-0402-9|location=Greta, Louisiana|page=106}}</ref><ref name="Cushman">{{cite book|last=Cushman|first=Horatio Bardwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qdrsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA547|title=History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez Indians|publisher=Headlight Printing House|year=1899|isbn=978-1-5485-1119-7|location=Greenville, Texas|pages=547–548}}</ref> Lacking enough troops to handle the revolt, and unwilling to rely too heavily on France's Choctaw allies, Perier sought reinforcements from France.<ref name="Albrecht1946">{{cite journal|title=Indian–French Relations at Natchez|last=Albrecht|first=Andrew C.|date=1946|journal=American Anthropologist|volume=48|number=3|page=348|doi=10.1525/aa.1946.48.3.02a00010}}</ref>


When the Natchez began to protest the seizure of their land for the plantation, Chépart said he would burn down the temple that contained their ancestors' graves. In response to this threat, the Natchez seemed to promise to cede the land, wrote Dumont de Montigny, but only if they were given two months to relocate their temple and graves. Chépart agreed to give them the time in exchange for pelts, oil, poultry, and grain—a request the Natchez promised to fulfill later.{{sfn|Dumont de Montigny|2012|pp=227–28}}
The Natchez continued to resist the French until January 1731 when Perier and colonial soldiers, along with two battalions of marines commanded by his brother, Antoine-Alexis, successfully captured the Natchez's [[Grand Village of the Natchez|Grand Village]]. Great Sun and nearly 500 more Natchez men, women, and children were captured and shipped to [[Saint-Domingue]] where they were sold into slavery.{{sfn|Gayarré|1854|pp=448–449}} However an undetermined number of other Natchez escaped to seek refuge with (and eventual assimilation) into other tribes, including the English-allied [[Chickasaw]] and [[Cherokee]],<ref name="Woods1978">{{cite journal|last=Woods|first=Patricia Dillion|title=The French and the Natchez Indians in Louisiana: 1700–1731|date=1978|journal=Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association|volume=19|number=4|page=434|jstor=4231820}}</ref> further straining the French's already poor relationship with the Chickasaw.{{sfn|Albrecht|1946|p=349}}


According to different authors the Natchez revolt in october lay in a larger pattern of Franco-Natchez conflict and the greed of Perier and Chepart.<ref>[
⚫
===Aftermath and recall===
https://books.google.com/books?id=jmnbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA472&dq=%22and+the+greed+of+P%C3%A9rier%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjMh-2l4r_xAhVVlGoFHcDvDdkQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg#v=onepage&q=%22and%20the%20greed%20of%20P%C3%A9rier%22&f=false Alan Gallay, ''Colonial Wars of North America, 1512-1763'',Routledge, page 472.]</ref>
In his reports on the Natchez revolt and his response, Perier suggested a conspiracy among the tribes, perhaps with British encouragement, was responsible for the revolt, to divert attention from the role Chépart and his orders played in igniting the conflict.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barnett Jr.|first=James F.|title=The Natchez Indians: A History to 1735|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wIq6wImc2s0C&pg=PA106|date=2007|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|location=Jackson, Mississippi|isbn=978-1-60473-309-9|pages=106–107}}</ref> However, this story did not gain credence back in France,{{sfn|Albrecht|1946|p=349}} nor in Louisiana.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Natchez Massacre and Governor Perier|last=Delanglez|first=John|journal=The Louisiana Historical Quarterly|date=1934|volume=17|number=1935|pages=635-637|url=https://rla.unc.edu/Louisiane/articles/Delanglez%201934%20LHQ%20(Perier).pdf}}</ref> Instead, Perier was criticized by the Company for letting his personal plans for a Natchez plantation distract him from his public responsibilities.<ref name="James1968" /> There were also concerns about his continued harsh approach towards even allied Native Americans and attempts to punish the Chickasaw for taking in Natchez refugees.{{sfn|Delanglez|1934|pp=638-639}} At the same time, he sought to reward some Native allies, such as the [[Quapaw]], by expanding trading posts.<ref>{{cite report|title=A Many-Storied Place: Historical Resource Study, Arkansas Post National Memorial, Arkansas|last=Catton|first=Theodore|publisher=National Park Service, Midwest Region|location=Omaha, Nebraska|date=2017|page=90|url=http://npshistory.com/publications/arpo/hrs.pdf}}</ref>
Accusations at this time the time go in the same direction : "His tyranny and his exactions goaded the Natchez to fury. This Dechepare was a creature of Perier ... his attempt to seize the land of the Natchez and to drive the Indians out of their village precipitated the crisis. But he Commandant, though reviled by everybody, was following instructions. In an unsigned memoir, date January, 1731, we read : "Moreover, it is secretly maintained, that the cause of the Natchez massacre should not be imputed to the late Chepart alone... and that he was following written orders which some people are said to have read". Elsewhere the accusation is more clearly formulated : "The reason which led the Natchez to perpetrate such a deed, is that M. Perier having the intention of beginning a plantation in their country in partnership with Dechepare...had asked him to drive out the Natchez... in order to take the land occupied by the Indians for their plantations".<ref>[https://rla.unc.edu/Louisiane/articles/Delanglez%201934%20LHQ%20(Perier).pdf Rev. John Delanglez, ''The Natchez massacre and governor Perier'', 1934, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 1934, page 637.]</ref>


⚫
====Natchez revolt and retaliation (ok for this title)====
In June 1731, Perier faced an attempted [[slave uprising]], the [[Samba rebellion]], involving enslaved [[Bambara people]]s inspired by the Natchez revolt. As he had done with Natchez prisoners, Perier ordered torture and public executions via [[breaking wheel]] for the men and women who planned the attempted uprising.<ref name="Elliott2007">{{cite book|last=Elliott|first=Charles N.|title=Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXsBJzA61lcC&pg=PA442|volume=2|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|location=Westport, Connecticut|isbn=978-0-313-33273-9|pages=442–443|chapter=Samba Rebellion (1729)|editor-last=Rodriguez|editor-first=Junius P.}}</ref>
To come


⚫
=== Consequences and Perier's recall===
In the end, Perier was criticized for his support of Chépart and his policies towards Native Americans, which failed to provide security and stability for the colony.{{sfn|Barnett Jr.|2007|p=126}} Ultimately, the result of the revolt was a further weakening of the Company, which was still suffering from the bursting of the [[Mississippi Bubble]] in 1720. Due to its ongoing financial losses in the territory in 1731 the Company abandoned its charter and returned Louisiana to the king.{{sfn|Klein|2000|p=18}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Histoire de la Louisiane française: 1682-1804|last=Lugan|first=Bernard|date=1994|language=fr|trans-title=History of French Louisiana (1682-1804)|publisher=Perrin|location=Paris, France|isbn=9782262000943}}</ref> Despite questions about his management of the Natchez revolt, Perier remained in place as governor of the colony, although the king's advisors, particularly the [[Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, Count of Maurepas|Count of Maupaus]], sought to replace Perier.<ref name="Conrad1995">{{cite journal|last=Conrad|first=Glenn R.|title=Administration of the Illinois Country: The French Debate.|journal=Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association|volume=36|issue=1|date=1995|page=40|jstor=4233163}}</ref>
To come


In 1733, Perier was recalled to France to answer for his handling of the Natchez revolt, and former Louisiana governor [[Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville|Bienville]] was appointed to replace him.<ref name="Conrad1995" />


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 18:40, 30 June 2021

This is a sandbox/working group page for the rewrite of the section of the article covering Étienne de Perier's time as governor.

(work in progress) create diff for Belyny's proposal

Governor of the French Louisiana (1726-1733)

Nomination

In August 1726, after then governor of French Louisiana Pierre Dugué de Boisbriant was recalled to France,[1] Perier was appointed commandant general of the territory, overseeing military matters and relations with the Native Americans.[2] He arrived in New Orleans in October 1726[3] and established his home at 613 Royal Street. a modest house made of wood and mud.[4] At this place was built in 1832 a new house that became in 1963 the Creole restaurant The Court of Two Sisters.[5]

Despite Perier's lack of experience in colonial administration, the Company of the Indies felt they had a long-time employee who would be a pliant administrator focused on the Company’s goals.[6] To ensure this, the Company granted him an annual salary of 10,000 French livres,[7][a] 10 acres (4.0 hectares) of riverfront land, and eight enslaved people a year so long as he remained in office.[8] He sold the land, which is in the modern McDonoghville neighborhood, in 1737.[9]

The Company directed Perier to increase the profitability of the colony, enforce discipline and loyalty, and keep the English from entering the territory. [10] He was specifically tasked with completing improvements to secure the health and safety of New Orleans, as well as to visit the Company settlement in Natchez.[11] Perier also sought to diffuse some of the partisan, religious, and familial cliques that had made running the colony difficult for his predecessors.[12] In this he had some initial successes, particularly in managing the dispute between Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries.[13]

Perier's taking office marked the end of the indigenous policy pursued by Governor Bienville.[14]

Achievements

Perier launched a large public works effort, overseeing the construction of the first levees on the Mississippi,[15] cleared forests and brush from the land between the city and Lake Pontchartrain,[15] and dug a canal from the Mississippi to connect the river to a rice mill on the king's plantation and Bayou St. John.[16] He also welcomed the Ursuline nuns to the city; his wife, Catherine, laid the cornerstone for the nun's first convent in the city.[17]

Slavery policies (Ok for this title)

Achieving of public works required the labor of enslaved Africans. As the Company had a monopoly on the slave trade, they tended to put enslaved people to work on projects until they were auctioned off to local slavehoders.[18] To increase the available workforce, Perier began conscripting enslaved people for 30 days at a time. In most cases, they were conscripted when the Company first brought them to Louisiana, before delivering them to their purchasers, which raised the ire of Louisiana slaveholders.[19] Perier also instituted an apprenticeship program where enslaved people were loaned to craftsmen for three years to train them as brickmakers, joiners, masons, carpenters, and other skilled trades necessary to the growth and development of the colony.[20] He also put enslaved Africans to work on Company ships, navigating the coast and rivers.[21]

At the time, both Africans and Native Americans were enslaved by French settlers. Perier was increasingly concerned about alliances among enslaved people, and he encouraged slaveholders to keep enslaved Africans apart from enslaved Native Americans for fear of the two groups forming alliances. He was particularly concerned that Native Americans who escaped from slavery would induce enslaved Africans to also escape and seek the protection of Native tribes.[22] To foster mistrust between the two groups, Perier used armed enslaved Black troops to attack neighboring Native Americans,[23] and he continued the policy of rewarding Native Americans for capturing escapees and disrupting maroon communities.[24]

Native American policies

Despite having been encouraged to learn from what Bienville had written about relations with the Native Americans[25] and recognizing the need to improve relations to forestall British advancement into the territory,[26] Perier did not deal with the Indians and treat them as equals as did the former governor Bienville Louisiana's colonial administrators at the time tried to balance the need to maintain good relations with Native Americans with demands from settlers for more and better land;[27] but Perier refuse to recognize Native American ownership of their traditional lands, including the rich lands of the Grand Village and other Natchez villages.[27][2]

Perier tried to control the Indians with fear and armed a group of Black slaves and sent them against a small group of peaceful Chickasaw Indians who lived South New Orleans.[28] Carter Godwin in The Journal of Negro History writes: "Perier's logic was reactionary. Since he had used blacks to murder Indians in order to make bad blood between the races, the Indians retaliated by using blacks to murder white men".[29]

Lyle Saxon in Fabulous New Orleans states "another record of horror" : "Soldiers from the New Orleans barracks managed to capture four men and two women of the Natchez nation, and Governor Perier had them burned at the stake on the levee in front of the Place d'Armes.[28] Perier said: "Since their flight, I have had fifty of them killed or taken prisoners. I buried here six of them, four men and two women".[30] Perier was criticised severly by some of his owns officers for this piece of brutal stupididy.[28]

It wasn’t the last time Perier burned Natchez prisoners alive. A Natchez woman was captured and Governor Perier had her burned to death on a high platform erected especially for the ceremony, and deto witness which all New Orleans again turned out in state[30]

Such policy wa blamed by the French Government. The Comptrolleur General was horrified and wrote to Perier : "What do you expect the natives will think when they witness the destruction of whole nations who have given you no offense? … Is it not equivalent to forcing them to look upon the French as barbarians who must be driven out or massacred?"[31]

Partnership with Chepart for a plantation on Natchez land

Perier Wished to establish for himself a large plantation near the Natchez village. He entered into a partnership with a sieur Chepart (or d'Etcheparre), known as a drunkard and brash person and promised him an interest in the futur plantation if he could secure the Natchez land.[32][33]

Together they planed to operate this plantation on the rich lands held by the Natchez[34] and Perier appointed Chepart as new commandant of Fort Rosalie.

Immediately, Chepart tyrannized the people and abused his power. His presence had to be tolerated because of his friendship with governor Périer and his protection.[35] Finally Chepart was summoned before the Superior Council which found him guilty, but Perier pardoned Chepart and restored him to his command. Chepart could return to Natchez to pursue his plans to establish concessions for both himself and governor Perier on Indian Territory[36]

Chepart told the Natchez that he wished to seize land for a plantation in the center of White Apple, where the Natchez had a temple of their people's graves.[37][38][39] Governor Périer sided with Chépart and planted a cross on the land he sought.[40][39]

When the Natchez began to protest the seizure of their land for the plantation, Chépart said he would burn down the temple that contained their ancestors' graves. In response to this threat, the Natchez seemed to promise to cede the land, wrote Dumont de Montigny, but only if they were given two months to relocate their temple and graves. Chépart agreed to give them the time in exchange for pelts, oil, poultry, and grain—a request the Natchez promised to fulfill later.[40]

According to different authors the Natchez revolt in october lay in a larger pattern of Franco-Natchez conflict and the greed of Perier and Chepart.[41]

Accusations at this time the time go in the same direction : "His tyranny and his exactions goaded the Natchez to fury. This Dechepare was a creature of Perier ... his attempt to seize the land of the Natchez and to drive the Indians out of their village precipitated the crisis. But he Commandant, though reviled by everybody, was following instructions. In an unsigned memoir, date January, 1731, we read : "Moreover, it is secretly maintained, that the cause of the Natchez massacre should not be imputed to the late Chepart alone... and that he was following written orders which some people are said to have read". Elsewhere the accusation is more clearly formulated : "The reason which led the Natchez to perpetrate such a deed, is that M. Perier having the intention of beginning a plantation in their country in partnership with Dechepare...had asked him to drive out the Natchez... in order to take the land occupied by the Indians for their plantations".[42]

Natchez revolt and retaliation (ok for this title)

To come

Consequences and Perier's recall

To come


References

  1. ^ Sumners, Cecil L. (1998). The Governors of Mississippi. Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-4556-0521-7.
  2. ^ a b McGuire, Jack B. (2010). "Etienne de Perier". In Cowan, Walter Greaves; McGuire, Jack B. (eds.). Louisiana Governors: Rulers, Rascals, and Reformers. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-60473-320-4.
  3. ^ Fortier, Alcée (1904). A History of Louisiana: Early Explorers and the Domination of the French (1512-1768). Vol. 1. New York, New York: Manzi, Joyant & Co. p. 103. GGKEY:CSYD4YCWBUH.
  4. ^ [https://books.google.com/books?id=ffxYAAAAMAAJ&q=%22en+r%C3%A9alit%C3%A9+modeste+maison+en+bois+et+en+torchis%22&dq=%22en+r%C3%A9alit%C3%A9+modeste+maison+en+bois+et+en+torchis%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj1p6aUy77xAhUzkmoFHdpZA9QQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg Marc de Villiers du Terrage, La Louisiane de Chateaubriand, Au siège de la Société, 1924, page 147.
  5. ^ Brown, Alan (2021). Louisiana Legends & Lore. Mount Pleasant, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-4671-4751-4.
  6. ^ Balesi, Charles John (1992). The Time of the French in the Heart of North America, 1673-1818. Chicago, Illinois: Alliance Française Chicago. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-881370-00-0. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
  7. ^ Giraud, Marcel (1991). A History of French Louisiana: The Company of the Indies, 1723–1731. Translated by Pearce, Brian. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: LSU Press. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-8071-1571-8.
  8. ^ Gayarré, Charles (1854). History of Louisiana: The French Domination. Vol. 1. New York, New York: Redfield. p. 372.
  9. ^ Swanson, Betsy (2003). Historic Jefferson Parish: From Shore to Shore. Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-4556-0576-7. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
  10. ^ Haudrère 1996, pp. 87–100.
  11. ^ Gayarré 1854, pp. 372–375. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFGayarré1854 (help)
  12. ^ Giraud 1991, p. 58. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFGiraud1991 (help)
  13. ^ Giraud 1991, pp. 58, 102. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFGiraud1991 (help)
  14. ^ [https://books.google.com/books?id=ekznzbNCQwYC&pg=PA16&dq=labandon+de+la+politique+indig%C3%A8ne+de+Bienville&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj74t2e0r7xAhV4lGoFHamYAUwQ6AEwAHoECAcQAg#v=onepage&q=%22l'abandon%20de%20la%20politique%20indig%C3%A8ne%20de%20Bienville%22&f=falseKhalil Saadani, La Louisiane française dans l'impasse: 1731-1743, Editions L'Harmattan, 2008, page 16.}
  15. ^ a b Rightor, Henry (1900). Standard History of New Orleans, Louisiana. Chicago, Illinois: The Lewis Publishing Co. p. 81.
  16. ^ Franks, Herschel A.; Yakubik, Jill-Karen (1994). Cultural Resources Survey of Four Construction Items Below New Orleans (Report). New Orleans, Louisiana: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. p. 245.
  17. ^ Cruzat, Heloise Hulse (1919). "The Ursulines of Louiana". Louisiana Historical Quarterly. 1 (1): 12.
  18. ^ Usner Jr., Daniel H. (1979). "From African Captivity to American Slavery: The Introduction of Black Laborers to Colonial Louisiana". Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association. 20 (1): 32. JSTOR 4231866.
  19. ^ Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo (1995). Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: LSU Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0807119990.
  20. ^ Usner Jr. 1979, p. 34. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFUsner_Jr.1979 (help)
  21. ^ Greenwald 2011, p. 193.
  22. ^ Willis, William S. (July 1963). "Divide and Rule: Red, White, and Black in the Southeast". The Journal of Negro History. 48 (3): 162. JSTOR 2716338.
  23. ^ Blackbird, Leila K. (2018). Entwined Threads of Red and Black: The Hidden History of Indigenous Enslavement in Louisiana, 1699-1824 (MA). New Orleans, Louisiana: University of New Orleans. p. 47–48.
  24. ^ Usner Jr. 1979, p. 44. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFUsner_Jr.1979 (help)
  25. ^ Giraud 1991, p. 36. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFGiraud1991 (help)
  26. ^ Greenwald 2011, p. 191.
  27. ^ a b Klein, Michael (2000). Louisiana: European Explorations and the Louisiana Purchase — A Special Presentation from the Geography and Map Division of the Library of Congress (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress. p. 21.
  28. ^ a b c Saxon, Lyle (1989). Fabulous New Orleans. Greta, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-4556-0402-9.
  29. ^ Woodson, Carter Godwin; Logan, Rayford Whittingham (1916). The Journal of Negro History. Chicago, Illinois: Association for the Study of Negro Life and History. p. 370.
  30. ^ a b Cushman, Horatio Bardwell (1899). History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez Indians. Greenville, Texas: Headlight Printing House. pp. 547–548. ISBN 978-1-5485-1119-7.
  31. ^ Rev. John Delanglez, The Natchez massacre and governor Perier, 1934, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 1934, page 640.
  32. ^ Edwin Adams Davis, The story of Louisiana, J.F. Hyer Publishing Company, 1960, page 59.
  33. ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=my5L0Ek-UxUC&pg=PA10&dq=%22Perier+entered+into+a+partnership+with%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjI5ffz6b_xAhVTk2oFHbCKBNQQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg#v=onepage&q=%22Perier%20entered%20into%20a%20partnership%20with%22&f=false D. Clayton James, Antebellum Natchez, LSU Press, 1993, page 10.]
  34. ^ Wolfgang Binder, Creoles and Cajuns: French Louisiana, Peter Lang, 1998, page 4.
  35. ^ Louisiana History, Louisiana Historical Association, 1978, page 432.
  36. ^ Daniel H. Usner, Jr., American Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley: Social and Economic Histories, U of Nebraska Press, 1998, page 26.
  37. ^ Barnett 2007, pp. 80–85.
  38. ^ Le Page du Pratz 1758, pp. 230–31.
  39. ^ a b Usner 1998, p. 26.
  40. ^ a b Dumont de Montigny 2012, pp. 227–28.
  41. ^ [ https://books.google.com/books?id=jmnbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA472&dq=%22and+the+greed+of+P%C3%A9rier%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjMh-2l4r_xAhVVlGoFHcDvDdkQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg#v=onepage&q=%22and%20the%20greed%20of%20P%C3%A9rier%22&f=false Alan Gallay, Colonial Wars of North America, 1512-1763,Routledge, page 472.]
  42. ^ Rev. John Delanglez, The Natchez massacre and governor Perier, 1934, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 1934, page 637.

Notes

  1. ^ 10,000 livres in 1725 is equivalent to about €151,000 in 2021. (Convertisseur de Monnaie d'Ancien Régime)

Discussion

Hi Carter, You made an serious work of research and this proposal is a very good start. Some remarks:

  • I do not agree to delete the subsection "Collusion with commandant Chepart" or whatever we aggre to named it. This partnership and its consequences (Chepart

asks the Natchez to leave their landi of White Apple to make a plantation for him and Perier) s cited by several authors as the reason that led to the revolt of Natches. Even the Company blamed Perier for that. Thanks.

  • For the content I would like to make some improvments.

Regard, --Belyny (talk) 15:12, 29 June 2021 (UTC)

Hi Belyny, The consensus was for something (final wording was not determined) closer to "Natchez revolt" than "Collusion with commandant Chepart." That's why I went with "Natchez revolt and retaliation." The details of Perier's support for Chépart and his desire to acquire the Natchez's land is all included in the text as is the fault the company and king found with him for it:

The Company was working to increase tobacco farming in the colony, and Chépart and Perier eyed the Natchez territory along the Mississippi as a ripe opportunity for a new plantation. Chépart issued an order for the Natchez to begin planning for their complete removal from White Apple Village and other Natchez territory. These actions sparked the Natchez revolt.

—Carter (talk) 15:41, 29 June 2021 (UTC)
Hi Carter,
  • There was no consensus on that. For my part, I agree to dissociate Perier's partnership with Chepart from Natchez revolt that are two things connected but two totally different subjects. The Natchez revolt is not the subject of this article, the focus of this article is Governor Perier, his life and his actions.
  • To be constructive and find consensus I accepted several amendments on which I did not agree, thank you this time for the reciprocity on your part.
  • I am open to any proposal from your part on the title to be given to the Perier' colusion with Chepart to take the Natchez'land, but given its consequences, there is no reason to remove the subdivision concerning this important point in Perier’s action. This is not a "Native American policies" from the governor but a personal action on his part which was reproached him by the company and which had serious consequences.
I wish to make some amendments and additions to the content of the other paragraphs of your proposal, but let us first agree on the structure of the sub-divisions and their titles. Regards --Belyny (talk) 17:53, 29 June 2021 (UTC)
Hi Belyny, can you be clear as to what you're wanting here? If I'm understanding you correctly, you want a specific subdivision about Chépart that is at a secondary or tertiary level. Is that correct? I don't believe that makes sense and would run afoul of MOS:OVERSECTION.
I labeled the section "Native American policies" because it the core of Perier's policy towards Native Americans was that the Company's interests were greater than any indigenous claims on the land. He then took personal advantage of that, working with Chépart, to try and force the Natchez to remove from land they (Perier and Chépart) wanted and it exploded spectacularly against him. That is all there in the text. Is there some aspect of what you feel needs to be included in the text that is missing?
How would you divide the text, preserving WP:NPOV and WP:EPSTYLE, to disentangle the tangled mess of personal business, formal policy, and the unintended reaction? —Carter (talk) 18:22, 29 June 2021 (UTC)
The current section has all of one sentence: "The Company was working to increase tobacco farming in the colony, and Chépart and Perier eyed the Natchez territory along the Mississippi as a ripe opportunity for a new plantation that would benefit them personally. Chépart issued an order for the Natchez to begin planning for their complete removal from White Apple Village and other Natchez territory" which can be seen as a description of collusion. All the rest of the 3 paragraphs are about the revolt and aftermath of massacres and slavery. The section, as currently framed, should be titled about the revolt, not the Chépart dealings. Finally, collusion has a very negative connotation in the English language and is not a dispassionate framing of the title.--Eostrix  (🦉 hoot hoot🦉) 14:41, 30 June 2021 (UTC)
@Carter Was this initially copied from the actual article, and then edited? ―Qwerfjkltalk 15:34, 30 June 2021 (UTC)
@User:Qwerfjkl, No, I drew on the existing article and sources, but wrote it fresh with additional sourcing. --Carter (talk) 15:42, 30 June 2021 (UTC)
@Carter Can you copy & paste the article in, replacing this article, and then immediately revert it, so it's easier to compare the two via diffs? ―Qwerfjkltalk 18:07, 30 June 2021 (UTC)

Hi Carter, I thought I was clear:

  • I don't wan't a subdivision "about Chepart" as you wrote, I want to keep the subdivision (as secondary level in "Governor of the French Louisiana (1726-1733)" about Perier partnership with Chepart" (not the same at all).
  • I don’t agree with you point of vue: that makes sense and its does not go against MOS:OVERSECTION. (Also there is no spécific rule on number of subdivsions and a subdivion is justified by its content. A lot of Wikipedia:Good articles have many subdivisions see for exempleRichard Montgomery).
  • You make a mistake in your analysis : Partnership between Perier and Chepart to take for themselves Natchez land of White apple has nothing to do with "Native American policies" of the governor Perier under the order of the Companie des Indes. Its a another topic of personal behavior (blamed by the Compagnie) which had serious consequences and as such justifie a subdivison on this specific point.
  • There is no problem of WP:NPOV and WP:EPSTYLE in stating in an article what several authors write on a specific subject.
  • Before discuss the title and content of subdivions you proposed, it's better to find consensus on this point. I always accept your proposal even when I didn’t really agree, so I'd appreciate some of the same.

--Belyny (talk) 17:40, 30 June 2021 (UTC)

Hi Belyny, I moved your signature up to try any help keep the threading and conversation obvious.
I'm not wedded to "Native American policies" it's just a simple way to break out that aspect. I disagree with you that there is a clear difference between Perier's personal ambitions and his implementation of policies for the colony. It seems clear in the sources that he used his office to benefit himself personally, so it's not two different things its two aspects to what he did. He put in place policies in the name of the Company that he used to his personal benefit.
Yes, there can be more sections or fewer sections in articles, but it's dependent upon the content. I don't think breaking out the single paragraph "Achievements," for example, is necessary. If he didn't have the major incident of the Natchez revolt in his history, that would all just be part of the sole paragraph on his governorship.
Looking at your proposal below, you've repeated some things and placed a number of things out of chronological order (see MOS:BLPCHRONO). This creates issues of WP:UNDUE. For example, the Carter Godwin quote is in reference to his attack on the Chaouacha (not Chickasaw), which happened in response to the Natchez revolt. For it to make sense, you need to set up the full context of the attempt of the Natchez to enlist enslaved Africans into the attack on Fort Rosalie. As you've placed it, it doesn't really explain what was going on or why. Beyond that, the same point is given in the prior section ("To foster mistrust between the two groups, Perier used armed enslaved Black troops to attack neighboring Native Americans"). Most of the quotes about public burnings of Native Americans also came after and in response the Natchez revolt. That doesn't excuse them or make them less horrific, but it does indicate that it wasn't something being done just to do it. And, this is included in the section on the Natchez revolt and reaction. The quote you've pulled from Delanglez is about the attack on the Chaouacha, not the public burnings, which is the implication left by where you've placed it.
Regarding Chépart, a lot of what you have in here is about him, not Perier. Yes, Perier supported, enabled, and worked with Chépart, but I don't know that all the detail you have in here about him belongs here. Some of it is may be more appropriate in Natchez revolt.
When you reduce the duplication of content here, each section gets a lot shorter. Shorter is good (WP:BECONCISE), but then you come back to the MOS:OVERSECTION issue if it's a lot of really short sections.
I'm open to suggestions and have changed most all of the text I've proposed in the other sections in response to concerns and criticisms. I'm sorry if you feel it's been a one-way process, but I don't believe that's fair or accurate. My only goal here is to get a readable, accurate article posted to replace the mess that was frozen in place after the edit war between you and Savary34 (and his sockpuppets).—Carter (talk) 18:35, 30 June 2021 (UTC)

My proposal is :

Governor of the French Louisiana (1726-1733)

Nomination

In August 1726, after then governor of French Louisiana Pierre Dugué de Boisbriant was recalled to France,[1] Perier was appointed commandant general of the territory, overseeing military matters and relations with the Native Americans.[2] He arrived in New Orleans in October 1726[3] and established his home at 613 Royal Street. a modest house made of wood and mud.[4] At this place was built in 1832 a new house that became in 1963 the Creole restaurant The Court of Two Sisters.[5]

Despite Perier's lack of experience in colonial administration, the Company of the Indies felt they had a long-time employee who would be a pliant administrator focused on the Company’s goals.[6] To ensure this, the Company granted him an annual salary of 10,000 French livres,[7][a] 10 acres (4.0 hectares) of riverfront land, and eight enslaved people a year so long as he remained in office.[8] He sold the land, which is in the modern McDonoghville neighborhood, in 1737.[9]

The Company directed Perier to increase the profitability of the colony, enforce discipline and loyalty, and keep the English from entering the territory. [10] He was specifically tasked with completing improvements to secure the health and safety of New Orleans, as well as to visit the Company settlement in Natchez.[11] Perier also sought to diffuse some of the partisan, religious, and familial cliques that had made running the colony difficult for his predecessors.[12] In this he had some initial successes, particularly in managing the dispute between Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries.[13]

Perier's taking office marked the end of the indigenous policy pursued by Governor Bienville.[14]

Achievements

Perier launched a large public works effort, overseeing the construction of the first levees on the Mississippi,[15] cleared forests and brush from the land between the city and Lake Pontchartrain,[15] and dug a canal from the Mississippi to connect the river to a rice mill on the king's plantation and Bayou St. John.[16] He also welcomed the Ursuline nuns to the city; his wife, Catherine, laid the cornerstone for the nun's first convent in the city.[17]

Slavery policies (Ok for this title)

Achieving of public works required the labor of enslaved Africans. As the Company had a monopoly on the slave trade, they tended to put enslaved people to work on projects until they were auctioned off to local slavehoders.[18] To increase the available workforce, Perier began conscripting enslaved people for 30 days at a time. In most cases, they were conscripted when the Company first brought them to Louisiana, before delivering them to their purchasers, which raised the ire of Louisiana slaveholders.[19] Perier also instituted an apprenticeship program where enslaved people were loaned to craftsmen for three years to train them as brickmakers, joiners, masons, carpenters, and other skilled trades necessary to the growth and development of the colony.[20] He also put enslaved Africans to work on Company ships, navigating the coast and rivers.[21]

At the time, both Africans and Native Americans were enslaved by French settlers. Perier was increasingly concerned about alliances among enslaved people, and he encouraged slaveholders to keep enslaved Africans apart from enslaved Native Americans for fear of the two groups forming alliances. He was particularly concerned that Native Americans who escaped from slavery would induce enslaved Africans to also escape and seek the protection of Native tribes.[22] To foster mistrust between the two groups, Perier used armed enslaved Black troops to attack neighboring Native Americans,[23] and he continued the policy of rewarding Native Americans for capturing escapees and disrupting maroon communities.[24]

Native American policies

Despite having been encouraged to learn from what Bienville had written about relations with the Native Americans[25] and recognizing the need to improve relations to forestall British advancement into the territory,[26] Perier did not deal with the Indians and treat them as equals as did the former governor Bienville Louisiana's colonial administrators at the time tried to balance the need to maintain good relations with Native Americans with demands from settlers for more and better land;[27] but Perier refuse to recognize Native American ownership of their traditional lands, including the rich lands of the Grand Village and other Natchez villages.[27][2]

Perier tried to control the Indians with fear and armed a group of Black slaves and sent them against a small group of peaceful Chickasaw Indians who lived South New Orleans.[28] Carter Godwin in The Journal of Negro History writes: "Perier's logic was reactionary. Since he had used blacks to murder Indians in order to make bad blood between the races, the Indians retaliated by using blacks to murder white men".[29]

Lyle Saxon in Fabulous New Orleans states "another record of horror" : "Soldiers from the New Orleans barracks managed to capture four men and two women of the Natchez nation, and Governor Perier had them burned at the stake on the levee in front of the Place d'Armes.[28] Perier said: "Since their flight, I have had fifty of them killed or taken prisoners. I buried here six of them, four men and two women".[30] Perier was criticised severly by some of his owns officers for this piece of brutal stupididy.[28]

It wasn’t the last time Perier burned Natchez prisoners alive. A Natchez woman was captured and Governor Perier had her burned to death on a high platform erected especially for the ceremony, and deto witness which all New Orleans again turned out in state[30]

Such policy wa blamed by the French Government. The Comptrolleur General was horrified and wrote to Perier : "What do you expect the natives will think when they witness the destruction of whole nations who have given you no offense? … Is it not equivalent to forcing them to look upon the French as barbarians who must be driven out or massacred?"[31]

Partnership with Chepart for a plantation on Natchez land

Perier Wished to establish for himself a large plantation near the Natchez village. He entered into a partnership with a sieur Chepart (or d'Etcheparre), known as a drunkard and brash person and promised him an interest in the futur plantation if he could secure the Natchez land.[32][33]

Together they planed to operate this plantation on the rich lands held by the Natchez[34] and Perier appointed Chepart as new commandant of Fort Rosalie.

Immediately, Chepart tyrannized the people and abused his power. His presence had to be tolerated because of his friendship with governor Périer and his protection.[35] Finally Chepart was summoned before the Superior Council which found him guilty, but Perier pardoned Chepart and restored him to his command. Chepart could return to Natchez to pursue his plans to establish concessions for both himself and governor Perier on Indian Territory[36]

Chepart told the Natchez that he wished to seize land for a plantation in the center of White Apple, where the Natchez had a temple of their people's graves.[37][38][39] Governor Périer sided with Chépart and planted a cross on the land he sought.[40][39]

When the Natchez began to protest the seizure of their land for the plantation, Chépart said he would burn down the temple that contained their ancestors' graves. In response to this threat, the Natchez seemed to promise to cede the land, wrote Dumont de Montigny, but only if they were given two months to relocate their temple and graves. Chépart agreed to give them the time in exchange for pelts, oil, poultry, and grain—a request the Natchez promised to fulfill later.[40]

According to different authors the Natchez revolt in october lay in a larger pattern of Franco-Natchez conflict and the greed of Perier and Chepart.[41]

Accusations at this time the time go in the same direction : "His tyranny and his exactions goaded the Natchez to fury. This Dechepare was a creature of Perier ... his attempt to seize the land of the Natchez and to drive the Indians out of their village precipitated the crisis. But he Commandant, though reviled by everybody, was following instructions. In an unsigned memoir, date January, 1731, we read : "Moreover, it is secretly maintained, that the cause of the Natchez massacre should not be imputed to the late Chepart alone... and that he was following written orders which some people are said to have read". Elsewhere the accusation is more clearly formulated : "The reason which led the Natchez to perpetrate such a deed, is that M. Perier having the intention of beginning a plantation in their country in partnership with Dechepare...had asked him to drive out the Natchez... in order to take the land occupied by the Indians for their plantations".[42]

Natchez revolt and retaliation (ok for this title)

To come

Consequences and Perier's recall

To come

I try to finish my proposal tomorrow. Regard --Belyny (talk) 17:40, 30 June 2021 (UTC)

  1. ^ Sumners, Cecil L. (1998). The Governors of Mississippi. Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-4556-0521-7.
  2. ^ a b McGuire, Jack B. (2010). "Etienne de Perier". In Cowan, Walter Greaves; McGuire, Jack B. (eds.). Louisiana Governors: Rulers, Rascals, and Reformers. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-60473-320-4.
  3. ^ Fortier, Alcée (1904). A History of Louisiana: Early Explorers and the Domination of the French (1512-1768). Vol. 1. New York, New York: Manzi, Joyant & Co. p. 103. GGKEY:CSYD4YCWBUH.
  4. ^ [https://books.google.com/books?id=ffxYAAAAMAAJ&q=%22en+r%C3%A9alit%C3%A9+modeste+maison+en+bois+et+en+torchis%22&dq=%22en+r%C3%A9alit%C3%A9+modeste+maison+en+bois+et+en+torchis%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj1p6aUy77xAhUzkmoFHdpZA9QQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg Marc de Villiers du Terrage, La Louisiane de Chateaubriand, Au siège de la Société, 1924, page 147.
  5. ^ Brown, Alan (2021). Louisiana Legends & Lore. Mount Pleasant, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-4671-4751-4.
  6. ^ Balesi, Charles John (1992). The Time of the French in the Heart of North America, 1673-1818. Chicago, Illinois: Alliance Française Chicago. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-881370-00-0. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
  7. ^ Giraud, Marcel (1991). A History of French Louisiana: The Company of the Indies, 1723–1731. Translated by Pearce, Brian. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: LSU Press. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-8071-1571-8.
  8. ^ Gayarré, Charles (1854). History of Louisiana: The French Domination. Vol. 1. New York, New York: Redfield. p. 372.
  9. ^ Swanson, Betsy (2003). Historic Jefferson Parish: From Shore to Shore. Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-4556-0576-7. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
  10. ^ Haudrère 1996, pp. 87–100.
  11. ^ Gayarré 1854, pp. 372–375. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFGayarré1854 (help)
  12. ^ Giraud 1991, p. 58. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFGiraud1991 (help)
  13. ^ Giraud 1991, pp. 58, 102. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFGiraud1991 (help)
  14. ^ [https://books.google.com/books?id=ekznzbNCQwYC&pg=PA16&dq=labandon+de+la+politique+indig%C3%A8ne+de+Bienville&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj74t2e0r7xAhV4lGoFHamYAUwQ6AEwAHoECAcQAg#v=onepage&q=%22l'abandon%20de%20la%20politique%20indig%C3%A8ne%20de%20Bienville%22&f=falseKhalil Saadani, La Louisiane française dans l'impasse: 1731-1743, Editions L'Harmattan, 2008, page 16.}
  15. ^ a b Rightor, Henry (1900). Standard History of New Orleans, Louisiana. Chicago, Illinois: The Lewis Publishing Co. p. 81.
  16. ^ Franks, Herschel A.; Yakubik, Jill-Karen (1994). Cultural Resources Survey of Four Construction Items Below New Orleans (Report). New Orleans, Louisiana: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. p. 245.
  17. ^ Cruzat, Heloise Hulse (1919). "The Ursulines of Louiana". Louisiana Historical Quarterly. 1 (1): 12.
  18. ^ Usner Jr., Daniel H. (1979). "From African Captivity to American Slavery: The Introduction of Black Laborers to Colonial Louisiana". Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association. 20 (1): 32. JSTOR 4231866.
  19. ^ Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo (1995). Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: LSU Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0807119990.
  20. ^ Usner Jr. 1979, p. 34. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFUsner_Jr.1979 (help)
  21. ^ Greenwald 2011, p. 193.
  22. ^ Willis, William S. (July 1963). "Divide and Rule: Red, White, and Black in the Southeast". The Journal of Negro History. 48 (3): 162. JSTOR 2716338.
  23. ^ Blackbird, Leila K. (2018). Entwined Threads of Red and Black: The Hidden History of Indigenous Enslavement in Louisiana, 1699-1824 (MA). New Orleans, Louisiana: University of New Orleans. p. 47–48.
  24. ^ Usner Jr. 1979, p. 44. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFUsner_Jr.1979 (help)
  25. ^ Giraud 1991, p. 36. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFGiraud1991 (help)
  26. ^ Greenwald 2011, p. 191.
  27. ^ a b Klein, Michael (2000). Louisiana: European Explorations and the Louisiana Purchase — A Special Presentation from the Geography and Map Division of the Library of Congress (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress. p. 21.
  28. ^ a b c Saxon, Lyle (1989). Fabulous New Orleans. Greta, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-4556-0402-9.
  29. ^ Woodson, Carter Godwin; Logan, Rayford Whittingham (1916). The Journal of Negro History. Chicago, Illinois: Association for the Study of Negro Life and History. p. 370.
  30. ^ a b Cushman, Horatio Bardwell (1899). History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez Indians. Greenville, Texas: Headlight Printing House. pp. 547–548. ISBN 978-1-5485-1119-7.
  31. ^ Rev. John Delanglez, The Natchez massacre and governor Perier, 1934, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 1934, page 640.
  32. ^ Edwin Adams Davis, The story of Louisiana, J.F. Hyer Publishing Company, 1960, page 59.
  33. ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=my5L0Ek-UxUC&pg=PA10&dq=%22Perier+entered+into+a+partnership+with%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjI5ffz6b_xAhVTk2oFHbCKBNQQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg#v=onepage&q=%22Perier%20entered%20into%20a%20partnership%20with%22&f=false D. Clayton James, Antebellum Natchez, LSU Press, 1993, page 10.]
  34. ^ Wolfgang Binder, Creoles and Cajuns: French Louisiana, Peter Lang, 1998, page 4.
  35. ^ Louisiana History, Louisiana Historical Association, 1978, page 432.
  36. ^ Daniel H. Usner, Jr., American Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley: Social and Economic Histories, U of Nebraska Press, 1998, page 26.
  37. ^ Barnett 2007, pp. 80–85.
  38. ^ Le Page du Pratz 1758, pp. 230–31.
  39. ^ a b Usner 1998, p. 26.
  40. ^ a b Dumont de Montigny 2012, pp. 227–28.
  41. ^ [ https://books.google.com/books?id=jmnbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA472&dq=%22and+the+greed+of+P%C3%A9rier%22&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjMh-2l4r_xAhVVlGoFHcDvDdkQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg#v=onepage&q=%22and%20the%20greed%20of%20P%C3%A9rier%22&f=false Alan Gallay, Colonial Wars of North America, 1512-1763,Routledge, page 472.]
  42. ^ Rev. John Delanglez, The Natchez massacre and governor Perier, 1934, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 1934, page 637.


Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Étienne_Perier_(governor)/Archive_3&oldid=1031276301"