Anti-Ottoman revolts of 1565–1572: Difference between revisions

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I find your concerns that the Albanians are not represented fairly in the revolt to be reasonable. And yes, I agree the article too needs to be moved to reflect that fact on its title. However great caution is required when citing nationalist historians such as Xhufi especially in sensitive historical topic areas such as this one. Better sources are needed.
Temporary removal of a certain paragraph causing multiple errors on the page. Appears to be an issue related to incorrect ref formatting: CAT:REF? I can't make sense of it, perhaps if someone can look and reinstate it with the proper citation coding? That will be appreciated.
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In 1566, [[Emmanuel Mormoris]] and a small Venetian force, having raised the local Albanians in rebellion against the Ottomans, assaulted Ottoman fortresses in the [[Himara]] region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xhufi. |first1=Pëllumb |title=Arbërit e Jonit (eng: The Albanians of the Ionian Sea) |date=2017 |publisher=Onufri|page=844|quote=per buona causa della solevatione delli Albanesi contro Turchi}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=August 2022}} The rebels captured the [[Borshi Castle|Castle of Sopot]], where a small number of Venetian mercenaries were stationed. Together with a large number of Albanians,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xhufi. |first1=Pëllumb |title=Arbërit e Jonit (eng: The Albanians of the Ionian Sea) |date=2017 |publisher=Onufri|page=846|quote=tolte alcune poche militie pagate di quelle di Soppoto e grosso numero d'Albanesi}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=August 2022}} they unsuccessfully assaulted the castle of Nivica in [[Kurvelesh (region)|Kurvelesh]] in January 1568,<ref name=Kotzageorgis24>Kotzagoergis, 2008, p. 24</ref> but managed to capture it in March 1571.<ref name=Kotzageorgis24/> In April 1571, the Ottomans sent two ships to Himara for tax collection and offered amnesty for the rebels. His offer was rejected and 6000 Albanian rebels from Himara and the nearby villages instead attacked and killed 350 Ottoman soldiers. The Albanians then called upon Mormoris and his mercenaries in Sopot Castle to attack the Ottomans.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shabani. |first1=Fation |title= The Reasons of Albanian Rebellions Against the Ottoman Empire Between 1560 and 1590|date=2020|page=157|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/940889}}</ref> The Albanian army and the Venetian mercenaries assaulted the castle at [[Kardhiq]], but were driven back.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xhufi. |first1=Pëllumb |title=Arbërit e Jonit (eng: The Albanians of the Ionian Sea) |date=2017 |publisher=Onufri|page=845|quote=nella prossima passata guerra nelle imprese della Zimara e di Sopoto con il carico che avevo dell'esercito di Albanesi, a qulle di Nivizza et Gardichi con il governator mio fratello et con l'Eccellentissimo Venier e quella di Margariti}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=August 2022}} Mormori was subsequently captured during the Ottoman advance on Sopot Castle.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xhufi. |first1=Pëllumb |title=Arbërit e Jonit (eng: The Albanians of the Ionian Sea) |date=2017 |publisher=Onufri|page=850}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=August 2022}}
In 1566, [[Emmanuel Mormoris]] and a small Venetian force, having raised the local Albanians in rebellion against the Ottomans, assaulted Ottoman fortresses in the [[Himara]] region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xhufi. |first1=Pëllumb |title=Arbërit e Jonit (eng: The Albanians of the Ionian Sea) |date=2017 |publisher=Onufri|page=844|quote=per buona causa della solevatione delli Albanesi contro Turchi}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=August 2022}} The rebels captured the [[Borshi Castle|Castle of Sopot]], where a small number of Venetian mercenaries were stationed. Together with a large number of Albanians,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xhufi. |first1=Pëllumb |title=Arbërit e Jonit (eng: The Albanians of the Ionian Sea) |date=2017 |publisher=Onufri|page=846|quote=tolte alcune poche militie pagate di quelle di Soppoto e grosso numero d'Albanesi}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=August 2022}} they unsuccessfully assaulted the castle of Nivica in [[Kurvelesh (region)|Kurvelesh]] in January 1568,<ref name=Kotzageorgis24>Kotzagoergis, 2008, p. 24</ref> but managed to capture it in March 1571.<ref name=Kotzageorgis24/> In April 1571, the Ottomans sent two ships to Himara for tax collection and offered amnesty for the rebels. His offer was rejected and 6000 Albanian rebels from Himara and the nearby villages instead attacked and killed 350 Ottoman soldiers. The Albanians then called upon Mormoris and his mercenaries in Sopot Castle to attack the Ottomans.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shabani. |first1=Fation |title= The Reasons of Albanian Rebellions Against the Ottoman Empire Between 1560 and 1590|date=2020|page=157|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/940889}}</ref> The Albanian army and the Venetian mercenaries assaulted the castle at [[Kardhiq]], but were driven back.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xhufi. |first1=Pëllumb |title=Arbërit e Jonit (eng: The Albanians of the Ionian Sea) |date=2017 |publisher=Onufri|page=845|quote=nella prossima passata guerra nelle imprese della Zimara e di Sopoto con il carico che avevo dell'esercito di Albanesi, a qulle di Nivizza et Gardichi con il governator mio fratello et con l'Eccellentissimo Venier e quella di Margariti}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=August 2022}} Mormori was subsequently captured during the Ottoman advance on Sopot Castle.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xhufi. |first1=Pëllumb |title=Arbërit e Jonit (eng: The Albanians of the Ionian Sea) |date=2017 |publisher=Onufri|page=850}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=August 2022}}

In northern Albania, rebels had erupted in large-scale rebellion in Dukagjin in 1565-1566, as well as in 1568 when the Ottomans had tried to tax the non-Muslims.<ref>{{sfn|Malcolm|2015|p=128}}</ref> By October 1570, 37 Albanian villages of the [[Ulqin]] area, as well as elders of villages near [[Shkoder]] had requested the Venetian governor for aid in anti-Ottoman operations since most Ottoman forces had left to quell the revolt in the southern Albanian region of [[Himare]].<ref>{{sfn|Malcolm|2015|p=131-132}}</ref> Led by ''Bartolomeo Dukagjin'' (possibly of the noble Albanian [[Dukagjini family]]) and supported by the Venetians, the Albanian rebels captured the town of [[Lezhe]] in December 1570.<ref>{{sfn|Malcolm|2015|p=134}}</ref> Almost simultaneously, another revolt erupted in the region of Mat.<ref>{{sfn|Malcolm|2015|p=135}}</ref> Alarmed by the spread of the rebellions, between December 1570 and March 1571, the Sultan ordered local Ottoman authorities to gather a force of janissaries and cavalry to attack Lezhe.<ref>{{sfn|Malcolm|2015|p=135}}</ref> Ottoman forces under Ahmed Pasha advanced from Skopje to Albania, then northwest towards [[Ulqin]], overcoming a combined Venetian-Albanian force on the river [[Bojana (river)|Buna]] before reaching Ulqin itself.<ref>{{sfn|Malcolm|2015|p=137-141}}</ref> The defenders finally surrendered the city after the Ottoman fleet of Ali Muezzinzade Pasha and Pertev Pasha appeared in front of the city.<ref>{{sfn|Malcolm|2015|p=143}}</ref>


===Events in Greece===
===Events in Greece===

Revision as of 21:32, 31 August 2022

The Anti-Ottoman revolts of 1567-1572 were a series of conflicts between Albanian, Greek and other rebels and the Ottoman Empire during the early period 16th century. Social tensions intensified at this time by the debilitation of the Ottoman administration, the chronic economic crisis, and arbitrary conduct of the Ottoman state authorities. The leaders of the uprisings were initially successful and controlled several strategic locations and fortresses, especially in Epirus, Central Greece, and the Peloponnese. However, the movement lacked the necessary organization. They were instigated and assisted by western powers; mainly by the Republic of Venice, and the victory of the Holy League against the Ottoman fleet in the Battle of Lepanto, in November 1571, triggered further revolutionary activity. However, Venice withdrew its support to the rebels and signed a unilateral peace with the Ottomans. As such the rebellions were doomed to end and the Ottoman forces committed a number of massacres in the aftermath of the revolt during the suppression of the uprising. Throughout the pacification process, various primarily isolated areas were still out of Ottoman control and new rebellions erupted, like that of Dionysios Skylosophos in 1611.

Background

Social tensions intensified by the debilitation of the Ottoman administration, as well as chronic economic crisis and arbitrary conduct of the Ottoman authorities. Under this context during the 16th century various Orthodox communities lost their social and economic privileges that had been formerly recognized by Ottoman decrees.[1] Additionally, extensive imposition of extraordinary taxation by the Ottoman authorities in the Greek mainland and forced conscription to meet the increased demand of the Ottoman navy further deteriorated the situation.[1] Instances of widespread destruction of churches and systematic plundering of religious property were also recorded in contemporary sources.[1]

As a result of this kind of intensified oppression and arbitrary rule the local populations hoped for a military intervention by a Christian power.[1] Representatives of the Greek communities made several appeals for assistance against Ottoman rule.[2] Additionally, the Greek diaspora at Venice, Naples and in other western European cities also hoped for an armed struggle that would end Ottoman rule.[3]

Activity in 1566 - March 1571

Events in Albania

The main centers of revolt in Ottoman Albania were the Himare region and the Dukagjin highlands.[4] Rebels from these areas had even attempted to coordinate their actions at times, such as during a meeting at the Cape of Rodon in 1551.[5]

In 1566, Emmanuel Mormoris and a small Venetian force, having raised the local Albanians in rebellion against the Ottomans, assaulted Ottoman fortresses in the Himara region.[6][unreliable source?] The rebels captured the Castle of Sopot, where a small number of Venetian mercenaries were stationed. Together with a large number of Albanians,[7][unreliable source?] they unsuccessfully assaulted the castle of Nivica in Kurvelesh in January 1568,[8] but managed to capture it in March 1571.[8] In April 1571, the Ottomans sent two ships to Himara for tax collection and offered amnesty for the rebels. His offer was rejected and 6000 Albanian rebels from Himara and the nearby villages instead attacked and killed 350 Ottoman soldiers. The Albanians then called upon Mormoris and his mercenaries in Sopot Castle to attack the Ottomans.[9] The Albanian army and the Venetian mercenaries assaulted the castle at Kardhiq, but were driven back.[10][unreliable source?] Mormori was subsequently captured during the Ottoman advance on Sopot Castle.[11][unreliable source?]

Events in Greece

Meanwhile, the inhabitants of the Mani Peninsula on the southern edge of the Peloponnese revolted in the autumn of 1567.[12] The Maniot rebels received reinforcement by volunteers from the region of Ioannina, who were landed there by a Spanish fleet that consisted of twenty five galleys.[12] In the summer of 1569, an Ottoman fortress was erected in a strategic location in Mani to monitor rebellious activity.[12] After a short decline, the rebellion reached a new momentum and the newly erected fortress was captured in the summer of 1570 with the support of a Venetian force.[12] In the mean time, according to Venetian reports Lantzas managed to kill the Ottoman commander of Paramythia.[13] The castle of Nivica was also taken in March 1571.[8]

Battle of Lepanto and aftermath

The Battle of Lepanto of 1571, by Andries van Eertvelt
See also: Battle of Lepanto

The Battle of Lepanto took place off the coast of Patras in the Ionian Sea on 10-14 November 1571. A significant number of Greeks participated in the conflict on the side of the Holy League, while three Venetian galleys were commanded by Greek captains. Historian George Finlay (1877) stated with a certain decree of exaggeration that over 25,000 Greeks fought for the Holy League, while additionally 5,000 were in the Ottoman side. He concluded that their numbers "far exceeded that of the combatants of any of the nations engaged".[2] The Battle of Lepanto resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman fleet by the Holy League. As a result Greek-Venetian activities reached a new momentum and the leaders of the Orthodox Greek communities continued to invest their resources and energy for the purpose of uprooting Ottoman rule.[14]

News of the Christian victory spread immediately in the nearby region of Patras where the inhabitants rejoiced in the destruction of the Ottoman fleet. The local metropolitan bishop, Germanos, and the local nobility joined the movement. Soon after armed units were formed and expelled the Ottoman garrison.[15] Meanwhile, some Ottoman crews that managed to flee from the victorious Christian fleet landed on the nearby coast of Peloponnese and were annihilated by the insurgents.[16] The rebellion was soon spread to nearby regions in the Peloponnese and central Greece, namely Aigio, Galaxidi, and Salona.[17] In Epirus, the combined Greek-Venetian force was again successful at the siege of Margariti .[18][8] As a result a region stretching from Argyrokastron down to Parga came under rebel control.[19] Among the revolutionary leaders, the Stratioti Georgios Renesis became active in Lefkada and Arta.[20] Moreover, the religious leaders of the Greek communities in and around Ioannina and Aetolia-Akarnania initiated secret communications with the Venetians to overthrow their local Ottoman authorities.[14]

1571-1572

Large-scale unrest occurred in additional parts of the Ottoman Empire; in the islands of Aegina and Lefkada the Christian inhabitants rose in revolt, while in Naxos they declined to pay the jizya tax owed by the Christian subjects of the Empire.[8] Revolts were also noted in the islands such as Andros, Paros, Rodos, Kos, Karpathos, Imbros, Skiathos, Chios and Mitilini, as well as on the Asia Minor coast: at the surroundings of Smyrna, Phocaea and Cesme.[21] The regions of Thessaly, northern Euboia, and parts of Macedonia, including Thessaloniki and Serres, also witnessed revolutionary activity.[22] Moreover, incidents of unrest were even reported even at the Ottoman capital Constantinople as soon as the news of the Ottoman defeat reached the city.[21]

However, in 1572 it became apparent that the Venetians were about to sign a peace treaty with the Ottomans.[12] As a result, the Greeks that had cooperated with the Venetians turned to the Kingdom of Naples, then part of the Spanish Empire, for support.[23] The rebels in Mani approached the Spanish,[12] while others, such as Manthos Papagiannis and Panos Kestolikos, visited Don Juan, commander-in-chief of the Holly Alliance.[24] Additionally, the metropolitan bishop of Monemvasia, Makarios Melissenos, and his brother, Theodore, initiated negotiations with both the Spanish and the Venetians.[12]

During April 1572 the rebellion was still active in parts of Mani and Monemvasia.[12] The Ottomans sent a large army as well as naval forces which attacked the rebellious provinces and compelled Emmanuel Mormoris to retreat to the castle of Sopot, where he was later arrested.[25] In October 1572 an attempt by Spain to land reinforcements in the coastal towns of Pylos and Modon failed.[12] At following May the inhabitants of Aetoliko in Akarnania established contacts with representative of the Venetian units nearby. They asked for support by Greek stratioti units and they immediately received a unit consisting of 80 men from Zakynthos by orders of Sebastiano Venier, as well as weapons and ammunition.[26]

Suppression

As a result of the Venetian withdrawal from the region the rebellion was doomed to end. Venice finally decided to sign a unilateral peace with the Ottomans in 1573.[23] On the other hand, Spain continued to encourage insurrections against the Ottoman Empire and acceded to the petitions of various rebels and potential rebels.[27] However, due to bad organization the uprising was finally suppressed and most of the leaders were executed by the Ottomans. Ottoman suppression was harsh in Patras and the city became almost deserted in the following years.[28] Among those executed were several nobles, among them metropolitan bishop Germanos, and the local nobility were mutilated.[29] In Ioannina the Ottoman governor under the pretext that local nobles were in contact with Venetian and Spanish spies proposed the expulsion of the entire Christian community from the castle and their replacement with Muslim settlers.[30] As a result during the last quarter of the 16th century Greek refugees fled to nearby Venetian-controlled areas, in particular the Ionian islands.[31] The victims of the Ottoman reprisals are estimated to c. 30,000.[32]

Nevertheless various uprisings were still occurring both in the Albanian and Greek provinces of the Ottoman Empire. In Albania, rebels from Himara and Dukagjin were still coordinating with the Venetians, even managing to temporarily capture Lezha and attack Shkoder, while another rebellion had broken out in the region from Elbasan to Ohrid. In Greece, new uprisings occurred in both the mainland and the islands in 1573-1574, where the Archbishop of Ohrid, Joakim, was involved in discussions and preparations in order to organize an uprising against the Ottoman Empire.[33]

Legacy

The period c. 1570-1620 witnessed the first major wave of large scale uprisings in the Greek peninsula after the Fall of Constantinople (1453).[34] Contemporary Ottoman records usual preserve descriptions of the events in various codices of the correspondent era.[34] Both Greek and Ottoman contemporary literature agree that heavy taxation imposed on the Christian subjects of the regions was one of the main reasons that triggered the revolt.[35]

References

  1. ^ a b c d Hasiotis, 2011, p. 439
  2. ^ a b Brewer, 2012, p. 92
  3. ^ Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1984). The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571. American Philosophical Society. p. 1046. ISBN 978-0-87169-162-0. Hopes ... continent.
  4. ^ Malcolm, Noel (2015). Agents of Empire: Knights, Corsairs, Jesuits and Spies in the Sixteenth-century Mediterranean World. Oxford University Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0190262785. In Ottoman Albania there were two main centres of resistance: the 'Dukagjin' territory of high mountains to the north and north-east of Shkoder, and a rugged stretch of the southern coast - lying mid-way between Vlore and the Corfu Channel - known as Himare.
  5. ^ Malcolm, Noel (2015). Agents of Empire: Knights, Corsairs, Jesuits and Spies in the Sixteenth-century Mediterranean World. Oxford University Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0190262785.
  6. ^ Xhufi., Pëllumb (2017). Arbërit e Jonit (eng: The Albanians of the Ionian Sea). Onufri. p. 844. per buona causa della solevatione delli Albanesi contro Turchi
  7. ^ Xhufi., Pëllumb (2017). Arbërit e Jonit (eng: The Albanians of the Ionian Sea). Onufri. p. 846. tolte alcune poche militie pagate di quelle di Soppoto e grosso numero d'Albanesi
  8. ^ a b c d e Kotzagoergis, 2008, p. 24
  9. ^ Shabani., Fation (2020). The Reasons of Albanian Rebellions Against the Ottoman Empire Between 1560 and 1590. p. 157.
  10. ^ Xhufi., Pëllumb (2017). Arbërit e Jonit (eng: The Albanians of the Ionian Sea). Onufri. p. 845. nella prossima passata guerra nelle imprese della Zimara e di Sopoto con il carico che avevo dell'esercito di Albanesi, a qulle di Nivizza et Gardichi con il governator mio fratello et con l'Eccellentissimo Venier e quella di Margariti
  11. ^ Xhufi., Pëllumb (2017). Arbërit e Jonit (eng: The Albanians of the Ionian Sea). Onufri. p. 850.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i Kotzagoergis, 2008, p. 23
  13. ^ Hasiotis, 1970, p. 215: "O Alvive Zorzi αναφέρει ότι ο Λάντζας είχε επιτύχει σε μιαν από τις παράτολμες επιχειρήσεις του στην Ήπειρο να σκοτώση τον Τούρκο διοικητή της Παραμηθιάς
  14. ^ a b Yildirim 2007, pp. 537–538.
  15. ^ Tsiknakis, 2013, p. 63
  16. ^ Tsiknakis, 2005, p. 225
  17. ^ Tsiknakis, 2005, p. 226
  18. ^ Hasiotis, 1970, p. 193: "οι Έλληνες εκλήθηκαν και πάλι να συνεργαστούν με τους Βενετούς στην πραγματοποιήση της δεύτερης πολιορκίας του Μαργαριτίου που έγινε αμέσως μετά τη ναυμαχία της Ναυπάκτου (στις 10-14 Νοεμβρίου 1571)... "«στρατιάς» στα περίχωρα του Μαργαριτιοϋ καί, τέλος, εξασφάλισε τη συνεργασία των κατοίκων των γειτονικών χωριών "
  19. ^ Vranousis, L.; Sfyroeras, V. (1997). "From the Turkish Conquest to the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century: Revolutionary Movements and Uprisings". Epirus, 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilization: 244–251. ISBN 9789602133712.
  20. ^ Vakalopoulos, Konstantinos A. (2003). Ιστορία της Ηπείρου. Από τις απαρχές της οθωμανοκρατίας ως τις μέρες μας [History of Epirus: From the Start of Ottoman Rule to the Present Day] (in Greek). Herodotos. p. 81. ISBN 9789607290977. Οι Βενετοί της Κέρκυρας ανάθεσαν ακόμη στον Γεώργιο Ρενέση, ο οποίος συμμετείχε παλαιότερα στην πολιορκία του Σοποτού και του Μαργαριτιού καθώς και στις στρατιωτικές επιχειρήσεις της Άρτας, της Λευκάδας
  21. ^ a b Tsiknakis, 2013, p. 65
  22. ^ Tsiknakis, 2013,p. 64
  23. ^ a b Hasiotis, 1975, p. 285
  24. ^ Giakoumis, 2002, p. 22
  25. ^ Giakoumis, 2002, p. 19
  26. ^ Tsiknakis, 2013, p. 65
  27. ^ Lubin, 2012, p. 165
  28. ^ Tsiknakis, 2005, p. 234
  29. ^ Tsiknakis, 2005, p. 228
  30. ^ Kotzagoergis, 2008, p. 24
  31. ^ Pappas, Nicholas Charles (1982). Greeks in Russian Military Service in the Late Eighteen and Early Nineteenth Centuries. Stanford University. p. 224. Fugitives from abortive uprisings in mainland Greece and the Peloponnesus following the battle of Lepanto in 1571 came to the Ionian Islands in the last quarter of the sixteenth century .
  32. ^ Tsiknakis, 2013, p. 70
  33. ^ Muhaj, Ardian (16 March 2022). "The revival of the anti-Ottoman projects in the Balkans after Lepanto and Venice's struggle to maintain long lasting peace with the Ottomans (1573-1645)". Tarih Dergisi / Turkish Journal of History. 0 (76): 203–221. doi:10.26650/iutd.202211. Retrieved 22 August 2022. In Greece, several new uprisings took place both on the mainland and in the archipelago. An important figure in these efforts was the Archbishop of Ohrid, Joakim, who in the years 1573-1574 was involved in talks and projects with the aim of conducting an uprising against the Ottomans in favor of Spai.. "O Aρχιεπίσκοπος Άχρίδος Ίωακείμ και οι συνωμοτικές κινήσεις στή βορείο Ήπειρο (1572- 1576)"1
  34. ^ a b Kotzageorgis, 2008, p. 21: "Ειδικότερα για την περίοδο 1570-1620, οπότε συμβαίνουν οι πρώτες ευρείας έκτασης εξεγέρσεις στην ελληνική χερσόνησο μετά την Άλωση, σώζεται ένα κύριο είδος οθωμανικής πηγής, οι κώδικες διαταγμάτων της Υψηλής Πύλης (mühimme defterleri)
  35. ^ Kotzageorgis, 2008, p. 26: "Ο μηχανισμός της εξέγερσης, όπως αποτυπώνεται στα οθωμανικά διατάγματα, σχετίζεται με την καταβολή φόρων, που ως αίτιο είναι γνωστό στην ελληνική βιβλιογραφία.

Sources

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