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Coordinates: 43°04′48″N 79°04′16″W / 43.080°N 79.071°W / 43.080; -79.071
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{{Cleanup|date=July 2007}}
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{{Infobox Waterfall
{{Infobox Waterfall
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| name = Niagara Falls
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The Niagara Falls are renowned both for their beauty and as a valuable source of [[hydroelectric power]]. Managing the balance between recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 1800s.
The Niagara Falls are renowned both for their beauty and as a valuable source of [[hydroelectric power]]. Managing the balance between recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 1800s.

== Formation ==
{{unreferenced|section|date=January 2007}}

[[Image:Niagara falls aerial.id.jpg|thumb|left|Aerial view of Niagara Falls, with American Falls on the left and the Horseshoe Falls on the right]]

Niagara Falls is divided into the [[Horseshoe Falls]] and the [[American Falls]]. The Horseshoe Falls drop about 170 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (52 m). The American Falls drop about 70 feet (21 m) before reaching a jumble of fallen rocks that were deposited by a massive rock slide in 1954. The larger Horseshoe Falls are about 2,600 feet (792 m) wide, while the American Falls are 1,060 feet (323 m) wide. The volume of water approaching the falls during peak flow season is 202,000 cubic feet per second (5,720 m³/s).<ref name="History of Power">{{cite web | url = http://www.niagarafrontier.com/power.html | title = Niagara Falls History of Power | accessdate = 2006-09-24}}</ref> By comparison Africa's spectacular [[Victoria Falls]] has over 15 million cubic feet (424,750 [[cubic metre|m³]]) of water falling over its crest line each minute during the peak of the wet season (250,000 cu&nbsp;ft/7,079 m³ per second).<ref name=VictoriaFalls>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-waterfalls.com/waterfall.php?num=147 |title=Victoria Falls - World Waterfall Database: World's Tallest Waterfalls |accessdate=2007-06-22 |format= |work= }}</ref> Since the flow is a direct function of the [[Lake Erie]] water elevation, it typically peaks in late spring or early summer. During the summer months, 100,000 cubic feet per second (2,832 m³/s) of water actually traverses the Falls, some 90% of which goes over the Horseshoe Falls, while the balance is diverted to hydroelectric facilities. This is accomplished by employing a [[weir]] with movable gates upstream from the Horseshoe Falls. The Falls flow is further halved at night, and during the low tourist season in the winter, remains a flat 50,000 cubic feet per second (1,416 m³/s). Water diversion is regulated by the [[1950 Niagara Treaty]] and is administered by the [[International Niagara Board of Control]] (IJC).<ref name="IJC – International Niagara Board of Control">{{cite web | url = http://www.ijc.org/conseil_board/niagara/en/niagara_home_accueil.htm | title = IJC – International Niagara Board of Control | accessdate = 2007-03-19}}</ref>

The features that became the Niagara Falls were created by the [[Wisconsin glaciation]], about 10,000 years ago. The same forces also created the North American [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] and the Niagara River. All were dug by a continental [[ice age|ice sheet]] that drove through the area like a giant bulldozer, deepening some river channels to make lakes and damming others with debris.<ref>InfoNiagara.com, [http://www.infoniagara.com/other/history/geo.html ''Niagara Falls Geological History'']. Retrieved March 3, 2007.</ref> Scientists believe that there is an old valley, buried by [[Drift (geology)|glacial drift]], at the approximate location of the present [[Welland Canal]].
[[Image:Canadian Skyline4543.jpg|thumb|right|A view of the Niagara Falls Canadian skyline]]
When the ice melted, the upper Great Lakes emptied into the Niagara River, which followed the rearranged topography across the [[Niagara Escarpment]]. In time, the river cut a gorge through the north facing [[cliff]] or [[cuesta]].

The unusual rock formations did not erode evenly because of the interactions of three major rock formations.{{Fact|date=July 2007}} [[Image:Ilievaart-falls0805 7584smaller.jpg|thumb|right|A view of [[Skylon Tower]] from USA side]]
One rock formation was composed of erosion-resistant [[limestone]] and Lockport [[dolomite|dolostone]]. That hard layer of stone eroded more slowly than underlying materials. The aerial photo clearly shows the hard caprock, the Lockport Formation (Middle [[Silurian]]), which underlies the rapids above the falls and approximately the upper third of the high gorge wall.

Immediately below the hard-rock formation, comprising about two thirds of the cliff, lay a weaker, softer, sloping Rochester Formation (Lower Silurian). The formation was composed mainly of [[shale]], though it has some thin limestone layers. It also contains ancient [[fossil]]s. In time, the river eroded the soft layer that supported the hard layers, undercutting the hard cap rock. Eventually the process carved out the falls.

Submerged in the river in the lower valley, hidden from view, is the Queenston Formation (Upper [[Ordovician]]), which is composed of shales and fine [[sandstone]]s. All three formations were laid down in an ancient [[sea]], and their differences of character derive from changing conditions within that sea.

[[Image:niagara falls.jpg|thumb|right|View of Niagara Falls, showing parts of Canada and the United States]]
The original Niagara Falls were near the sites of present-day [[Queenston, Ontario]], and [[Lewiston, New York]], but [[erosion]] of their crest has caused the waterfalls to retreat several miles southward. Just upstream from the Falls' current location, [[Goat Island (New York)|Goat Island]] splits the course of the Niagara River, resulting in the separation of the Canadian Horseshoe Falls to the west from the American and Bridal Veil Falls to the east. Although engineering has slowed erosion and recession in this century, the falls will eventually recede far enough to drain most of [[Lake Erie]], the bottom of which is higher than the bottom of the falls. Engineers are working to reduce the rate of erosion to postpone this event as long as possible.


== History ==
== History ==
[[Image:Firmin Didot Freres Falls.PNG|thumb|right|1837 woodcut of Niagara Falls, from ''Etats Unis d'Amerique'' by Roux de Rochelle.]]
[[Image:Firmin Didot Freres Falls.PNG|thumb|right|1837 woodcut of Niagara Falls, from ''Etats Unis d'Amerique'' by Roux de Rochelle.]]
The name "Niagara" (Iroquois Nation pronunciation "Nee-ah-GAh-rah"<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.indigenouspeople.net/sacrific.htm | title = The Sacrifice at Niagara Falls | accessdate = 2007-06-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.poetseers.org/Members/oshumare-20niji | title = oshumare niji — Poet Seers | accessdate = 2007-06-22}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.webwinds.com/yupanqui/iroquoisdreams3.htm#Niagara | title = Iroquois Indian Mythology and Spirituality - American Indian Dream Ceremonies and Interpretation | accessdate = 2007-06-22}}</ref>) is said to originate from an [[Iroquois]] word "Onguiaahra" meaning "The Strait." The region's original inhabitants were the ''Ongiara'', an Iroquois tribe named the ''[[Neutral Nation|Neutrals]]'' by French settlers, who found them helpful in mediating disputes with other tribes.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.amoebabooks.com/ | title = ABACA Flows Over Niagara Falls: An Illustrated History | publisher = Amoeba Books | accessdate = May 23 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref>
The name "Niagara" (Iroquois Nation pronunciation "Nee-ah-GAh-rah"<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.indigenouspeople.net/sacrific.htm | title = The Sacrifice at Niagara Falls | accessdate = 2007-06-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.poetseers.org/Members/oshumare-20niji | title = oshumare niji — Poet Seers | accessdate = 2007-06-22}}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url = http://www.webwinds.com/yupanqui/iroquoisdreams3.htm#Niagara | title = Iroquois Indian Mythology and Spirituality - American Indian Dream Ceremonies and Interpretation | accessdate = 2007-06-22}}</ref>) is said to originate from an [[Iroquois]] word "Onguiaahra" meaning "The Strait." The region's original inhabitants were the ''Ongiara'', an Iroquois tribe named the ''[[Neutral Nation|Neutrals]]'' by French settlers, who found them helpful in mediating disputes with other tribes.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.amoebabooks.com/ | title = ABACA Flows Over Niagara Falls: An Illustrated History | publisher = Amoeba Books | accessdate = May 23 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref>

[[Image:Scg.large.png|thumb|right|The [[Niagara Movement]], a [[civil rights]] organization, first met here in 1905]]
Some controversy exists over which explorer first gave a written eyewitness description of the Falls. The area was visited by Frenchman [[Samuel de Champlain]] as early as 1604 during his exploration of Canada. Members of his party reported to him the spectacular waterfalls, which he wrote of in his journals; however, he may never have actually visited them. Some credit Finnish-Swedish naturalist [[Pehr Kalm]] with the original firsthand description, penned during an expedition to the area early in the 18th century. Most historians, however, agree that Belgian Father [[Louis Hennepin]] observed and described the Falls much earlier, in 1677, after traveling in the region with explorer [[René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle]], thus bringing the Falls to the world's attention. Hennepin also first described the [[Saint Anthony Falls]] in [[Minnesota]]. His subsequently discredited claim that he also traveled the [[Mississippi River]] to the [[Gulf of Mexico]] cast some doubt on the validity of his writings and sketches of Niagara Falls. [[Hennepin County, Minnesota|Hennepin County]] in Minnesota was named after Father Louis Hennepin.
Some controversy exists over which explorer first gave a written eyewitness description of the Falls. The area was visited by Frenchman [[Samuel de Champlain]] as early as 1604 during his exploration of Canada. Members of his party reported to him the spectacular waterfalls, which he wrote of in his journals; however, he may never have actually visited them. Some credit Finnish-Swedish naturalist [[Pehr Kalm]] with the original firsthand description, penned during an expedition to the area early in the 18th century. Most historians, however, agree that Belgian Father [[Louis Hennepin]] observed and described the Falls much earlier, in 1677, after traveling in the region with explorer [[René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle]], thus bringing the Falls to the world's attention. Hennepin also first described the [[Saint Anthony Falls]] in [[Minnesota]]. His subsequently discredited claim that he also traveled the [[Mississippi River]] to the [[Gulf of Mexico]] cast some doubt on the validity of his writings and sketches of Niagara Falls. [[Hennepin County, Minnesota|Hennepin County]] in Minnesota was named after Father Louis Hennepin.


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After the [[World War I|First World War]], tourism boomed again as automobiles made getting to the Falls much easier. The story of Niagara Falls in the 20th century is largely that of efforts to harness the energy of the Falls for [[hydroelectric power]], and to control the development on both sides that threaten the area's natural beauty.
After the [[World War I|First World War]], tourism boomed again as automobiles made getting to the Falls much easier. The story of Niagara Falls in the 20th century is largely that of efforts to harness the energy of the Falls for [[hydroelectric power]], and to control the development on both sides that threaten the area's natural beauty.

== Impact on industry and commerce ==
{{unreferenced|section|date= January 2007}}
[[Image:NiagaraFallsUS.jpg|thumb|right|[[American Falls]] (large waterfall on the left) and [[Bridal Veil Falls]] (smaller waterfall on the right)]]

The enormous energy of Niagra Falls has long been recognized as a potential source of power. The first known effort to harness the waters was in 1759, when Daniel Joncaire built a small canal above the Falls to power his sawmill. Augustus and Peter Porter purchased this area and all of American Falls in 1805 from the New York state government, and enlarged the original canal to provide hydraulic power for their gristmill and tannery. In 1853, the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Mining Company was chartered, which eventually constructed the canals which would be used to generate electricity. In 1881, under the leadership of Jacob Schoellkopf, enough power was produced to send [[direct current]] to illuminate both the Falls themselves and nearby Niagara Falls village.

[[Image:Niagara1.jpg|thumb|right|Both American and Horseshoe Falls seen from Canada in a [[panoramic]] view.]]
When [[Nikola Tesla]], for whom a memorial was later built at Niagara Falls, NY (USA), invented the [[three-phase]] system of [[alternating current]] power transmission, distant transfer of electricity became possible. In 1883, the Niagara Falls Power Company, a descendant of Schoellkopf's firm, hired [[George Westinghouse]] to design a system to generate alternating current. By 1896, with financing from moguls like [[J.P. Morgan]], [[John Jacob Astor IV]], and the [[Vanderbilt]]s, they had constructed giant underground conduits leading to turbines generating upwards of 100,000 [[horsepower]] (75 MW), and were sending power as far as [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], twenty [[mile]]s (32 [[kilometre|km]]) away. Private companies on the Canadian side also began to harness the energy of the Falls. The Government of the province of [[Ontario]], Canada eventually brought power transmission operations under public control in 1906, distributing Niagara's energy to various parts of the Canadian province. Currently between 50% and 75% of the Niagara River's flow is diverted via four huge tunnels that arise far upstream from the waterfalls. The water then passes through [[hydroelectric]] turbines that supply power to nearby areas of the Canada and the USA before returning to the river well past the Falls.

[[Image:Niagara falls panorama.jpg|thumb|right|Another [[panoramic]] view of Niagara Falls.]]
The most powerful hydroelectric stations on the Niagara River are Sir [[Adam Beck]] 1 and 2 on the Canadian side, and the [[Robert Moses Hydro-Electric Dam|Robert Moses]] Niagara Power Plant and the Lewiston Pump Generating Plant on the American side. All together, Niagara's generating stations can produce about 4.4 [[gigawatt|GW]] of power.

In August 2005, [[Ontario Power Generation]], which is now responsible for the Sir Adam Beck stations, announced plans to build a new 6½ mile (10.4 km) tunnel to tap water from farther up the Niagara river than is possible with the existing arrangement. The project is expected to be completed in 2009, and will increase Sir Adam Beck's output by about 182 [[Megawatt|MW]] (4.2%).


[[Image:Niagara falls in dark.jpg|thumb|right|Niagara Falls at night]]
[[Image:Niagara falls in dark.jpg|thumb|right|Niagara Falls at night]]

[[Ship]]s can bypass Niagara Falls by means of the [[Welland Canal]], which in the 1960s was improved and incorporated into the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]]. While the seaway diverted water traffic from nearby [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] and led to the demise of its steel and grain mills, other industries in the Niagara River valley flourished until the 1970s with the help of the electric power produced by the river. Since then the region has declined economically.

The cities of Niagara Falls, [[Ontario]], Canada and Niagara Falls, New York, USA are connected by three bridges, including the [[Rainbow Bridge (Niagara Falls)|Rainbow Bridge]], just downriver from the Falls, which affords the closest view of the Falls and is open to non-commercial vehicle traffic and pedestrians. The [[Whirlpool Rapids Bridge]], 1 mile (1.5 km) down from the Rainbow bridge and the oldest bridge over the Niagara river is open only to [[NEXUS (frequent traveler program)|NEXUS]] Pass holders a limited amount of hours. The newest bridge, the Lewiston-Queenston Bridge, is located near the escarpment. Nearby Niagara Falls International Airport and [[Buffalo Niagara International Airport]] were named after the waterfall, as were [[Niagara University]], countless local businesses, and even an asteroid.<ref name="Asteroid">Asteroid ''12382 Niagara Falls'' was named for the Falls.</ref>

== Preservation efforts ==
{{essay-entry|section}}

Niagara Falls is an icon of the North American landscape. Its legendary rapids have long been a source of inspiration for explorers, travelers, artists, authors, filmmakers, residents and visitors. Few visitors realize that the falls came extremely close to becoming an industrial corridor rather than a scenic preserve.

In the 1870s the shores along the river and rapids were lined with hotels, mills and various commercial buildings. Sightseers had limited access and often had to pay for a glimpse of the falls. Only Goat Island, dividing the American and Horseshoe Falls, remained untouched by industry, largely due to private ownership. It was one of the few places visitors could enjoy the natural scenery (for a fee) and get close to the falls. Pressures to sell the island intensified throughout the nineteenth-century. Plans were proposed to cut a canal through the center of Goat Island and use the water power for expanding the area’s commercial development.

Threats to Goat Island, along with the existing industrial encroachment and lack of public access to Niagara Falls, lead to a conservation movement in the U.S. known as “Free Niagara”. Participants, known as “Reservationists,” included Hudson River school artist [[Frederic Edwin Church]], landscape designer [[Frederick Law Olmsted]], and architect [[Henry Hobson Richardson]]. Church spoke publicly about the need to protect the area and approached [[Lord Dufferin]], governor-general of Canada, with a proposal that New York State and Canadian officials begin discussions on establishing a public park around the falls.
Goat Island was one of the inspirations for the idea of preserving Niagara Falls as a natural landscape. On a walk through the island with his friends [[William Dorsheimer]] and H. H. Richardson, Olmsted shared his dream of a park that would preserve the serenity of the landscape and protect the natural beauty of the falls and rapids. Dorsheimer, a lawyer by profession, brought Olmsted to Buffalo in 1868 to design a city park system and helped promote his career. .. In 1879 the state legislature commissioned the State Survey (in charge of mapping the state of New York) to report on what was required to create a park at Niagara Falls. …This report, co-authored by Olmsted and Gardner, became the single most important document in the Niagara preservation movement.

At the direction of the New York State Legislature, in 1880 a commission led by State Survey Director James T. Gardner and Olmsted prepared a Special Report... on the Preservation of the Scenery of Niagara Falls, advocating State purchase, restoration and preservation through public ownership of the scenic lands surrounding Niagara Falls. Accompanied by a Memorial to the governor signed by more than a hundred prominent citizens, this Report defines the direction of the public campaign to save the beauties of Niagara.
This Report documents the early stages of one of the first state-level conservation efforts in America, New York's movement to restore and preserve the scenic beauty of Niagara Falls. Written by Gardiner and Olmsted, who was chiefly responsible for framing the Report's proposals, the Report analyzes the Falls' scenery, describes its deterioration in words and photographs, and proposes that New York State come to the rescue by purchasing critical parcels of land in the immediate vicinity and restoring them to their former beauty, thereby fulfilling a "sacred obligation to mankind". The Report also includes a supporting Memorial to the governor signed by more than a hundred prominent individuals, including several associated in various ways with conservationism. The idea of preserving the Falls through public ownership had first been proposed publicly by Lord Dufferin, Governor-General of Canada, in 1878; however, the artist Frederic Edwin Church had broached the idea privately some years earlier, and by 1869 several Americans, including Church, Olmsted, and architect Henry Hobson Richardson, had begun working privately to build support for such a measure. In 1879, the New York Legislature had responded to a request from the State's own governor, Lucius Robinson, by instructing the Commissioners of the State Survey to investigate the matter and issue this Report. <ref> Laura Wood Roper, FLO: A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted [Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973], pp. 378-81.)</ref>

No action was taken on the report until 1883, when Governor [[Grover Cleveland]] drafted legislation authorizing appropriation of lands for a state reservation at Niagara….The Niagara Falls Association, a private citizens group founded in 1882, mounted a massive letter writing campaign and petition drive in support of the park.
Charles Eliot Norton, writer and Professor of History of Fine Art at Harvard University, and Olmsted were among the leaders of the public campaign to save the beauty of Niagara Falls through the creation of a state-owned reservation. Facing significant opposition from such figures as New York Governor Alonzo Cornell, they sought to marshal public enthusiasm by publishing a series of letters about the plight of the Falls and the plans to save them in major New York and Boston newspapers in 1881 and 1882. In 1881, the letters were written by a young Englishman, Henry Norman; in 1882, by a Unitarian minister, Jonathan Baxter Harrison, who worked tirelessly in the Niagara campaign. His letters, which had considerable popular impact and unquestionably contributed to the success of the campaign in the establishment of the State Reservation at Niagara in 1885, are here collected in pamphlet form. They offer insights into the perceptions, thought and values which guided the burgeoning preservationist conservation movement in late nineteenth-century America, and into the techniques of an early and successful campaign for state-level conservation.
[[Image:Canadian Falls Aug 2004.JPG|thumb|right|A closer view of the [[Horseshoe Falls, Canada|Horseshoe (Canadian) Falls]] in the early morning.]]

All efforts were rewarded on April 30, 1885, when Governor [[David B. Hill]] signed legislation creating the Niagara Reservation, New York’s first state park. New York state began to purchase land from developers, under the charter of the Niagara Reservation State Park. In the same year, the province of Ontario established the Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park for the same purpose. On the Canadian side, the Niagara Parks Commission governs land usage along the entire course of the Niagara River, from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario.

In 1887 Olmsted and Vaux submitted the Supplemental Report of the Commissioners of the State Reservation at Niagara. This brief report proposes a detailed plan to restore the immediate vicinity of Niagara Falls to its natural beauty, enhancing the experience of visitors to the newly-created State Reservation at Niagara. Such a restoration had been the basic goal behind the creation of the Reservation, an effort in which Olmsted himself had been the guiding force. This report exemplifies the intersection of scenic preservation with the challenges of landscape design, demonstrating--in both aspects--Olmsted's mature thought and refined artistry. Since its intent is "to restore and conserve the natural surroundings of the Falls of Niagara, rather than to attempt to add anything thereto", this proposal probes the delicate boundaries between humanly-imposed "improvement" and natural beauty, on the one hand, and between simply "let[ting] nature alone" and enhancing its scenic appeal, on the other. The report also anticipates fundamental questions--such as how to provide access without destroying beauty, and how to restore natural landscapes damaged by man--that later determined the complex identity of National Parks and other scenic preserves, and defined the central challenges of their management. The effort to restore the Niagara landscape, of which this report represents a part, required nearly two decades for its accomplishment, and ultimately drew on the services of several landscape architects. <ref> New York (State). Commissioners of state reservation at Niagara, Albany, The Argus company, printers, 1887</ref>
By 1887, Olmsted and his colleague [[Calvert Vaux]] planned a park with scenic roadways, paths and a few shelters designed to protect the landscape while allowing large numbers of visitors to enjoy the falls. Through the years the original design was modified to accommodate increased visitation. Commemorative statues, shops, restaurants, and a 1959 glass and metal observation tower were added.

Currently the park is undergoing a phased rehabilitation. The goal of the ongoing effort is to strike a balance between Olmsted’s idyllic vision, and the realities of the twenty-first century. <ref>The New York State Preservationist, Vol. 6/No. 1, Fall/Winter 2002, “Falling for Niagara”, page 14+15</ref>
Responding to the campaign of public concern about the depletion of Niagara Falls orchestrated by J. Horace McFarland and supported by the Sierra Club and the Appalachian Mountain Club, in 1906 Congress passed both a by Joint Resolution instructing the American representatives to an international commission on Niagara to work with their Canadian counterparts to preserve the Falls; and by "An Act For the control and regulation of the waters of Niagara River, for the preservation of Niagara Falls, and for other purposes," (Burton Act) restricting the diversion of water from the sources of the Falls and requesting the President to undertake the necessary treaty negotiations to guarantee the Falls' protection by both the United States and Canada; though it permits greater water diversion than preservationists like McFarland had hoped, a final treaty was signed in 1909 which limited the total amount of water diverted from the Falls by both nations to 56,000 cubic feet (approx. 1,600 cubic m) per second, a limitation which remained in effect until 1950. <ref> U.S. Statutes at Large, Vol. 34, Part 1, Chap. 3621, pp. 626-28. "An Act For the control and regulation of the waters of Niagara River, for the preservation of Niagara Falls, and for other purposes." H.R. 18024; Public Act No. 367</ref>
The Burton Act was an important act of landscape preservation: it made diversion of water for power supplies subordinate to preservation of one of the nation's scenic marvels.

[[Image:dryniagara.jpg|thumb|right|American Falls "shut off" during erosion control efforts in 1969 (see text)]]
[[Image:dryniagara.jpg|thumb|right|American Falls "shut off" during erosion control efforts in 1969 (see text)]]

In addition to the effects of diversion of water to the power stations, erosion control efforts have included underwater [[weir]]s to redirect the most damaging currents, and actual mechanical strengthening of the top of the Falls. The most dramatic such work was performed in 1969. In June of that year, the Niagara River was completely diverted away from the American Falls for several months through the building of a temporary rock and earth dam (clearly visible in the photo at right), effectively shutting off the American Falls.<ref name="Ice Jam">This effect also obtained once as a result of natural forces, as an upstream ice jam stopped almost all water flow over Niagara Falls on [[March 29]], [[1848]].</ref> While the Horseshoe Falls absorbed the extra flow, the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] studied the riverbed and mechanically bolted faults which would otherwise have hastened the retreat of the American Falls. A plan to remove the huge mound of [[Scree|talus]] deposited in 1954 was abandoned owing to cost, and in November 1969, the temporary dam was [[dynamite]]d, restoring flow to the American Falls. Even after these undertakings, [[Luna Island]], the small piece of land between the main waterfall and the Bridal Veil, remained off limits to the public for years owing to fears that it was unstable and could collapse into the gorge at any time.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

Preservation efforts have not extended beyond and above the Falls themselves. Recent construction of several tall buildings (most of them hotels) on the Canadian side resulted in a remarkable alteration and urbanisation of the landscape. It has also caused the airflow over the Falls to change direction. Students at the [[University of Guelph]] demonstrated, using scale models, that the air passes over the top of the new hotels, causing a breeze to roll down the south sides of the buildings and spill into the gorge below the Falls, where it feeds into a whirlpool of moisture and air. The result is that the viewing areas on the Canadian side are now often obscured by a layer of mist.<ref name="Discovery Channel">{{cite web | url = http://www.exn.ca/video/?Video=exn20040929-niagara.asx | title = Discovery Channel Video Player | access date = 2006-09-24 | publisher = [[The Discovery Channel]]}}</ref>

== In entertainment and popular culture ==

=== Over The Falls ===
=== Over The Falls ===
[[Image:BobbyLeachNiagaraFalls.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bobby Leach]] and his barrel after his trip over Niagara Falls, 1911]]

In October 1829, [[Sam Patch]], who called himself ''The Yankee Leaper'', jumped from a high tower into the gorge below the falls and survived; this began a long tradition of [[Stunt performer|daredevils]] trying to go over the Falls. In 1901, 63-year-old school teacher [[Annie Edson Taylor]] was the first person to go over the Falls in a [[barrel (storage)|barrel]] as a publicity stunt; she survived, bleeding, but virtually unharmed. Soon after exiting the barrel, she said, "No one should ever try that again." Unfortunately, the fortune she hoped to make from a later lecture tour was never realized, as her manager was a con-man who took everything she owned. (Legend says that a small kitten rode in the barrel with her, but this seems to have been a whimsical myth. Still, when she posed with the barrel afterwards, the kitten sat placidly on top of it.) Since Taylor's historic ride, 14 other people have intentionally gone over the Falls in or on a device, despite her advice. Some have survived unharmed, but others have drowned or been severely injured. Survivors of such stunts face charges and stiff fines, as it is illegal, on both sides of the border, to attempt to go over the Falls.
In October 1829, [[Sam Patch]], who called himself ''The Yankee Leaper'', jumped from a high tower into the gorge below the falls and survived; this began a long tradition of [[Stunt performer|daredevils]] trying to go over the Falls. In 1901, 63-year-old school teacher [[Annie Edson Taylor]] was the first person to go over the Falls in a [[barrel (storage)|barrel]] as a publicity stunt; she survived, bleeding, but virtually unharmed. Soon after exiting the barrel, she said, "No one should ever try that again." Unfortunately, the fortune she hoped to make from a later lecture tour was never realized, as her manager was a con-man who took everything she owned. (Legend says that a small kitten rode in the barrel with her, but this seems to have been a whimsical myth. Still, when she posed with the barrel afterwards, the kitten sat placidly on top of it.) Since Taylor's historic ride, 14 other people have intentionally gone over the Falls in or on a device, despite her advice. Some have survived unharmed, but others have drowned or been severely injured. Survivors of such stunts face charges and stiff fines, as it is illegal, on both sides of the border, to attempt to go over the Falls.


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Photographs of many of the stunt people and daredevils can be seen in the [http://www.nfpl.library.on.ca/nfplindex/start.asp?db=images Historic Niagara Digital Collections Images Database].
Photographs of many of the stunt people and daredevils can be seen in the [http://www.nfpl.library.on.ca/nfplindex/start.asp?db=images Historic Niagara Digital Collections Images Database].

=== Movies and television ===
=== Movies and television ===
[[Image:Cliftnon Hill33.JPG|thumb|right|The popular [[Clifton Hill (Niagara Falls)|Clifton Hill]] on the Canadian side lit up at night]]
[[Image:Cliftnon Hill33.JPG|thumb|right|The popular [[Clifton Hill (Niagara Falls)|Clifton Hill]] on the Canadian side lit up at night]]
Already a huge tourist attraction and favorite spot for honeymooners, Niagara Falls visits rose sharply in 1953 after the release of ''[[Niagara (1953 film)|Niagara]]'', a movie starring [[Marilyn Monroe]]. Later in the 20th century, the Falls was a featured location in 1980s movie ''[[Superman II]]'', and was itself the subject of a popular [[IMAX]] movie. Illusionist [[David Copperfield (illusionist)|David Copperfield]] performed a trick in which he appeared to travel over the Horseshoe Falls in 1990. <!-- he probably didn't, but this would be difficult to prove -->The Falls, or more particularly, the tourist-supported complex near the Falls, was the setting of the short-lived American television show ''[[Wonderfalls]]'' in early 2004. With the recent influx of more international tourists, annual visits exceeded 14 million in 2003. More recently, location footage of the Falls was shot in October 2006 to portray "World's End" of the movie ''[[Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End]]''.<ref>http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0449088/locations</ref>
Already a huge tourist attraction and favorite spot for honeymooners, Niagara Falls visits rose sharply in 1953 after the release of ''[[Niagara (1953 film)|Niagara]]'', a movie starring [[Marilyn Monroe]]. Later in the 20th century, the Falls was a featured location in 1980s movie ''[[Superman II]]'', and was itself the subject of a popular [[IMAX]] movie. Illusionist [[David Copperfield (illusionist)|David Copperfield]] performed a trick in which he appeared to travel over the Horseshoe Falls in 1990. <!-- he probably didn't, but this would be difficult to prove -->The Falls, or more particularly, the tourist-supported complex near the Falls, was the setting of the short-lived American television show ''[[Wonderfalls]]'' in early 2004. With the recent influx of more international tourists, annual visits exceeded 14 million in 2003. More recently, location footage of the Falls was shot in October 2006 to portray "World's End" of the movie ''[[Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End]]''.<ref>http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0449088/locations</ref>

=== Niagra Falls in other areas ===
*On [[August 4]], [[2005]], professional golfer [[John Daly (golfer)|John Daly]] attempted to drive a [[golf ball]] over Niagara Falls, an approximate distance of 362 [[yard]]s (331 m), falling just short in 20 attempts.

*The phrase "Niagara Falls" is often the "triggering" statement in an old [[Vaudeville]] routine more generally known as "[[Slowly I Turned]]". The [[Three Stooges]] used it in their 1944 short film [[Gents Without Cents]].

*The song "Over the Falls" by [[Primus (band)|Primus]] is about a man who attempts to go over Niagara Falls in a barrel.

*Niagara-born musician [[Casey Baker]] wrote a song in 2006 entitled "Daredevil" about Annie Edson Taylor's successful attempt to go over Niagara Falls in a barrel.

*[[Charles Dickens]] described his visit to the falls in his 1842 travelogue, [[American Notes]].

*The asteroid [[(12382) Niagara Falls]] was named after the falls.

== Tourism ==
== Tourism ==
[[Image:Niagara Falls - Canada - Closeup.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Tourist spot at the bottom of the Falls]]
[[Image:Niagara Rainbowbridge2006.jpg|thumb|left|200px]]
[[Image:Journey behind the falls 02.JPG|thumb|right|A portal looking out on the back of Horseshoe Falls]]
Peak numbers of visitors occur in the summertime, when Niagara Falls are both a daytime and evening attraction. From the Canadian side, floodlights illuminate both sides of the Falls for several hours after dark (until midnight). The number of visitors in 2007 is expected to total 20 million and by 2009, the annual rate is expected to top 28 million tourists a year.{{Fact|date=March 2007}}
Peak numbers of visitors occur in the summertime, when Niagara Falls are both a daytime and evening attraction. From the Canadian side, floodlights illuminate both sides of the Falls for several hours after dark (until midnight). The number of visitors in 2007 is expected to total 20 million and by 2009, the annual rate is expected to top 28 million tourists a year.{{Fact|date=March 2007}}


Line 163: Line 65:


The remaining tourist attractions are located in either Canada or the USA.
The remaining tourist attractions are located in either Canada or the USA.

=== USA ===
=== USA ===
From the US side, the American Falls can be viewed from walkways along [[Prospect Point Park]], which also features the [[Prospect Point Park observation tower|Prospect Point Observation Tower]] and a boat dock for the ''Maid of the Mist''. [[Goat Island (New York)|Goat Island]] offers more views of the falls and is accessible by foot and automobile traffic by bridge above the American Falls. From Goat Island, the [[Cave of the Winds (New York)|Cave of the Winds]] is accessible by [[elevator]] and leads hikers to a point beneath [[Bridal Veil Falls (Niagara Falls)|Bridal Veil Falls]]. Most of these attractions lie within the [[Niagara Falls State Park]].<ref name=nfspat>{{cite web | url = http://www.niagarafallsstatepark.com/ | title = Niagara Falls State Park | publisher = Niagara Falls State Park | accessdate = March 27 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref>
From the US side, the American Falls can be viewed from walkways along [[Prospect Point Park]], which also features the [[Prospect Point Park observation tower|Prospect Point Observation Tower]] and a boat dock for the ''Maid of the Mist''. [[Goat Island (New York)|Goat Island]] offers more views of the falls and is accessible by foot and automobile traffic by bridge above the American Falls. From Goat Island, the [[Cave of the Winds (New York)|Cave of the Winds]] is accessible by [[elevator]] and leads hikers to a point beneath [[Bridal Veil Falls (Niagara Falls)|Bridal Veil Falls]]. Most of these attractions lie within the [[Niagara Falls State Park]].<ref name=nfspat>{{cite web | url = http://www.niagarafallsstatepark.com/ | title = Niagara Falls State Park | publisher = Niagara Falls State Park | accessdate = March 27 | accessyear = 2007}}</ref>

Revision as of 06:58, 1 August 2007

Niagara Falls
File:Picture 0043.JPG
The American Falls, Bridal Veil Falls, and a Maid of the Mist boat.
Map
LocationNiagara Falls (Ontario & New York)
Coordinates43°04′48″N 79°04′16″W / 43.080°N 79.071°W / 43.080; -79.071
TypeSegmented Block
Total height167 ft (51 m)
Number of dropsHorseshoe Falls, American Falls
Bridal Veil Falls
WatercourseNiagara River
Average
flow rate		202,000 cu ft/s (5,720 m³/s)

The Niagara Falls (French: les Chutes du Niagara) are a set of massive waterfalls located on the Niagara River, straddling the international border separating the Canadian province of Ontario and the U.S. state of New York. The falls are located 17 miles (27 km) from Buffalo, New York, 75 miles (120 km) from Toronto, Ontario, and are adjacent to the twin cities of Niagara Falls, Ontario, and Niagara Falls, New York.

Niagara Falls is comprised of three major sections: Horseshoe Falls, mostly on the Canadian side of the border, American Falls and the smaller, adjacent Bridal Veil Falls on the United States side. The falls were formed when glaciers receded at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation (the last ice age), and water from the newly-formed Great Lakes carved a path through the Niagara Escarpment en route to the Atlantic Ocean. While not exceptionally high, the Niagara Falls are very wide. More than six million cubic feet (168,000 m³) of water fall over the crest line every minute in high flow,[1] and almost 4 million cubic feet (110,000 m³) on average. It is the most powerful waterfall in North America.[2]

The Niagara Falls are renowned both for their beauty and as a valuable source of hydroelectric power. Managing the balance between recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 1800s.

History

1837 woodcut of Niagara Falls, from Etats Unis d'Amerique by Roux de Rochelle.

The name "Niagara" (Iroquois Nation pronunciation "Nee-ah-GAh-rah"[3][4][5]) is said to originate from an Iroquois word "Onguiaahra" meaning "The Strait." The region's original inhabitants were the Ongiara, an Iroquois tribe named the Neutrals by French settlers, who found them helpful in mediating disputes with other tribes.[6] Some controversy exists over which explorer first gave a written eyewitness description of the Falls. The area was visited by Frenchman Samuel de Champlain as early as 1604 during his exploration of Canada. Members of his party reported to him the spectacular waterfalls, which he wrote of in his journals; however, he may never have actually visited them. Some credit Finnish-Swedish naturalist Pehr Kalm with the original firsthand description, penned during an expedition to the area early in the 18th century. Most historians, however, agree that Belgian Father Louis Hennepin observed and described the Falls much earlier, in 1677, after traveling in the region with explorer René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, thus bringing the Falls to the world's attention. Hennepin also first described the Saint Anthony Falls in Minnesota. His subsequently discredited claim that he also traveled the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico cast some doubt on the validity of his writings and sketches of Niagara Falls. Hennepin County in Minnesota was named after Father Louis Hennepin.

There is credible evidence, however, that Reverend Paul Ragueneau (1608 - 1680) visited the falls prior to Hennepin's claim. Ragueneau was a French Jesuit who was working among the Huron First Nation in Canada. Born in Paris, Father Ragueneau entered the Society of Jesus around 1626, and wrote more about his work than any other Jesuit in Canada. Ragueneau described the natural wonder in his writings some 35 years before Hennepin's visit. It is also possible the falls were visited by Jean de Brebeuf during his visit to the Neutral nation.[7]

Man and woman on Canadian side of Niagara Falls, circa 1858

During the 18th century tourism became popular, and by the mid-century, it was the area's main industry. Napoleon Bonaparte's brother Jérôme visited with his bride in the early 19th century.[8] Demand for passage over the Niagara River led in 1848 to the building of a footbridge and then Charles Ellet's Niagara Suspension Bridge. This was supplanted by German-born John Augustus Roebling's Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge in 1855. After the American Civil War, the New York Central railroad publicized Niagara Falls as a focus of pleasure and honeymoon visits. With increased railroad traffic, in 1886, Leffert Buck replaced Roebling's wood and stone bridge with the predominantly steel bridge that still carries trains over the Niagara River today. The first steel archway bridge near the Falls was completed in 1897. Known today as the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge, it carries vehicles, trains, and pedestrians between Canada (through Canadian Customs Border Control) and the U.S.A. just below the Falls. In 1941 the Niagara Falls Bridge Commission completed the third current crossing in the immediate area of Niagara Falls with the Rainbow Bridge, carrying both pedestrian and vehicular traffic between the two countries and Canadian and U.S. customs for each country.

After the First World War, tourism boomed again as automobiles made getting to the Falls much easier. The story of Niagara Falls in the 20th century is largely that of efforts to harness the energy of the Falls for hydroelectric power, and to control the development on both sides that threaten the area's natural beauty.

Niagara Falls at night
American Falls "shut off" during erosion control efforts in 1969 (see text)

Over The Falls

In October 1829, Sam Patch, who called himself The Yankee Leaper, jumped from a high tower into the gorge below the falls and survived; this began a long tradition of daredevils trying to go over the Falls. In 1901, 63-year-old school teacher Annie Edson Taylor was the first person to go over the Falls in a barrel as a publicity stunt; she survived, bleeding, but virtually unharmed. Soon after exiting the barrel, she said, "No one should ever try that again." Unfortunately, the fortune she hoped to make from a later lecture tour was never realized, as her manager was a con-man who took everything she owned. (Legend says that a small kitten rode in the barrel with her, but this seems to have been a whimsical myth. Still, when she posed with the barrel afterwards, the kitten sat placidly on top of it.) Since Taylor's historic ride, 14 other people have intentionally gone over the Falls in or on a device, despite her advice. Some have survived unharmed, but others have drowned or been severely injured. Survivors of such stunts face charges and stiff fines, as it is illegal, on both sides of the border, to attempt to go over the Falls.

Other daredevils have made crossing the Falls their goal, starting with the successful passage by Jean François "Blondin" Gravelet in 1859. These tightrope walkers drew huge crowds to witness their exploits. Their wires ran across the gorge, near the current Rainbow Bridge, not over the waterfall itself. Among the many was Ontario's William Hunt, who billed himself as "Signor Fanini" and competed with Blondin in performing outrageous stunts over the gorge. Englishman Captain Matthew Webb, the first man to swim the English Channel, drowned in 1883 after unsuccessfully trying to swim across the whirlpools and rapids downriver from the Falls with nine other people. Two others drowned with him, and the other seven gave up before finishing their course.

File:Parent With Heroes.jpg
Mr. Roger Woodward and Mrs. Deanne Woodward Simpson meeting with the two heroes.

In what some called the "Miracle at Niagara", Roger Woodward, a seven-year-old American boy, was swept over the Horseshoe Falls protected only by a life vest on July 9, 1960, as two tourists pulled his 17-year-old sister Deanne from the river only 20 feet (6 m) from the lip of the Horseshoe Falls at Goat Island.[9] Minutes later, Roger was plucked from the roiling plunge pool beneath the Horseshoe Falls after grabbing a life ring thrown to him by the crew of the Maid of the Mist boat. His survival, which no one thought possible, made news throughout the world.

On July 2, 1984, Canadian Karel Soucek from Hamilton, Ontario successfully plunged over the Horseshoe Falls in a barrel with only minor injuries. Soucek was fined $500 for performing the stunt without a license. In 1985, he was fatally injured in a practice session for a stunt attempting to re-create the Niagara drop at the Houston Astrodome. His aim was to climb into a barrel hoisted to the rafters of the Astrodome and to drop 180 feet into a water tank on the floor. After his barrel released prematurely, it hit the side of the tank and he died the next day from his injuries.

In August 1985, Steve Trotter, an aspiring stunt man from Rhode Island, became the youngest person ever (age 22) and the first American in 25 years to go over the Falls in a barrel. Ten years later, Trotter went over the Falls again, becoming the second person to go over the Falls twice and survive. It was also the second-ever "duo"; Lori Martin joined Trotter for the barrel ride over the Falls. The first two-person trip over the brink goes to Jeffrey Petkovich (25) and Peter Debernardi (42) on September 27, 1989.

Kirk Jones of Canton, Michigan became the first known person to survive a plunge over the Horseshoe Falls without a flotation device on October 20, 2003. While it is still not known whether Jones was determined to commit suicide, he survived the 16-story fall with only battered ribs, scrapes, and bruises.

No human has ever survived a plunge over the American Falls, owing to the many boulders and the relatively weak current. A newspaper account in the late 19th century does cite a bulldog believed to have successfully, though accidentally endured the passage. All survivors and daredevils have passed over the Horseshoe Falls, where there are fewer boulders and the current can "throw" a person farther away from the brink and avoid the boulders.

Photographs of many of the stunt people and daredevils can be seen in the Historic Niagara Digital Collections Images Database.

Movies and television

The popular Clifton Hill on the Canadian side lit up at night

Already a huge tourist attraction and favorite spot for honeymooners, Niagara Falls visits rose sharply in 1953 after the release of Niagara, a movie starring Marilyn Monroe. Later in the 20th century, the Falls was a featured location in 1980s movie Superman II, and was itself the subject of a popular IMAX movie. Illusionist David Copperfield performed a trick in which he appeared to travel over the Horseshoe Falls in 1990. The Falls, or more particularly, the tourist-supported complex near the Falls, was the setting of the short-lived American television show Wonderfalls in early 2004. With the recent influx of more international tourists, annual visits exceeded 14 million in 2003. More recently, location footage of the Falls was shot in October 2006 to portray "World's End" of the movie Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End.[10]

Tourism

Peak numbers of visitors occur in the summertime, when Niagara Falls are both a daytime and evening attraction. From the Canadian side, floodlights illuminate both sides of the Falls for several hours after dark (until midnight). The number of visitors in 2007 is expected to total 20 million and by 2009, the annual rate is expected to top 28 million tourists a year.[citation needed]

The oldest and best known tourist attraction at Niagara Falls is the Maid of the Mist boat cruise, named for an ancient Ongiara Indian mythical character, who have carried passengers into the whirlpools beneath the Falls since 1846. Cruise boats operate from boat docks on both sides of the falls.[11][12]

The remaining tourist attractions are located in either Canada or the USA.

USA

From the US side, the American Falls can be viewed from walkways along Prospect Point Park, which also features the Prospect Point Observation Tower and a boat dock for the Maid of the Mist. Goat Island offers more views of the falls and is accessible by foot and automobile traffic by bridge above the American Falls. From Goat Island, the Cave of the Winds is accessible by elevator and leads hikers to a point beneath Bridal Veil Falls. Most of these attractions lie within the Niagara Falls State Park.[13]

The Niagara Scenic Trolley offers guided trips along the American Falls. Panoramic and aerial views of the falls can also be viewed from the Flight of Angels helium balloon ride, or by helicopter. The Niagara Gorge Discovery Center showcases the natural and local history of Niagara Falls and the Niagara Gorge.[13][14]

Canada

On the Canadian side, Queen Victoria Park features manicured gardens, platforms offering spectacular views of both the American and Horseshoe Falls, and underground walkways leading into observation rooms which yield the illusion of being within the falling waters. The observation deck of the nearby Skylon Tower offers the highest overhead view of the Falls, and in the opposite direction gives views as far as distant Toronto. Along with the Minolta Tower (formerly the Segrams Tower, currently the Konica Minolta Tower), it is one of two towers in Canada with a view of the Falls.[15]

Along the Niagara River, the Niagara River Recreational Trail runs the 35 miles (56 km) from Fort Erie to Fort George, and includes many historical sites from the War of 1812.[16]

The Whirlpool Aero Car, built in 1916 from a design by Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo, is a cable car which takes passengers over the whirlpool on the Canadian side. The Journey Behind the Falls - accessible by elevators from the street level entrance - consists of an observation platform and series of tunnels near the bottom of the Horseshoe Falls on the Canadian side.[17][18]

There are two casinos on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls, the Niagara Fallsview Casino Resort and Casino Niagara. The former is situated in the Fallsview Tourist Area, alongside many of the area's hotels, whilst the latter is adjacent to Clifton Hill, a major tourist promenade.[19]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Niagara Falls image gallery.

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ "Falls Facts (Trivia) - Niagara Parks, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada". Retrieved 2007-03-21.
  2. ^ "The World's Best Waterfalls". Retrieved 2006-09-24.
  3. ^ "The Sacrifice at Niagara Falls". Retrieved 2007-06-22.
  4. ^ "oshumare niji — Poet Seers". Retrieved 2007-06-22.
  5. ^ "Iroquois Indian Mythology and Spirituality - American Indian Dream Ceremonies and Interpretation". Retrieved 2007-06-22.
  6. ^ "ABACA Flows Over Niagara Falls: An Illustrated History". Amoeba Books. Retrieved May 23. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ http://puffin.creighton.edu/jesuit/relations/relations_33.html
  8. ^ "Niagara Falls is such a cool honeymoon destineation even Napoleoto's Brother choose it". Retrieved 2006-09-24.
  9. ^ "Over the Falls". Retrieved 2006-09-24.
  10. ^ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0449088/locations
  11. ^ "Maid Of The Mist". Maid of the Mist Steamboat Company, Ltd. Retrieved March 27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ "American Indian Legends - Legend Of The Maid Of The Mist". www.firstpeople.us. Retrieved March 27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ a b "Niagara Falls State Park". Niagara Falls State Park. Retrieved March 27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ "The Flight of Angels". The Great American Balloon Company. Retrieved March 27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ Let's Go Travel Guide, 2004
  16. ^ "Niagara River Recreation Trail". Niagara Parks Commission. Retrieved March 27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ "Journey Behind the Falls". Niagara Parks Commission. Retrieved March 27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ "Whirlpool Aero Car". Niagara Parks Commission. Retrieved March 27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ "Niagara Falls Casinos". Niagara Falls Tourism. Retrieved March 30. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

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