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Manipulation or emotional manipulation is behavior designed to exploit, control, or otherwise influence others to one’s advantage.^[1] Definitions vary in which behavior is specifically included, influenced by both culture and whether used in clinical or non-clinical contexts.^[2] Skills necessary for manipulation can be used for both prosocial and antisocial purposes.^[3] Antisocial or non-prosocial manipulation has been described as using "skills to advance their own agendas or self-serving motives at the expense of others",^[3] whereas prosocial behavior is "a voluntary act intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals".^[4]

Manipulation is a key aspect of the Machiavellianism personality trait, which involves high levels of deception and emotional and moral indifference towards others.^[5]

Manipulation differs from social influence and persuasion in its coercive nature. Social influence and persuasion are generally perceived to respect the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, so they are usually not considered coercive.^[6] Persuasion is a type of influence, usually within the context of a specific goal.

Types

Operant conditioning

Presentations vary depending on the underlying cause of the manipulation. One approach for describing different manipulative behaviors is by categorising them into different methods of operant conditioning.^[7]

Reinforcement is used to increase the frequency of a behavior. Positive reinforcement presents rewards like praise, superficial charm, superficial sympathy (crocodile tears), excessive apologizing, money, approval, gifts, attention, facial expressions such as a forced laugh or smile, and public recognition. Intermittent reinforcement can create a climate of fear and doubt, which can encourage victims to not seek help or change behavior.

Punishment is used to decrease the frequency of a behavior. Positive punishments presents aversive stimuli, which can include nagging, yelling, intimidation, threats, swearing, emotional blackmail, guilt trips, sulking, crying, and playing the victim. Negative punishments remove rewards, like the removal of social interactions with the silent treatment. Punishments can also lead to dominance or superiority (see "dual strategies theory").

Etiology

Risk factors for experiencing manipulation

People exhibiting manipulative behavior may use vulnerabilities of other individuals to their advantage, such as suffering from low self-esteem or self-doubts, lacking in confidence and assertiveness, or defensiveness. Emotional codependence is also a vulnerability,^[8] as naïve or immature individuals can be in denial that they are being taken advantage of, or have difficulty accepting that some people utilize manipulation.^[8]^[9] Intellectualizing manipulative behavior may lead victims to believe that they have some understandable or acceptable reason to be manipulative.^[8] Over-agreeable or submissive individuals with higher than appropriate levels of trust can also be a risk factor.^[8]

Motivations

There are various possible situational motivations for manipulative behavior, including to advance purposes and personal gain,^[7] to attain feelings of power and superiority in relationships with others,^[10] to feel in control,^[7] to boost self-esteem,^[7] boredom, or growing tired of one's surroundings; seeing manipulation as a game,^[7] and covert agendas, criminal or otherwise, including financial manipulation.^[7]

Predispositions

A 2020 meta-analysis demonstrated a moderate correlation between emotional intelligence (EI) and manipulation, which is affected by gender, although there was some uncertainty due to conflicting results.^[3] Higher levels of EI generally corresponded to higher levels of both prosocial and antisocial manipulation. There was evidence to suggest that among those with higher EI scores, men were more inclined to antisocial manipulation and women were more inclined to prosocial manipulation. Prior to this conclusion it was suspected that for manipulation to occur, both a willingness and ability to manipulate are necessary preconditions, and willingness to manipulate can be difficult to measure accurately.^[11]

There is also evidence that high levels of manipulation and Machiavellianism corresponded to lower results in a variety of interpersonal effectiveness metrics, including gaining and maintaining friendships, lower access to validation and intimacy, and emotional security. Higher scores also corresponded with perceiving more instances of manipulation from others.^[12]

No correlation has been found between intelligence and high levels of manipulative behavior or Machiavellianism.^[13] A theory in 2015 was proposed, explaining that the higher proficiency of manipulative behavior in people with high Machiavellianism personality trait values may result from a cognitive specialization.^[13]

Mental illness

Individuals with certain personality disorders chronically exhibit manipulative behavior, including antisocial personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder and narcissistic personality disorder.^[14]

The large stigma associated with borderline personality disorder (BPD) often inaccurately casts behavior of those with BPD pejoratively as manipulative and attention seeking.^[15]^[2] Marsha M. Linehan has stated that people with borderline personality disorder often exhibit behaviors which are not truly manipulative, but are erroneously interpreted as such.^[16] According to Linehan, these behaviors often appear as unthinking manifestations of intense pain, and are often not deliberate as to be considered truly manipulative. In the DSM-V, manipulation was removed as a defining characteristic of borderline personality disorder.^[15]

Behavior from factitious disorders may appear manipulative, although according to the DSM-5 the behavior is more accurately described as deceptive.^[14] This is because, according to the DSM-5 criteria, "The deceptive behavior [of those with a factitious disorder] is evident even in the absence of obvious external rewards".^[14]

Assessment

Emotional manipulation scale

The emotional manipulation scale (EMS) was developed in 2007 through factor analysis, primarily to measure the capability of manipulative behavior and the Machiavellianism personality trait.^[17] At the time of publication, emotional intelligence assessments did not specifically examine manipulative behavior or Machiavellianism and were instead predominantly focussed on Big Five personality trait assessment.

Managing the emotions of others scale

The Managing the emotions of others scale (MEOS) was developed in 2013 through factor analysis to measure the ability of changing emotions of others.^[18] The factor analysis led to six categories: mood (or emotional state) enhancement, mood worsening, concealing emotions, capacity for inauthenticity, poor emotion skills, and using diversion to enhance mood. The enhancement, worsening and diversion categories have been used to identify the ability and willingness of manipulative behavior, both prosocial and antisocial.^[3] The MEOS has also been used for assessing emotional intelligence, and has been compared to the HEXACO model of personality structure, for which the capacity for inauthenticity category in the MEOS was found to correspond to low honesty-humility scores on the HEXACO.^[19]

References

^ "Manipulation". APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. n.d. Retrieved 10 October 2021.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
^ ^a ^b Potter, Nancy Nyquist (April 2006). "What is Manipulative Behavior, Anyway?". Journal of Personality Disorders. 20 (2): 139–156. doi:10.1521/pedi.2006.20.2.139. ISSN 0885-579X.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Ngoc, Nguyen Nhu; Tuan, Nham Phong; Takahashi, Yoshi (October 2020). "A Meta-Analytic Investigation of the Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Manipulation". SAGE Open. 10 (4): 215824402097161. doi:10.1177/2158244020971615. ISSN 2158-2440.
^ Rodriguez, Lucas Marcelo; Mesurado, Belén; Moreno, José Eduardo (2018-11-29), "Ethical Position, Empathy and Prosocial Behaviour Model: Its Contribution to Prevention and Psychotherapeutic Approaches of Antisocial Disorders", Psychiatry and Neuroscience Update, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 273–286, ISBN 978-3-319-95359-5, retrieved 2022-05-08
^ Bereczkei, Tamás (2017). Machiavellianism The Psychology of Manipulation (First ed.). London: Taylor and Francis Group. ISBN 9781315106922.
^ Nichols, Shaun. "The Ethics of Manipulation". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Braiker, Harriet B. (2004). Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation. ISBN 978-0-07-144672-3.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Simon, George K (1996). In Sheep's Clothing: Understanding and Dealing with Manipulative People. ISBN 978-1-935166-30-6. (reference for the entire section)
^ Kantor, Martin (2006). The Psychopathology of Everyday Life: How Antisocial Personality Disorder Affects All of Us. ISBN 978-0-275-98798-5.
^ Giovacchini, Peter L. (1996). Treatment of Primitive Mental States. Master work series. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson. p. 24. ISBN 9781568218083. Retrieved 24 July 2021. These are early ego states that are characterized by megalomanic feelings. Freud's (1914a) description of 'his majesty, the baby' well illustrates this situation of omnipotent manipulation.
^ Hyde, Jane; Grieve, Rachel (July 2014). "Able and willing: Refining the measurement of emotional manipulation". Personality and Individual Differences. 64: 131–134. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.036. ISSN 0191-8869.
^ Abell, Loren; Brewer, Gayle; Qualter, Pamela; Austin, Elizabeth (January 2016). "Machiavellianism, emotional manipulation, and friendship functions in women's friendships". Personality and Individual Differences. 88: 108–113. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.001. ISSN 0191-8869.
^ ^a ^b Bereczkei, Tamas (October 2015). "The manipulative skill: Cognitive devices and their neural correlates underlying Machiavellian's decision making". Brain and Cognition. 99: 24–31. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2015.06.007. ISSN 0278-2626.
^ ^a ^b ^c Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5. American Psychiatric Association, American Psychiatric Association. DSM-5 Task Force (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. 2013. ISBN 978-0-89042-554-1. OCLC 830807378.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^ ^a ^b Aguirre, Blaise (2016). "Borderline Personality Disorder: From Stigma to Compassionate Care". Stigma and Prejudice. Current Clinical Psychiatry. Humana Press, Cham. pp. 133–143. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-27580-2_8. ISBN 9783319275789.
^ Staff writer(s). "On Manipulation with the Borderline Personality". ToddlerTime Network. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
^ Austin, Elizabeth J.; Farrelly, Daniel; Black, Carolyn; Moore, Helen (July 2007). "Emotional intelligence, Machiavellianism and emotional manipulation: Does EI have a dark side?". Personality and Individual Differences. 43 (1): 179–189. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.11.019. ISSN 0191-8869.
^ Austin, Elizabeth J.; O’Donnell, Michael M. (October 2013). "Development and preliminary validation of a scale to assess managing the emotions of others". Personality and Individual Differences. 55 (7): 834–839. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.005. ISSN 0191-8869.
^ Austin, Elizabeth J.; Vahle, Nils (May 2016). "Associations of the Managing the Emotions of Others Scale (MEOS) with HEXACO personality and with trait emotional intelligence at the factor and facet level". Personality and Individual Differences. 94: 348–353. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.01.047. ISSN 0191-8869.

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{Other uses|Manipulation (disambiguation){{!}}Manipulation}}
-'''Manipulation''' or '''emotional manipulation''' is the use of devious means to exploit, control, or otherwise influence others to one’s advantage.<ref name="APA">{{cite APA Dictionary |title=Manipulation |shortlink=manipulation |access-date=10 October 2021 }}</ref><ref name="WebMD">{{cite web |last1=Brennan, MD |first1=Dan |title=Signs of Emotional Manipulation |url=https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/signs-emotional-manipulation |website=www.webmd.com |publisher=WebMD |access-date=23 November 2020}}</ref> In the extreme it is a stratagem of tricksters, swindlers, and impostors who disrespect moral principles, deceive and take advantage of others’ frailty and gullibility.<ref name="Bereczkei">{{cite book |last1=Bereczkei |first1=Tamás |title=Machiavellianism The Psychology of Manipulation |year=2017 |publisher=Taylor and Francis Group |location=London |isbn=9781315106922 |edition=First |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315106922/machiavellianism-tam%C3%A1s-bereczkei}}</ref> At the very least, manipulation is forced influence used to gain control, benefits, and/or privileges at the expense of the others.<ref name="WebMD"/>
+'''Manipulation''' or '''emotional manipulation''' is behavior designed to exploit, control, or otherwise influence others to one’s advantage.<ref name="APA">{{cite APA Dictionary |title=Manipulation |shortlink=manipulation |access-date=10 October 2021 }}</ref> Definitions vary in which behavior is specifically included, influenced by both culture and whether used in clinical or non-clinical contexts.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Potter |first=Nancy Nyquist |date=April 2006 |title=What is Manipulative Behavior, Anyway? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2006.20.2.139 |journal=Journal of Personality Disorders |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=139–156 |doi=10.1521/pedi.2006.20.2.139 |issn=0885-579X}}</ref> Skills necessary for manipulation can be used for both [[Prosocial behavior|prosocial]] and [[Anti-social behaviour|antisocial]] purposes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ngoc |first=Nguyen Nhu |last2=Tuan |first2=Nham Phong |last3=Takahashi |first3=Yoshi |date=October 2020 |title=A Meta-Analytic Investigation of the Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Manipulation |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2158244020971615 |journal=SAGE Open |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=215824402097161 |doi=10.1177/2158244020971615 |issn=2158-2440}}</ref> Antisocial or non-prosocial manipulation has been described as using "skills to advance their own agendas or self-serving motives at the expense of others",<ref name=":1" /> whereas prosocial behavior is "a voluntary act intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals".<ref>{{Citation |last=Rodriguez |first=Lucas Marcelo |title=Ethical Position, Empathy and Prosocial Behaviour Model: Its Contribution to Prevention and Psychotherapeutic Approaches of Antisocial Disorders |date=2018-11-29 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95360-1_22 |work=Psychiatry and Neuroscience Update |pages=273–286 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-95359-5 |access-date=2022-05-08 |last2=Mesurado |first2=Belén |last3=Moreno |first3=José Eduardo}}</ref>
+Manipulation is a key aspect of the [[Machiavellianism (psychology)|Machiavellianism]] personality trait, which involves high levels of deception and emotional and moral indifference towards others.<ref name="Bereczkei">{{cite book |last1=Bereczkei |first1=Tamás |title=Machiavellianism The Psychology of Manipulation |year=2017 |publisher=Taylor and Francis Group |location=London |isbn=9781315106922 |edition=First |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315106922/machiavellianism-tam%C3%A1s-bereczkei}}</ref>
-Manipulation differs from general influence and [[persuasion]]. Influence is generally perceived to be harmless as it respects the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, and is not unduly coercive.<ref name="Nichols">{{cite web |last1=Nichols |first1=Shaun |title=The Ethics of Manipulation |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/board.html |access-date=22 March 2020 |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> Persuasion is the ability to move a person or persons to a desired action, usually within the context of a specific goal. Influence and persuasion are neither positive nor negative.<ref name="Duncan">{{cite web |last1=Duncan |first1=Rodger Dean |title=Influence Versus Manipulation: Understand The Difference |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/rodgerdeanduncan/2018/12/21/influence-vs-manipulation-understand-the-difference/?sh=303899ad470c |website=www.forbes.com |publisher=Forbes |access-date=21 December 2018}}</ref>
+Manipulation differs from [[social influence]] and [[persuasion]] in its coercive nature. Social influence and persuasion are generally perceived to respect the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, so they are usually not considered coercive.<ref name="Nichols">{{cite web |last1=Nichols |first1=Shaun |title=The Ethics of Manipulation |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-manipulation/ |access-date=8 May 2022 |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> Persuasion is a type of influence, usually within the context of a specific goal.
-==Motivations==
+==Types==
-There are various possible motivations for being manipulative such as to advance purposes and personal gain,<ref name="braiker" /> to attain feelings of power and superiority in relationships with others,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Giovacchini |first1=Peter L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xRMpAAAAYAAJ |title=Treatment of Primitive Mental States |publisher=Jason Aronson |isbn=9781568218083 |series=Master work series |location=Northvale, New Jersey |publication-date=1996 |page=24 |quote=These are early ego states that are characterized by megalomanic feelings. Freud's (1914a) description of 'his majesty, the baby' well illustrates this situation of omnipotent manipulation. |access-date=24 July 2021}}</ref> to feel in control,<ref name="braiker" /> to boost self-esteem,<ref name="braiker" /> boredom, or growing tired of one's surroundings; seeing manipulation as a game,<ref name="braiker" /> and covert agendas, criminal or otherwise, including financial manipulation.<ref name="braiker" />
+=== Operant conditioning ===
-Studies of the predictors of emotional manipulation indicate that the mechanisms behind emotional manipulation differ as a function of gender:
+Presentations vary depending on the underlying cause of the manipulation. One approach for describing different manipulative behaviors is by categorising them into different methods of [[operant conditioning]].<ref name="braiker">{{Cite book|title=Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation |first=Harriet B.|last=Braiker |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-07-144672-3}}</ref>
+[[Reinforcement]] is used to increase the frequency of a behavior. [[Positive reinforcement]] presents [[Reward system|rewards]] like praise, [[superficial charm]], superficial [[sympathy]] ([[crocodile tears]]), excessive apologizing, money, approval, gifts, attention, facial expressions such as a forced laugh or smile, and public recognition. [[Reinforcement#Intermittent reinforcement schedules|Intermittent reinforcement]] can create a [[climate of fear]] and doubt, which can encourage victims to not seek help or change behavior.
-{{Blockquote|text=For males, higher levels of emotional intelligence, social information processing, indirect aggression, and self-serving cognitive distortions significantly predicted emotional manipulation. For females, being younger, higher levels of emotional intelligence, indirect aggression, primary psychopathic traits, and lower levels of social awareness significantly predicted emotional manipulation. However for females, emotional intelligence acted as a suppressor.<ref name="Grieve">{{cite journal |last1=Grieve |first1=Rachel |last2=Panebianco |first2=Laura |title=Assessing the role of aggression, empathy, and self-serving cognitive distortions in trait emotional manipulation |journal=Australian Journal of Psychology |date=13 September 2012 |doi=10.1111/j.1742-9536.2012.00059.x |url=https://aps.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1742-9536.2012.00059.x}}</ref>}}
+[[Punishment]] is used to decrease the frequency of a behavior. Positive punishments presents [[Aversives|aversive stimuli]], which can include [[nagging]], yelling, [[intimidation]], threats, swearing, [[emotional blackmail]], [[guilt trip]]s, sulking, crying, and [[Victim playing|playing the victim]]. Negative punishments remove rewards, like the removal of [[social interactions]] with the [[silent treatment]]. Punishments can also lead to dominance or superiority (see "''[[dual strategies theory]]''").
-==Forms==
-Common means of manipulation can be understood through methods of conditioning.<ref name="braiker">{{Cite book|title=Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation |first=Harriet B.|last=Braiker |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-07-144672-3}}</ref> [[Reinforcement]] is used to increase the frequency of a behavior. [[Positive reinforcement]] presents [[Reward system|rewards]] like praise, [[superficial charm]], superficial [[sympathy]] ([[crocodile tears]]), excessive apologizing, money, approval, gifts, attention, facial expressions such as a forced laugh or smile, and public recognition. [[Reinforcement#Intermittent reinforcement schedules|Intermittent reinforcement]] can create an effective [[climate of fear]] and doubt, which can encourage the victim to persist in acting to the manipulator's benefit. On the flip side, [[punishment]] is used to decrease the frequency of a behavior. Positive punishments presents [[Aversives|aversive stimuli]], which can include [[nagging]], yelling, [[intimidation]], threats, swearing, [[emotional blackmail]], [[guilt trip]]s, sulking, crying, and [[Victim playing|playing the victim]]. Negative punishments remove rewards, like the removal of [[social interactions]] with the [[silent treatment]]. Punishments can establish the manipulator's dominance or superiority, as even one incident of such behavior can [[classical conditioning|condition]] victims to avoid upsetting the manipulator.
+==Etiology==
-Manipulators typically exploit various vulnerabilities. Those who suffer from low [[self-esteem]] or self-doubts, lacking in confidence and assertiveness, and who are likely to go on the defensive too easily. Additionally, the more emotionally dependent a person is, the more vulnerable they are to being exploited and manipulated.<ref name="simon">{{Cite book |last=Simon |first=George K |title=In Sheep's Clothing: Understanding and Dealing with Manipulative People |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-935166-30-6}} (reference for the entire section)</ref> Naïve or immature individuals can be in denial that they are being taken advantage of, finding it hard to accept that some people utilize manipulation.<ref name="simon" /><ref name="Kantor">{{Cite book |last=Kantor |first=Martin |title=The Psychopathology of Everyday Life: How Antisocial Personality Disorder Affects All of Us |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-275-98798-5}}</ref> Many [[Intellectualization|intellectualize]] the manipulator's behavior, leading them to believe that they have some understandable or acceptable reason to be manipulative.<ref name="simon" /> People who are greedy and dishonest may be easily enticed to act in an immoral way.<ref name="Kantor" /> Over-agreeable or [[submissive]] individuals are often too willing to give another the benefit of the doubt.<ref name="simon" />
+=== Risk factors for experiencing manipulation ===
-==Mental illness==
+People exhibiting manipulative behavior may use vulnerabilities of other individuals to their advantage, such as suffering from low [[self-esteem]] or self-doubts, lacking in confidence and assertiveness, or [[defensiveness]]. [[Codependency|Emotional codependence]] is also a vulnerability,<ref name="simon">{{Cite book |last=Simon |first=George K |title=In Sheep's Clothing: Understanding and Dealing with Manipulative People |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-935166-30-6}} (reference for the entire section)</ref> as naïve or immature individuals can be in denial that they are being taken advantage of, or have difficulty accepting that some people utilize manipulation.<ref name="simon" /><ref name="Kantor">{{Cite book |last=Kantor |first=Martin |title=The Psychopathology of Everyday Life: How Antisocial Personality Disorder Affects All of Us |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-275-98798-5}}</ref> [[Intellectualization|Intellectualizing]] manipulative behavior may lead victims to believe that they have some understandable or acceptable reason to be manipulative.<ref name="simon" /> [[Agreeableness|Over-agreeable]] or [[submissive]] individuals with higher than appropriate levels of trust can also be a risk factor.<ref name="simon" />
-While manipulation is a common human behavior, individuals with the following mental health issues are prone to manipulate:
-{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
-* [[Antisocial personality disorder]],<ref name="DSM-5-introduction">{{Cite book |last=American Psychiatric Association |year=2013 |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |edition=Fifth |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing |location=Arlington, VA |pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/5 5–25] |isbn=978-0-89042-555-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/5 }}</ref>
-* [[Borderline personality disorder |Borderline personality disorder]],<ref name="DSM-5-introduction"/>
-* [[Conduct Disorder]],<ref name="DSM-5-introduction"/>
-* [[Factitious disorder]],<ref name="DSM-5-introduction"/>
-* [[Histrionic personality disorder]],<ref name="DSM-5-introduction"/>
-* [[Narcissistic personality disorder]].<ref name="DSM-5-introduction"/>
-{{div col end}}
+=== Motivations ===
-Borderline Personality Disorder is unique in the grouping as "borderline" manipulation is characterized as unintentional and dysfunctional manipulation.<ref name="Aguirre 2016 133–143">{{Cite book|title=Stigma and Prejudice|last=Aguirre|first=Blaise|date=2016|publisher=Humana Press, Cham|isbn=9783319275789|series=Current Clinical Psychiatry|pages=133–143|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-27580-2_8|chapter = Borderline Personality Disorder: From Stigma to Compassionate Care}}</ref> [[Marsha M. Linehan]] has stated that people with borderline personality disorder often exhibit behaviors which are not truly manipulative, but are erroneously interpreted as such.<ref name=marsha2222>{{cite web |url=http://www.toddlertime.com/mh/terms/manipulation.htm |title=On Manipulation with the Borderline Personality |author=Staff writer(s) |website=ToddlerTime Network |access-date=28 December 2014}}</ref> According to Linehan, these behaviors often appear as unthinking manifestations of intense pain, and are often not deliberate as to be considered truly manipulative. In the [[DSM-V]], manipulation was removed as a defining characteristic of borderline personality disorder.<ref name="Aguirre 2016 133–143"/>
+There are various possible situational motivations for manipulative behavior, including to advance purposes and personal gain,<ref name="braiker" /> to attain feelings of power and superiority in relationships with others,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Giovacchini |first1=Peter L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xRMpAAAAYAAJ |title=Treatment of Primitive Mental States |publisher=Jason Aronson |isbn=9781568218083 |series=Master work series |location=Northvale, New Jersey |publication-date=1996 |page=24 |quote=These are early ego states that are characterized by megalomanic feelings. Freud's (1914a) description of 'his majesty, the baby' well illustrates this situation of omnipotent manipulation. |access-date=24 July 2021}}</ref> to feel in control,<ref name="braiker" /> to boost self-esteem,<ref name="braiker" /> boredom, or growing tired of one's surroundings; seeing manipulation as a game,<ref name="braiker" /> and covert agendas, criminal or otherwise, including financial manipulation.<ref name="braiker" />
+=== Predispositions ===
+A 2020 meta-analysis demonstrated a moderate correlation between [[emotional intelligence]] (EI) and manipulation, which is affected by gender, although there was some uncertainty due to conflicting results.<ref name=":1" /> Higher levels of EI generally corresponded to higher levels of both prosocial and antisocial manipulation. There was evidence to suggest that among those with higher EI scores, men were more inclined to antisocial manipulation and women were more inclined to prosocial manipulation. Prior to this conclusion it was suspected that for manipulation to occur, both a willingness and ability to manipulate are necessary preconditions, and willingness to manipulate can be difficult to measure accurately.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hyde |first=Jane |last2=Grieve |first2=Rachel |date=July 2014 |title=Able and willing: Refining the measurement of emotional manipulation |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.036 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=64 |pages=131–134 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.036 |issn=0191-8869}}</ref>
+There is also evidence that high levels of manipulation and [[Machiavellianism (psychology)|Machiavellianism]] corresponded to lower results in a variety of interpersonal effectiveness metrics, including gaining and maintaining friendships, lower access to validation and intimacy, and emotional security. Higher scores also corresponded with perceiving more instances of manipulation from others.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abell |first=Loren |last2=Brewer |first2=Gayle |last3=Qualter |first3=Pamela |last4=Austin |first4=Elizabeth |date=January 2016 |title=Machiavellianism, emotional manipulation, and friendship functions in women's friendships |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.001 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=88 |pages=108–113 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.001 |issn=0191-8869}}</ref>
+No correlation has been found between intelligence and high levels of manipulative behavior or Machiavellianism.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Bereczkei |first=Tamas |date=October 2015 |title=The manipulative skill: Cognitive devices and their neural correlates underlying Machiavellian’s decision making |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2015.06.007 |journal=Brain and Cognition |volume=99 |pages=24–31 |doi=10.1016/j.bandc.2015.06.007 |issn=0278-2626}}</ref> A theory in 2015 was proposed, explaining that the higher proficiency of manipulative behavior in people with high Machiavellianism personality trait values may result from a [[cognitive specialization]].<ref name=":2" />
+=== Mental illness ===
+Individuals with certain [[personality disorder]]<nowiki/>s chronically exhibit manipulative behavior, including [[antisocial personality disorder]], [[histrionic personality disorder]] and [[narcissistic personality disorder]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/830807378 |title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5. |date=2013 |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |others=American Psychiatric Association, American Psychiatric Association. DSM-5 Task Force |isbn=978-0-89042-554-1 |edition=5th |location=Arlington, VA |oclc=830807378}}</ref>
+The large [[Borderline personality disorder#Stigma|stigma associated with borderline personality disorder]] (BPD) often inaccurately casts behavior of those with BPD pejoratively as manipulative and [[attention seeking]].<ref name="Aguirre 2016 133–143">{{Cite book|title=Stigma and Prejudice|last=Aguirre|first=Blaise|date=2016|publisher=Humana Press, Cham|isbn=9783319275789|series=Current Clinical Psychiatry|pages=133–143|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-27580-2_8|chapter = Borderline Personality Disorder: From Stigma to Compassionate Care}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> [[Marsha M. Linehan]] has stated that people with borderline personality disorder often exhibit behaviors which are not truly manipulative, but are erroneously interpreted as such.<ref name="marsha2222">{{cite web |url=http://www.toddlertime.com/mh/terms/manipulation.htm |title=On Manipulation with the Borderline Personality |author=Staff writer(s) |website=ToddlerTime Network |access-date=28 December 2014}}</ref> According to Linehan, these behaviors often appear as unthinking manifestations of intense pain, and are often not deliberate as to be considered truly manipulative. In the [[DSM-V]], manipulation was removed as a defining characteristic of borderline personality disorder.<ref name="Aguirre 2016 133–143" />
+Behavior from [[factitious disorder]]<nowiki/>s may appear manipulative, although according to the DSM-5 the behavior is more accurately described as [[Deception|deceptive]].<ref name=":3" /> This is because, according to the DSM-5 criteria, "The deceptive behavior [of those with a factitious disorder] is evident even in the absence of obvious external rewards".<ref name=":3" />
+== Assessment ==
+=== Emotional manipulation scale ===
+The emotional manipulation scale (EMS) was developed in 2007 through [[factor analysis]], primarily to measure the capability of manipulative behavior and the [[Machiavellianism (psychology)|Machiavellianism]] personality trait.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Austin |first=Elizabeth J. |last2=Farrelly |first2=Daniel |last3=Black |first3=Carolyn |last4=Moore |first4=Helen |date=July 2007 |title=Emotional intelligence, Machiavellianism and emotional manipulation: Does EI have a dark side? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.11.019 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=179–189 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2006.11.019 |issn=0191-8869}}</ref> At the time of publication, emotional intelligence assessments did not specifically examine manipulative behavior or Machiavellianism and were instead predominantly focussed on [[Big Five personality traits|Big Five personality trait]] assessment.
+=== Managing the emotions of others scale ===
+The Managing the emotions of others scale (MEOS) was developed in 2013 through factor analysis to measure the ability of changing emotions of others.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Austin |first=Elizabeth J. |last2=O’Donnell |first2=Michael M. |date=October 2013 |title=Development and preliminary validation of a scale to assess managing the emotions of others |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.005 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=55 |issue=7 |pages=834–839 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.005 |issn=0191-8869}}</ref> The factor analysis led to six categories: [[Mood (psychology)|mood]] (or [[Emotion|emotional state]]) enhancement, mood worsening, concealing emotions, capacity for inauthenticity, poor emotion skills, and using diversion to enhance mood. The enhancement, worsening and diversion categories have been used to identify the ability and willingness of manipulative behavior, both prosocial and antisocial.<ref name=":1" /> The MEOS has also been used for assessing emotional intelligence, and has been compared to the [[HEXACO model of personality structure]], for which the capacity for inauthenticity category in the MEOS was found to correspond to low [[Honesty-humility factor of the HEXACO model of personality|honesty-humility]] scores on the HEXACO.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Austin |first=Elizabeth J. |last2=Vahle |first2=Nils |date=May 2016 |title=Associations of the Managing the Emotions of Others Scale (MEOS) with HEXACO personality and with trait emotional intelligence at the factor and facet level |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.01.047 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=94 |pages=348–353 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2016.01.047 |issn=0191-8869}}</ref>
 ==See also==
-* [[Crowd manipulation]] – use of crowd psychology
 * [[Confidence trick]] –  using trust to defraud
 * [[Gaslighting]] – making someone doubt reality
-* [[Internet manipulation]] – co-opting of digital technology
-* [[Market manipulation]] – interfering with financial markets
-* [[Media manipulation]] – news that favors partisan interests
 ==References==

v t e Manipulation (psychology)
Positive manipulation	Big lie Brainwashing Bribery Child grooming Flattery Love bombing Predatory marriage Seduction
Negative manipulation	Bullying Character assassination Coercion Intimidation Mind games Mobbing Smear campaign Social rejection
Other manipulation	Entrapment Gaslighting Good cop, bad cop Indoctrination Influence-for-hire Interrogation Spin (propaganda)
Related manipulation topics	Crowd manipulation Confidence trick Internet manipulation Market manipulation Media manipulation Nudge theory Shill Undue influence