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==History==
==History==
The first version of the DSM in 1952 listed "sociopathic personality disturbance". Individuals to be placed in this category were said to be "...ill primarily in terms of society and of conformity with the prevailing milieu, and not only in terms of personal discomfort and relations with other individuals". There were four subtypes, referred to as 'reactions'; antisocial, dyssocial, sexual and addiction. The antisocial reaction was said to include people who were 'always in trouble' and not learning from it, maintaining 'no loyalties', frequently callous and lacking responsibility, with an ability to 'rationalise' their behaviour. The category was described as more specific and limited than the existing concepts of 'constitutional psychopathic state' or 'psychopathic personality' which had had a very broad meaning; the narrower definition was in line with criteria advanced by [[Hervey M. Cleckley]] from 1941, while the term sociopathic had been advanced by [[George E. Partridge|George Partridge]]. The DSM-II in 1968 rearranged the categories and 'antisocial personality' was now listed as one of ten [[personality disorders]] but still described similarly, to be applied to individuals who are: "basically unsocialized", in repeated conflicts with society, incapable of significant loyalty, selfish, irresponsible, unable to feel guilt or learn from prior experiences, and who tend to blame others and rationalise. The DSM-II warned that a history of legal or social offenses was not by itself enough to justify the diagnosis, and that a 'group delinquent reaction' of childhood or adolescence or 'social maladjustment without manifest psychiatric disorder' should be ruled out first. The dyssocial personality type was relegated in the DSM-II, though would later resurface as the name of a diagnosis in the ICD manual produced by the [[World Health Organisation]], later spelled Dissocial Personality Disorder and equivalent to the ASPD diagnosis.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-fXBNTlk7wC&source=gbs_navlinks_s International Handbook on Psychopathic Disorders and the Law], Volume 1, Alan Felthous, Henning Sass, 15 Apr 2008, e.g. Pgs 24 - 26</ref>
The first version of the DSM in 1952 listed "sociopathic personality disturbance". Individuals to be placed in this category were said to be "...ill primarily in terms of society and of conformity with the prevailing milieu, and not only in terms of personal discomfort and relations with other individuals". There were four subtypes, referred to as 'reactions'; antisocial, dyssocial, sexual and addiction. The antisocial reaction was said to include people who were 'always in trouble' and not learning from it, maintaining 'no loyalties', frequently callous and lacking responsibility, with an ability to 'rationalise' their behaviour. The category was described as more specific and limited than the existing concepts of 'constitutional psychopathic state' or 'psychopathic personality' which had had a very broad meaning; the narrower definition was in line with criteria advanced by [[Hervey M. Cleckley]] from 1941, while the term sociopathic had been advanced by [[George E. Partridge|George Partridge]]. The DSM-II in 1968 rearranged the categories and 'antisocial personality' was now listed as one of ten [[personality disorders]] but still described similarly, to be applied to individuals who are: "basically unsocialized", in repeated conflicts with society, incapable of significant loyalty, selfish, irresponsible, unable to feel guilt or learn from prior experiences, and who tend to blame others and rationalise. The DSM-II warned that a history of legal or social offenses was not by itself enough to justify the diagnosis, and that a 'group delinquent reaction' of childhood or adolescence or 'social maladjustment without manifest psychiatric disorder' should be ruled out first. The dyssocial personality type was relegated in the DSM-II to 'dyssocial behavior' for individuals 'who are predatory and
follow more or less criminal pursuits, such as racketeers, dishonest gamblers, prostitutes, and dope peddlers. (DSM-I classified this condition as
"Sociopathic personality disorder, dyssocial type.". It would later resurface as the name of a diagnosis in the ICD manual produced by the [[World Health Organisation]], later spelled Dissocial Personality Disorder and considered approximately equivalent to the ASPD diagnosis.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C-fXBNTlk7wC&source=gbs_navlinks_s International Handbook on Psychopathic Disorders and the Law], Volume 1, Alan Felthous, Henning Sass, 15 Apr 2008, e.g. Pgs 24 - 26</ref>


The DSM-III in 1980 included the full term ''Antisocial Personality Disorder'' and, as with other disorders, there was now a full checklist of symptoms focused on observable behaviours to enhance inter-operator reliability. The ASPD symptom list was based on the [[Research Diagnostic Criteria]] developed from the so-called [[Feighner Criteria]] from 1972, and in turn largely credited to influential research by sociologist [[Lee Robins]] published in 1966 as 'Deviant Children Grown Up'.<ref>[http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleid=102104 The Development of the Feighner Criteria: A Historical Perspective] Kenneth S. Kendler, M.D.; Rodrigo A. Muñoz, M.D.; George Murphy, M.D. Am J Psychiatry 2009;167:134-142. 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081155</ref> However, Robins has previously clarified that while the new criteria of prior childhood conduct problems came from her work, she and co-researcher psychiatrist Patricia O'Neal got the diagnostic criteria they used from Lee's husband the psychiatrist [[Eli Robins]], one of the authors of the Feighner criteria who had been using them as part of diagnostic interviews.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9AqPs9ootqoC The DSM-IV Personality Disorders] W. John Livesley, Guilford Press, 1995, Page 135</ref>
The DSM-III in 1980 included the full term ''Antisocial Personality Disorder'' and, as with other disorders, there was now a full checklist of symptoms focused on observable behaviours to enhance inter-operator reliability. The ASPD symptom list was based on the [[Research Diagnostic Criteria]] developed from the so-called [[Feighner Criteria]] from 1972, and in turn largely credited to influential research by sociologist [[Lee Robins]] published in 1966 as 'Deviant Children Grown Up'.<ref>[http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleid=102104 The Development of the Feighner Criteria: A Historical Perspective] Kenneth S. Kendler, M.D.; Rodrigo A. Muñoz, M.D.; George Murphy, M.D. Am J Psychiatry 2009;167:134-142. 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081155</ref> However, Robins has previously clarified that while the new criteria of prior childhood conduct problems came from her work, she and co-researcher psychiatrist Patricia O'Neal got the diagnostic criteria they used from Lee's husband the psychiatrist [[Eli Robins]], one of the authors of the Feighner criteria who had been using them as part of diagnostic interviews.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9AqPs9ootqoC The DSM-IV Personality Disorders] W. John Livesley, Guilford Press, 1995, Page 135</ref>

Revision as of 20:59, 9 September 2013

Not to be confused with Asociality, Antisocial behavior, Avoidant personality disorder, Schizoid personality disorder, or Dissociative identity disorder.
"ASPD" redirects here. For the sleep disorder, see Advanced sleep phase disorder.
Antisocial personality disorder
SpecialtyPsychiatry, psychology Edit this on Wikidata
Personality disorders
Cluster A (odd)
Cluster B (dramatic)
Cluster C (anxious)
Not otherwise specified
Depressive
Others

Antisocial (Dissocial) Personality Disorder is a personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregard for, or violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood. There may be an impoverished moral sense or conscience and a history of crime, legal problems, impulsive and aggressive behavior.

The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) and the World Health Organization's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems' (ICD) (F60.2 Dissocial personality disorder.[1]) have similar but not identical criteria. Both have stated that their diagnosis has also been known as psychopathy or sociopathy, though the criteria are different to some other commonly used assessments.[2][3][4][5][6] Antisocial personality disorder falls under the dramatic/erratic cluster of personality disorders.[7]

Diagnosis

DSM-IV-TR

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV-TR), defines ASPD (in Axis II Cluster B) as:[8]

A) There is a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others occurring since age 15 years, as indicated by three or more of the following:
  1. failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest;
  2. deception, as indicated by repeatedly lying, use of aliases, or conning others for personal profit or pleasure;
  3. impulsivity or failure to plan ahead;
  4. irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical fights or assaults;
  5. reckless disregard for safety of self or others;
  6. consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations;
  7. lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another;
B) The individual is at least age 18 years.
C) There is evidence of conduct disorder with onset before age 15 years.
D) The occurrence of antisocial behavior is not exclusively during the course of schizophrenia or a manic episode.

Further considerations

Similar concepts

Psychopathy

Main article: Psychopathy

Psychopathy is a personality or mental disorder[6][9][10][11] characterized partly by antisocial behavior, a diminished capacity for remorse, and poor behavioral controls.[6][9] Psychopathic traits are assessed using various measurement tools, including Canadian researcher Robert D. Hare's Psychopathy Checklist, Revised (PCL-R).[12]

American psychiatrist Hervey Cleckley's work[citation needed] on psychopathy formed the basis of the diagnostic criteria for ASPD, and the DSM states that ASPD is also known as psychopathy.[2][6] However, critics have argued that ASPD is not synonymous with psychopathy as the diagnostic criteria are different.[2][3][4][5][6] A diagnosis of ASPD is based on behavioral patterns, whereas the PCL-R also relies on subjective judgments of personality traits.[3][4] Although Hare wrote that it is possible to obtain reliable and valid measures of the personality traits and behaviors associated with psychopathy, criteria relating to personality traits were excluded from the diagnostic criteria for ASPD in the DSM, in part because it was believed that personality traits were difficult to measure reliably and it was "easier to agree on the behaviors that typify a disorder than on the reasons why they occur".[3][4]

Although the diagnosis of ASPD covers two to three times as many prisoners as are rated as psychopaths, Hare believes that the PCL-R is better able to predict future criminality, violence, and recidivism than a diagnosis of ASPD.[2][3] Hare suggests that there are differences between PCL-R-diagnosed psychopaths and non-psychopaths on "processing and use of linguistic and emotional information", while such differences are potentially smaller between those diagnosed with ASPD and without.[3][4] Hare argued that confusion regarding how to diagnose ASPD, confusion regarding the difference between ASPD and psychopathy, as well as the differing future prognoses regarding recidivism and treatability, may have serious consequences in settings such as court cases where psychopathy is often seen as aggravating the crime.[3][4]

The DSM-V working party has recommended a revision of ASPD to be called antisocial/dyssocial personality disorder.[13][verification needed] There is also a suggestion to include a subtype "Antisocial/Psychopathic Type".[14][verification needed]

Dissocial personality disorder

The World Health Organization's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, tenth edition (ICD-10), defines a conceptually similar disorder to ASPD called (F60.2) Dissocial personality disorder, "usually coming to attention because of a gross disparity between behavior and the prevailing social norms".[1][15]

It is characterized by at least 3 of the following:
  1. Callous unconcern for the feelings of others;
  2. Gross and persistent attitude of irresponsibility and disregard for social norms, rules, and obligations;
  3. Incapacity to maintain enduring relationships, though having no difficulty in establishing them;
  4. Very low tolerance to frustration and a low threshold for discharge of aggression, including violence;
  5. Incapacity to experience guilt or to profit from experience, particularly punishment;
  6. Marked readiness to blame others or to offer plausible rationalizations for the behavior that has brought the person into conflict with society.

The diagnosis includes what may be referred to as amoral, antisocial, asocial, psychopathic, or sociopathic personality (disorder). Although the disorder is not synonymous with conduct disorder, presence of conduct disorder during childhood or adolescence may further support the diagnosis of dissocial personality disorder. There may also be persistent irritability as an associated feature.[15][16] Dissocial personality disorder criteria differ from those for ASPD.[17]

It is a requirement of the ICD-10 that a diagnosis of any specific personality disorder also satisfies a set of general personality disorder criteria.[15]

Theodore Millon's subtypes

Theodore Millon suggested five subtypes of ASPD:[18][19]

Subtype Features
Nomadic (including schizoid and avoidant features) Feels jinxed, ill-fated, doomed, and cast aside; peripheral, drifters; gypsy-like roamers, vagrants; dropouts and misfits; itinerant vagabonds, tramps, wanderers; impulsively not benign.
Malevolent (including sadistic and paranoid features) Belligerent, mordant, rancorous, vicious, malignant, brutal, resentful; anticipates betrayal and punishment; desires revenge; truculent, callous, fearless; guiltless.
Covetous (variant of "pure" pattern) Feels intentionally denied and deprived; rapacious, begrudging, discontentedly yearning; envious, seeks retribution, and avariciously greedy; pleasure more in taking than in having.
Risk-taking (including histrionic features) Dauntless, venturesome, intrepid, bold, audacious, daring; reckless, foolhardy, impulsive, heedless; unbalanced by hazard; pursues perilous ventures.
Reputation-defending (including narcissistic features) Needs to be thought of as infallible, unbreakable, invincible, indomitable, formidable, inviolable; intransigent when status is questioned; over-reactive to slights.

Elsewhere, Millon differentiates ten subtypes (partially overlapping with the above) – covetous, risk-taking, malevolent, tyrannical, malignant, unprincipled, disingenuous, spineless, explosive, and abrasive – but specifically stresses that "the number 10 is by no means special ... Taxonomies may be put forward at levels that are more coarse or more fine-grained."[20]

Comorbidity

The following conditions commonly coexist with ASPD:[21]

35em

When combined with alcoholism, people may show frontal function deficits on neuropsychological tests greater than those associated with each condition.[22]

Causes and pathophysiology

Hormones and neurotransmitters

ASPD is said to be genetically based but typically has environmental factors, such as family relations, that trigger its onset. Traumatic events can lead to a disruption of the standard development of the central nervous system, which can generate a release of hormones that can change normal patterns of development.[23] One of the neurotransmitters that have been discussed in individuals with ASPD is serotonin.[23]

A recent meta-analysis of 20 studies showed a correlation between ASPD and serotonin metabolic 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA). The study found a reasonable effect size (5-HIAA levels in antisocial groups were 0.45 standard deviation lower than in non-antisocial groups).[24]

J.F.W. Deakin of University of Manchester's Neuroscience and Psychiatry Unit has discussed additional evidence of 5HT's connection with ASPD. Deakin suggests that low cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of 5-HIAA, and hormone responses to 5HT, have displayed that the two main ascending 5HT pathways mediate adaptive responses to post and current conditions. He states that impairments in the posterior 5HT cells can lead to low mood functioning, as seen in patients with ASPD. It is important to note that the dysregulated serotonergic function may not be the sole feature that leads to ASPD but it is an aspect of a multifaceted relationship between biological and psychosocial factors.[citation needed]

While it has been shown that lower levels of serotonin may be associated with ASPD, there has also been evidence that decreased serotonin function is highly correlated with impulsiveness and aggression across a number of different experimental paradigms. Impulsivity is not only linked with irregularities in 5HT metabolism but may be the most essential psychopathological aspect linked with such dysfunction.[25] In a study looking at the relationship between the combined effects of central serotonin activity and acute testosterone levels on human aggression, researchers found that aggression was significantly higher in subjects with a combination of high testosterone and high cortisol responses, which correlated to decreased serotonin levels.[26] Correspondingly, the DSM classifies "impulsivity or failure to plan ahead" and "irritability and aggressiveness" as two of seven sub-criteria in category A of the diagnostic criteria of ASPD.[8]

Some studies have found a relationship between monoamine oxidase A and antisocial behavior, including conduct disorder and symptoms of adult ASPD, in maltreated children.[citation needed]

Limbic neural maldevelopment

Cavum septum pellucidum (CSP) is a marker for limbic neural maldevelopment.[27] One study found that those with CSP had significantly higher levels of antisocial personality, psychopathy, arrests and convictions compared with controls.[27]

Cultural influences

The Socio-cultural perspective of clinical psychology view disorders as being influenced by cultural aspects, since cultural norms differ significantly, mental disorders such as ASPD are viewed differently.[28] Robert D. Hare has suggested that the rise in ASPD that has been reported in the United States may be linked to changes in cultural mores, the latter serving to validate the behavioral tendencies of many individuals with ASPD.[29] While the rise reported may be in part merely a byproduct of the widening use (and abuse) of diagnostic techniques,[30] given Eric Berne's division between individuals with active and latent ASPD – the latter keeping themselves in check by attachment to an external source of control like the law, traditional standards, or religion[31] – it has been plausibly suggested that the erosion of collective standards may indeed serve to release the individual with latent ASPD from their previously prosocial behavior.[32]

There is also a continuous debate as to the extent to which the legal system should be involved in the identification and admittance of patients with preliminary symptoms of ASPD.[33]

Environment

Some studies suggest that the social and home environment has contributed to the development of antisocial behavior.[34] The parents of these children have been shown to display antisocial behavior, which could be adopted by their children.[34]

Head injuries

Researchers have linked physical head injuries with antisocial behavior.[35][36][37] Since the 1980s, scientists have correlated traumatic brain injury, including damage to the prefrontal cortex, with an inability to make morally and socially acceptable decisions.[35][37] Children with early damage in the prefrontal cortex may never fully develop social or moral reasoning and become "psychopathic individuals ... characterized by high levels of aggression and antisocial behavior performed without guilt or empathy for their victims."[35][36] Additionally, damage to the amygdala may impair the ability of the prefrontal cortex to interpret feedback from the limbic system, which could result in uninhibited signals that manifest in violent and aggressive behavior.[35]

Treatment

ASPD is considered to be among the most difficult personality disorders to treat.[38][39][verification needed] Because of their very low or absent capacity for remorse, individuals with ASPD often lack sufficient motivation and fail to see the costs associated with antisocial acts.[38] They may only simulate remorse rather than truly commit to change: they can be seductively charming and dishonest, and may manipulate staff and fellow patients during treatment.[40][verification needed] Studies have shown that outpatient therapy is not likely to be successful, however the extent to which persons with ASPD are entirely unresponsive to treatment may have been exaggerated.[41]

Those with ASPD may stay in treatment only as required by an external source, such as a parole. Residential programs that provide a carefully controlled environment of structure and supervision along with peer confrontation have been recommended.[38] There has been some research on the treatment of ASPD that indicated positive results for therapeutic interventions.[42] Schema Therapy is also being investigated as a treatment for ASPD.[43] A review by Charles M. Borduin features the strong influence of Multisystemic therapy (MST) that could potentially improve this imperative issue. However this treatment requires complete cooperation and participation of all family members.[44] Some studies have found that the presence of ASPD does not significantly interfere with treatment for other disorders, such as substance abuse,[45] although others have reported contradictory findings.[46]

Therapists of individuals with ASPD may have considerable negative feelings toward clients with extensive histories of aggressive, exploitative, and abusive behaviors.[38] Rather than attempt to develop a sense of conscience in these individuals, therapeutic techniques should be focused on rational and utilitarian arguments against repeating past mistakes. These approaches would focus on the tangible, material value of prosocial behavior.[47]

Prognosis

According to Professor Emily Simonoff, Institute of Psychiatry, "childhood hyperactivity and conduct disorder showed equally strong prediction of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and criminality in early and mid-adult life. Lower IQ and reading problems were most prominent in their relationships with childhood and adolescent antisocial behaviour."[48]

Epidemiology

ASPD is seen in 3% to 30% of psychiatric outpatients.[21] The prevalence of the disorder is even higher in selected populations, like prisons, where there is a preponderance of violent offenders.[49] A 2002 literature review of studies on mental disorders in prisoners stated that 47% of male prisoners and 21% of female prisoners had ASPD.[50] Similarly, the prevalence of ASPD is higher among patients in alcohol or other drug (AOD) abuse treatment programs than in the general population (Hare 1983), suggesting a link between ASPD and AOD abuse and dependence.[51]

History

The first version of the DSM in 1952 listed "sociopathic personality disturbance". Individuals to be placed in this category were said to be "...ill primarily in terms of society and of conformity with the prevailing milieu, and not only in terms of personal discomfort and relations with other individuals". There were four subtypes, referred to as 'reactions'; antisocial, dyssocial, sexual and addiction. The antisocial reaction was said to include people who were 'always in trouble' and not learning from it, maintaining 'no loyalties', frequently callous and lacking responsibility, with an ability to 'rationalise' their behaviour. The category was described as more specific and limited than the existing concepts of 'constitutional psychopathic state' or 'psychopathic personality' which had had a very broad meaning; the narrower definition was in line with criteria advanced by Hervey M. Cleckley from 1941, while the term sociopathic had been advanced by George Partridge. The DSM-II in 1968 rearranged the categories and 'antisocial personality' was now listed as one of ten personality disorders but still described similarly, to be applied to individuals who are: "basically unsocialized", in repeated conflicts with society, incapable of significant loyalty, selfish, irresponsible, unable to feel guilt or learn from prior experiences, and who tend to blame others and rationalise. The DSM-II warned that a history of legal or social offenses was not by itself enough to justify the diagnosis, and that a 'group delinquent reaction' of childhood or adolescence or 'social maladjustment without manifest psychiatric disorder' should be ruled out first. The dyssocial personality type was relegated in the DSM-II to 'dyssocial behavior' for individuals 'who are predatory and follow more or less criminal pursuits, such as racketeers, dishonest gamblers, prostitutes, and dope peddlers. (DSM-I classified this condition as "Sociopathic personality disorder, dyssocial type.". It would later resurface as the name of a diagnosis in the ICD manual produced by the World Health Organisation, later spelled Dissocial Personality Disorder and considered approximately equivalent to the ASPD diagnosis.[52]

The DSM-III in 1980 included the full term Antisocial Personality Disorder and, as with other disorders, there was now a full checklist of symptoms focused on observable behaviours to enhance inter-operator reliability. The ASPD symptom list was based on the Research Diagnostic Criteria developed from the so-called Feighner Criteria from 1972, and in turn largely credited to influential research by sociologist Lee Robins published in 1966 as 'Deviant Children Grown Up'.[53] However, Robins has previously clarified that while the new criteria of prior childhood conduct problems came from her work, she and co-researcher psychiatrist Patricia O'Neal got the diagnostic criteria they used from Lee's husband the psychiatrist Eli Robins, one of the authors of the Feighner criteria who had been using them as part of diagnostic interviews.[54]

The DSM-IV maintained the trend for behavioural antisocial symptoms while noting "This pattern has also been referred to as psychopathy, sociopathy, or dyssocial personality disorder" and re-including in the 'Associated Features' text summary some of the underlying personality traits from the older diagnoses. The DSM-5 has the same diagnosis of Antisocial (Dissocial) Personality Disorder. In an 'alternative model' section for personality disorders, for ASPD it lists an optional specifier for "psychopathic features" where there is a lack of anxiety/fear accompanied by a bold and efficacious interpersonal style.[55]

See also

40em

References

  1. ^ a b Dissocial personality disorder – International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10) Cite error: The named reference "dissocial" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  2. ^ a b c d Patrick, Christopher (2005). Handbook of Psychopathy. Guilford Press. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g "Psychopathy and Antisocial Personality Disorder: A Case of Diagnostic Confusion". Robert D. Hare, Ph.D. Psychiatric Times. Vol. 13 No. 2. February 1, 1996.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Hare, R.D., Hart, S.D., Harpur, T.J. Psychopathy and the DSM—IV Criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder (PDF).
  5. ^ a b Semple, David (2005). The Oxford Handbook of Psychiatry. USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 448–449. ISBN 0-19-852783-7.
  6. ^ a b c d e Skeem, J. L. (15 December 2011). "Psychopathic Personality: Bridging the Gap Between Scientific Evidence and Public Policy". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 12 (3): 95–162. doi:10.1177/1529100611426706. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Schacter, Daniel L., Daniel T. Gilbert, and Daniel M. Wegner. Psychology. Worth Publishers, 2010. Print.
  8. ^ a b American Psychiatric Association (2000). "Diagnostic criteria for 301.7 Antisocial Personality Disorder". BehaveNet. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  9. ^ a b R. James R. Blair. "Neurobiological basis of psychopathy". Retrieved 15 May 2013.
  10. ^ Merriam-Webster Dictionary. "Definition of psychopathy". Retrieved 15 May 2013.
  11. ^ Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders. "Hare Psychopathy Checklist". Retrieved 15 May 2013.
  12. ^ Hare, R. D. (2003). Manual for the Revised Psychopathy Checklist (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
  13. ^ DSM-V revision panel T 04 Antisocial Personality Disorder (Dyssocial Personality Disorder). Retrieved January 23, 2012.[dead link]
  14. ^ http://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevisions/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid=438#[dead link]
  15. ^ a b c WHO (2010) ICD-10: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines: Disorders of adult personality and behavior
  16. ^ "F60.2 Dissocial personality disorder". World Health Organization. Retrieved 12 January 2008.
  17. ^ Early Prevention of Adult Antisocial Behavior. Cambridge University Press. 16 June 2003. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-521-65194-3. Retrieved 12 January 2008. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Millon, Theodore, Personality Disorders in Modern Life, 2004
  19. ^ Millon, Theodore – Personality Subtypes. Millon.net. Retrieved on 2011-12-07.
  20. ^ Quoted in Martha Stout, The Sociopath Next Door (2005) p. 223
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  23. ^ a b Black, D. "What Causes Antisocial Personality Disorder?". Psych Central. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
  24. ^ Gx, Johnx. "Antisocial Brain Abnormalities, Serotonin Levels and Treatments". Retrieved 30 October 2011.
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  26. ^ Kuepper, Y (2010). "Aggression--Interactions of serotonin and testosterone in healthy men and women". Behavioural Brain Research. 1. 206: 93–100. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2009.09.006. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ a b Adrian Raine, Lydia Lee, Yaling Yang, Patrick Colletti (2010). "Neurodevelopmental marker for limbic maldevelopment in antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy". BJPsych. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 197: 186–192. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.078485.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Lock, M. P. (2008). "Treatment of antisocial personality disorder". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 193 (5): 426. doi:10.1192/bjp.193.5.426.
  29. ^ Martha Stout, The Sociopath Next Door (2005) p. 136
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  31. ^ Eric Berne, A Layman's Guide to Psychiatry and Psychoanalysis (1976) p. 241–2
  32. ^ Stout, p. 136–7
  33. ^ David McCallum, Personality and Dangerousness (2001) p. 7
  34. ^ a b in Psych Central
  35. ^ a b c d "Protect – Watch Your Head". The Franklin Institute Online. The Franklin Institute. 2004. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
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  37. ^ a b Archives of General Psychiatry, February 1, 2000
  38. ^ a b c d Gabbard, Glen O., Gunderson John G. (2000) Psychotherapy for Personality Disorders. First Edition. American Psychiatric Publishing. ISBN 978-0-88048-273-8.
  39. ^ Stone, Michael H. (1993) Abnormalities of Personality. Within and Beyond the Realm of Treatment. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-70127-2
  40. ^ Oldham, John M., Skodol, Andrew E., Bender, Donna S. (2005) The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Personality Disorders. American Psychiatric Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58562-159-0.
  41. ^ Salekin, R. (2002). "Psychopathy and therapeutic pessimism: Clinical lore or clinical reality?". Clinical Psychology Review. 22: 169–183.
  42. ^ Derefinko, Karen J. (2008). "Antisocial Personality Disorder". The Medical Basis of Psychiatry: 213–226. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ "Schema Focused Therapy in Forensic Settings: Theoretical Model and Recommendations for Best Clinical Practice" (PDF). International Journal of Forensic Mental Health. 6 (2): 169–183. 2007.
  44. ^ Gatzke L.M, Raine A. (2000). Treatment and Prevention Implications of Antisocial Personality Disorder [1] Current Science Inc. Department of Psychology, University of Southern California. 2:51-55
  45. ^ Darke, S; Finlay-Jones, R; Kaye, S; Blatt, T (1996). "Anti-social personality disorder and response to methadone maintenance treatment". Drug and alcohol review. 15 (3): 271–6. doi:10.1080/09595239600186011. PMID 16203382.
  46. ^ Alterman, AI; Rutherford, MJ; Cacciola, JS; McKay, JR; Boardman, CR (1998). "Prediction of 7 months methadone maintenance treatment response by four measures of antisociality". Drug and alcohol dependence. 49 (3): 217–23. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00015-5. PMID 9571386.
  47. ^ Beck, Aaron T., Freeman, Arthur, Davis, Denise D. (2006) Cognitive Therapy of Personality Disorders. Second Edition. The Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-59385-476-8.
  48. ^ Simonoff, Emily (2004). "Predictors of antisocial personality Continuities from childhood to adult life". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 200: 118–127. PMID 14754823. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  49. ^ Hare 1983
  50. ^ Fazel, Seena; Danesh, John (2002). "Serious mental disorder in 23 000 prisoners: A systematic review of 62 surveys". The Lancet. 359 (9306): 545. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07740-1.
  51. ^ Moeller, F. Gerard; Dougherty, Donald M. (2006). "Antisocial Personality Disorder, Alcohol, and Aggression" (PDF). Alcohol Research & Health. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Retrieved 20 February 2007.
  52. ^ International Handbook on Psychopathic Disorders and the Law, Volume 1, Alan Felthous, Henning Sass, 15 Apr 2008, e.g. Pgs 24 - 26
  53. ^ The Development of the Feighner Criteria: A Historical Perspective Kenneth S. Kendler, M.D.; Rodrigo A. Muñoz, M.D.; George Murphy, M.D. Am J Psychiatry 2009;167:134-142. 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081155
  54. ^ The DSM-IV Personality Disorders W. John Livesley, Guilford Press, 1995, Page 135
  55. ^ The Pocket Guide to the DSM-5 Diagnostic Exam Abraham M. Nussbaum, American Psychiatric Pub, 2013. Pg 236

Further reading

  • Millon, T.; Davis, R. (1998). "Ten Subtypes of Psychopathy". In Millon, T.; et al. (eds.). Psychopathy: Antisocial, Criminal and Violent Behavior. New York. ISBN 1572303441. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |editor2-last= (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

External links

Look up antisocial in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.


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