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It was a gourmet medicine during the [[Second Balkan War]] in 1913, healing the wounds of soldiers. Honey from several species of sting-less bees was consumed to cure [[flu]], to cure [[cataract]], and [[glaucoma]].<ref name="Altman2010, p. 62-67">Altman2010, pp. 62–67</ref> In modern times, its use as a healing agent is equally popular. In 2007, in the ''[[Manchester Evening News]]'' in England, the use of “manuka honey” in a large hospital in [[New Zealand]] to control [[methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus]] ([[Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|MRSA]]) and other bacterial infections was noted; its antibacterial property to kill or inhibit is supported by many scientific studies in recent years.<ref name="Altman2010, p. 70-73">Altman2010, pp. 70–73</ref>
It was a gourmet medicine during the [[Second Balkan War]] in 1913, healing the wounds of soldiers. Honey from several species of sting-less bees was consumed to cure [[flu]], to cure [[cataract]], and [[glaucoma]].<ref name="Altman2010, p. 62-67">Altman2010, pp. 62–67</ref> In modern times, its use as a healing agent is equally popular. In 2007, in the ''[[Manchester Evening News]]'' in England, the use of “manuka honey” in a large hospital in [[New Zealand]] to control [[methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus]] ([[Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|MRSA]]) and other bacterial infections was noted; its antibacterial property to kill or inhibit is supported by many scientific studies in recent years.<ref name="Altman2010, p. 70-73">Altman2010, pp. 70–73</ref>


⚫
==Effects==
⚫
There is no good evidence that honey helps treat [[cough]]s for children,<ref name=cough>{{cite journal |author=Oduwole O, Meremikwu MM, Oyo-Ita A, Udoh EE |title=Honey for acute cough in children |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=3 |issue= |pages=CD007094 |year=2012 |pmid=22419319 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007094.pub3 |type=Systematic review}}</ref><ref name=lozenges>{{cite journal |author=Mulholland S, Chang AB |title=Honey and lozenges for children with non-specific cough |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=2 |pages=CD007523 |year=2009 |pmid=19370690 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007523.pub2 |type=Systematic review}}</ref> and it is potentially hazardous if given to very young children because of the risk of infant botulism.<ref name=lozenges/>


==Properties==
===Allergies===
Honey is ineffective for the treatment of [[rhinosinusitis]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rudmik L, Hoy M, Schlosser RJ, et al. |title=Topical therapies in the management of chronic rhinosinusitis: an evidence-based review with recommendations |journal=Int Forum Allergy Rhinol |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=281–98 |year=2013 |month=April |pmid=23044832 |doi=10.1002/alr.21096 |type=Review}}</ref>
Scientists{{Weasel-inline|date=July 2013}} have revealed that honey has powerful anti-bacterial properties on at least sixty species of bacteria, and unlike antibiotics, which are often useless against certain types of bacteria, honey is non-toxic and has strong effects.<ref name="Altmanp3"/>


⚫
===Burns dressing===
The composition of honey includes sugars such as [[glucose]] and [[fructose]] and also minerals such as [[magnesium]], [[potassium]], [[calcium]], [[sodium chloride]], [[sulphur]], [[iron]] and [[phosphate]]. Depending on the quality of the nectar and pollen, the vitamins contained in honey are B1, B2, C, B6, B5 and B3.<ref name=benefits>{{cite web|url=http://www.bees-online.com/HealthBenefitsOfHoney.htm|title= Health Benefits Of Honey|accessdate=30 January 2011|publisher=Bees-Online:An Educational web site about Honey Bees and Beekeping}}</ref>
⚫
There is some weak evidence that honey may help treat mild burns if used in a dressing.<ref name=burns>{{cite journal |author=Wijesinghe M, Weatherall M, Perrin K, Beasley R |title=Honey in the treatment of burns: a systematic review and meta-analysis of its efficacy |journal=N. Z. Med. J. |volume=122 |issue=1295 |pages=47–60 |year=2009 |month=May |pmid=19648986 |doi= |type=Systematic review}}</ref>


===Cancer===
The [[pH]] of honey is commonly between 3.2 and 4.5.<ref name="antimicrobial">{{Cite book |title = Honey as an Antimicrobial Agent|date = November 16, 2006|publisher = Waikato Honey Research Unit |url = http://bio.waikato.ac.nz/honey/honey_intro.shtml|accessdate = 5 February 2007}}</ref> This relatively acidic pH level prevents the growth of many bacteria. Honey is primarily a saturated mixture of two [[monosaccharides]]. This mixture has a low [[water activity]]. Most of the water molecules are associated with the sugars and few remain available for microorganisms, so it is a poor environment for their growth. If water is mixed with honey, it loses its low water activity, and therefore, no longer possesses this antimicrobial property. More importantly, its undiluted state, honey’s high osmolarity creates a hygroscopic effect on microbes, thereby interfering with growth and metabolism. Such hygroscopic activity has led some to use granulated sugar or other sugar concentrates for the same purpose. Nevertheless, the antimicrobial action of honey well exceeds a simple osmotic effect, and an equivalent osmolarity of various sugars does not match honey’s antimicrobial capability.<ref>http://www.bcmj.org/article/sweet-success-honey-topical-wound-dressing</ref> [[Hydrogen peroxide]] is formed in a slow-release manner by the enzyme [[glucose oxidase]] present in honey. It becomes active only when honey is diluted, requires oxygen to be available for the reaction, thus it may not work under wound dressings, in wound cavities or in the gut. It is active only when the acidity of honey is neutralised by body fluids, it can be destroyed by the protein-digesting enzymes present in wound fluids, and is destroyed when honey is exposed to heat and light.<ref name="manuka">{{cite web|url=http://bio.waikato.ac.nz/honey/special.shtml|title=Waikato Honey Research Unit:What's special about Active Manuka Honey?|accessdate=05-02-2011|publisher=The University of Waikato}}</ref> Honey [[chelation|chelates]] and deactivates free iron, which would otherwise catalyse the formation of oxygen [[free radicals]] from hydrogen peroxide, leading to inflammation. Also, the antioxidant constituents in honey help clean up oxygen free radicals.<ref>[http://www.worldwidewounds.com/2001/november/Molan/honey-as-topical-agent.html Honey as a topical antibacterial agent for treatment of infected wounds]</ref>
Honey has been promoted as being potentially of use in the treatment of cancer.<ref name=acs/> However, while experiments have found honey can&mdash;in common with many substances&mdash;kill cancer cells in the laboratory, there is no evidence of its benefit treating cancer in people.<ref name=acs/>


===Cough===
:[[Glucose|C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>]] + H<sub>2</sub>O + O<sub>2</sub> → [[gluconic acid|C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>7</sub>]] + [[Hydrogen peroxide|H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>]] (glucose oxidase reaction)
⚫
There is no good evidence that honey helps treat chronic or acute [[cough]]s for children,<ref name=cough>{{cite journal |author=Oduwole O, Meremikwu MM, Oyo-Ita A, Udoh EE |title=Honey for acute cough in children |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=3 |issue= |pages=CD007094 |year=2012 |pmid=22419319 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007094.pub3 |type=Systematic review}}</ref><ref name=lozenges>{{cite journal |author=Mulholland S, Chang AB |title=Honey and lozenges for children with non-specific cough |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=2 |pages=CD007523 |year=2009 |pmid=19370690 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007523.pub2 |type=Systematic review}}</ref> but a mixture of honey and lemon can be an effective homemade remedy for short-term coughs, since the honey functions as a [[demulcent]].<ref name=nhs-cough>{{cite web |publisher=[[NHS Choices]] |title=Cough – Treatment | accessdate=June 2014 |date=20 June 2013 |url=http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Cough/Pages/Treatment.aspx}}</ref> Honey should not be given to very young children because of the risk of infant botulism.<ref name=nhs-cough/>


===Immune system===
When honey is used topically, as, for example, a wound dressing, hydrogen peroxide is produced by dilution of the honey with body fluids. As a result, hydrogen peroxide is released slowly and acts as an antiseptic.
People who are [[immunocompromised]] should not eat honey because of the risk of bacterial or fungal infection.<ref name=acs>{{cite web |publisher=[[American Cancer Society]] |title=Apitherapy |accessdate=May 2014 |date=1 November 2008 |url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/apitherapy}}</ref>

The non-peroxide antibiotic activity is due to [[methylglyoxal]] (MGO) and an unidentified synergistic component. Most honeys contain very low levels of MGO, but manuka honey contains very high levels. The presence of the synergist in [[manuka honey]] more than doubles MGO antibacterial activity.<ref name="manuka"/>

⚫
==Effects==

⚫
===Burns===
⚫
There is some weak evidence that honey may help treat mild burns if used in a dressing.<ref name=burns>{{cite journal |author=Wijesinghe M, Weatherall M, Perrin K, Beasley R |title=Honey in the treatment of burns: a systematic review and meta-analysis of its efficacy |journal=N. Z. Med. J. |volume=122 |issue=1295 |pages=47–60 |year=2009 |month=May |pmid=19648986 |doi= |type=Systematic review}}</ref>

===Allergies===
It is also stated to cure some allergies, particularly localized honey to an area could help minimize seasonal allergies as bees feed on pollen from local plants which eventually finds its way to form honey.<ref name=benefits/> Unfiltered, pasteurised honey is widely believed to alleviate allergies, though neither commercially filtered nor raw honey was shown to be more effective than [[placebo]] in a controlled study of 36 participants with [[Allergic conjunctivitis|ocular allergies]].<ref>{{Cite book |publisher = American Academy of Allergy Asthma & Immunology |title = Studies of honey treatment effects on allergies |date = May 26, 2006 |url = http://www.aaaai.org/professionals/ask-the-expert/view.asp?id=6671 |accessdate = 5 February 2011}}</ref> Nearly 1 in 3 of the volunteers dropped out of the study because they could not tolerate eating one tablespoon of honey every day due to the overly sweet taste.<ref name="More, MD">{{Cite book|publisher = About.com Allergies|title = Does eating local honey help treat symptoms of allergies? (re: Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003 Oct;3(5):395-9.) |date = March 5, 2010|url =http://allergies.about.com/od/controversialtherapies/f/honeyallergies.htm|first = Daniel |last = More, MD |accessdate = 5 February 2011}}</ref> The official conclusion: "This study does not confirm the widely held belief that honey relieves the symptoms of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis." A more recent study has shown pollen collected by bees to exert an anti allergenic effect, mediated by an inhibition of IgE immunoglobulin binding to [[mast cells]]. This inhibited mast cell degranulation and thus reduced allergic reaction.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Ishikawa, Yasuko et al.|title = Inhibitory Effect of Honeybee-Collected Pollen on Mast Cell Degranulation In Vivo and In Vitro |journal = Journal of Medicinal Food |volume = 11|issue = 1 |pages = 14–20 |doi = 10.1089/jmf.2006.163 |year = 2008 |pmid = 18361733}}</ref> The risk of experiencing [[anaphylaxis]] as an immune system reaction may outweigh any potential allergy relief.<ref name="More, MD"/>


===Other ailments===
===Ingrown toenail===
Honey is of no benefit in treating [[ingrown toenail]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Eekhof JA, Van Wijk B, Knuistingh Neven A, van der Wouden JC |title=Interventions for ingrowing toenails |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=4 |issue= |pages=CD001541 |year=2012 |pmid=22513901 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001541.pub3 |type=Systematic review}}</ref>
Antioxidants in honey have even been implicated in reducing damage to the colon in [[colitis]] in a study involving administering honey [[enema]]s to rats.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Bilsel |first = Y.|coauthors = D. Bugra, S. Yamaner, T. Bulut, U. Cevikbas, and U. Turkoglu |title = Could Honey Have a Place in Colitis Therapy|journal = Digestive Surgery |volume = 29 |pages = 306–312 |date = January 16, 2002 |url =http://content.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Aktion=ShowPDF&ProduktNr=223996&Ausgabe=228557&ArtikelNr=64580&filename=64580.pdf| accessdate =5 February 2011 |doi = 10.1159/000064580}}</ref> Honey appears to be effective in killing drug-resistant [[biofilm]]s which are implicated in chronic [[rhinosinusitis]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080923091335.htm|title=Honey Effective In Killing Bacteria That Cause Chronic Sinusitis|publisher=ScienceDaily|year=2008}}</ref> In 2005, researchers at [[Purdue University]] revealed that honey was a catalyst to calcium absorption in animals.<ref>Altman (2010), p.150</ref>


===Conditioning===
===Ulcers===
Evidence does not support the use of honey-based products for the treatment of [[venous leg ulcer]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=O'Meara S, Al-Kurdi D, Ologun Y, Ovington LG, Martyn-St James M, Richardson R |title=Antibiotics and antiseptics for venous leg ulcers |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=1 |issue= |pages=CD003557 |year=2014 |pmid=24408354 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003557.pub5 |type=Systematic review}}</ref>
Honey is used for skin conditioning using a moisturizing mask and can reduce facial redness and [[acne]]. It is also used for conditioning of hair. It is often mixed with [[olive oil]] or [[castor oil]] for both purposes.<ref name=benefits/>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}


==Bibliography and further reading==
==Further reading==
*{{citation|last=Altman|first=Nathaniel|title=The Honey Prescription: The Amazing Power of Honey As Medicine|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Rmw-VE9NxqIC&printsec=frontcover|date=9 March 2010|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Company|isbn=978-1-59477-346-4}}
*{{citation|last=Altman|first=Nathaniel|title=The Honey Prescription: The Amazing Power of Honey As Medicine|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Rmw-VE9NxqIC&printsec=frontcover|date=9 March 2010|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Company|isbn=978-1-59477-346-4}}
*{{citation|last=Chepulis|first=Lynne|title=Healing Honey: A Natural Remedy for Better Health and Wellness|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RTl55w3JrtwC&printsec=frontcover|date=1 October 2008|publisher=Universal Publishers|isbn=978-1-59942-485-9}}
*{{citation|last=Chepulis|first=Lynne|title=Healing Honey: A Natural Remedy for Better Health and Wellness|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RTl55w3JrtwC&printsec=frontcover|date=1 October 2008|publisher=Universal Publishers|isbn=978-1-59942-485-9}}

Revision as of 19:28, 15 June 2014

Jars of honey

The health effects of honey have long been noted. The nutritional and medicinal qualities of honey have been documented in Vedic, Greek, Roman, Christian, Islamic and other texts. Physicians of ancient times, such as Aristotle (384–322 BC), Aristoxenus (320 BC) Hippocrates, Porphyry, Cornelius Celsus (early first century AD) and Dioscorides (c. 50 AD), and Arab physicians have referred to the healing qualities of honey.

Though scientific arguments have been made for use of honey in modern times, its use is still considered part of alternative medicine.[1]

Honey can be dangerous if given to very young children because of the risk of infant botulism.[2]

History

Honey bee

In the earliest Hindu Vedic texts, honey and its evolution are described elaborately. It is used as a metaphor to describe the Sun as honeycomb. The honeybees incubate in the cells to form honey, which is called “the nectar of the Sun”.[3] Another metaphor states that the four Vedas, the Hindu scriptures, are represented by the honeycomb which is stated to be "sweet, beautiful, golden like the Sun". It is also described as a "blend of all the Nectars of many flowers." The knowledge of honey represents "oneness of everything." In Hindu rituals, honey is one of the five ingredients of Panchamrit "the five Nectars", the other four are the ghee, milk, sugar and buttermilk.[4] Honey has been used in Ayurveda medicine in India for at least 4000 years and is considered to affect positively in all three primitive material imbalances of the body. In the Ayurvedic system of medicine, within specific bee species, curative honey is categorised under eight distinct types. Overall, more than 634 remedies with honey as an ingredient have been propounded to tackle a wide range of health problems and many of them are said to be of complex formulation. A popular concoction to cure intestinal worms is that of honey with juice of Parrot Tree (Butea monosperma) fruit (called palash in Sanskrit).[5]

Honey has also been used by humans since pre-Ancient Egyptian times[6] to treat a variety of ailments through topical application, but only recently have the antiseptic and antibacterial properties of honey been chemically explained. Ancient Egyptian physicians used honey in medicinal compounds 5,000 years ago and the ancient Greeks believed that honey could promote virility and longevity.[7] Honey has been used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for thousands of years and is still important today.[7] Ancient Russian manuscripts attributed great importance to honey as a medicine.

From Biblical times, "milk and honey" have been said to denote fertility.[8] Honey has been part of baptismal ritual traced to about 100 AD.[9]

In ancient Islamic literature, honey bees have been extolled for their "intelligence, industry and creativity." The Quran mentions it as medicine to cure human illness. It says "And thy Lord taught the Bee to build its cells in hills, on trees, and in (men's) habitations; Then to eat of all the produce (of the earth), and find with skill the spacious paths of its Lord: there issues from within their bodies a drink of varying colours, wherein is healing for men: verily in this is a Sign for those who give thought" [Al-Quran 16:68-69].[10] Prophet Mohammad himself spoke of the healing power of honey as a cure for all mental illness.[5] In the later part of the 12th century, a Muslim physician described the healing powers of honey to disperse body fluids, soothing the bowels, curing dropsy, checking facial twitches, improving appetite, preventing the breakdown of muscles and preserving them.[5]

Juice of Parrot tree and honey an Ayurvedic curative

Honey can be traced to the Xin dynasty period of 2000 BC. One of the five medicinal qualities of honey was as a curative for insomnia, practiced from the time of Li Zzen, Ming dynasty physician.[5] In 1000 BC, it was a Saxon herbal treatment for wounds, sties and amputated limbs. In 1446, it was used as a therapeutic drug, in combination with alum, to treat ulcers. And in 1623, it was used as an antiseptic and a mouthwash. The use of honey as a therapeutic cure in various combinations was popularised in Medieval Europe, in particularly in England, Germany, Finland, and Ireland. It was also extended to Ghana, USA, Nepal, Nigeria, Russia, and Brazil.

Modern times

It was a gourmet medicine during the Second Balkan War in 1913, healing the wounds of soldiers. Honey from several species of sting-less bees was consumed to cure flu, to cure cataract, and glaucoma.[11] In modern times, its use as a healing agent is equally popular. In 2007, in the Manchester Evening News in England, the use of “manuka honey” in a large hospital in New Zealand to control methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and other bacterial infections was noted; its antibacterial property to kill or inhibit is supported by many scientific studies in recent years.[12]

Effects

Allergies

Honey is ineffective for the treatment of rhinosinusitis.[13]

Burns dressing

There is some weak evidence that honey may help treat mild burns if used in a dressing.[14]

Cancer

Honey has been promoted as being potentially of use in the treatment of cancer.[15] However, while experiments have found honey can—in common with many substances—kill cancer cells in the laboratory, there is no evidence of its benefit treating cancer in people.[15]

Cough

There is no good evidence that honey helps treat chronic or acute coughs for children,[16][2] but a mixture of honey and lemon can be an effective homemade remedy for short-term coughs, since the honey functions as a demulcent.[17] Honey should not be given to very young children because of the risk of infant botulism.[17]

Immune system

People who are immunocompromised should not eat honey because of the risk of bacterial or fungal infection.[15]

Ingrown toenail

Honey is of no benefit in treating ingrown toenail.[18]

Ulcers

Evidence does not support the use of honey-based products for the treatment of venous leg ulcers.[19]

References

  1. ^ "History of Honey as Medicine". Manuka Honey Research. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
  2. ^ a b Mulholland S, Chang AB (2009). "Honey and lozenges for children with non-specific cough". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Systematic review) (2): CD007523. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007523.pub2. PMID 19370690.
  3. ^ Olivelle, Patrick (1 January 2005). Language, texts, and society: explorations in ancient Indian culture and religion. Firenze University Press. pp. 68–. ISBN 978-88-8453-395-1. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
  4. ^ Oldroyd, Benjamin P.; Wongsiri, Siriwat (2006). Asian honey bees: biology, conservation, and human interactions. Harvard University Press. pp. 224–. ISBN 978-0-674-02194-5. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
  5. ^ a b c d Altman, Nathaniel (9 March 2010). The Honey Prescription: The Amazing Power of Honey As Medicine. Inner Traditions / Bear & Company. pp. 60–62. ISBN 978-1-59477-346-4. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
  6. ^ Altman (2010), p.3
  7. ^ a b Altman (2010), p.2
  8. ^ Malena, Sarah; Miano, David (2007). Milk and honey: essays on ancient Israel and the Bible in appreciation of the Judaic Studies Program at the University of California, San Diego. Eisenbrauns. p. ix. ISBN 978-1-57506-127-6. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
  9. ^ Martin Derrett, John Duncan (1 December 1989). Studies in the New Testament: The Sea-Change of the Old Testament in the New. BRILL. pp. 2–. ISBN 978-90-04-09110-8. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
  10. ^ Yusuf 'Ali, 'Abdullah. An Nahl, Al-Quran Chapter 16 (The Bee) quoted from "The Holy Qur'an: Original Arabic Text with English Translation & Selected Commentaries". Saba Islamic Media. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
  11. ^ Altman2010, pp. 62–67
  12. ^ Altman2010, pp. 70–73
  13. ^ Rudmik L, Hoy M, Schlosser RJ; et al. (2013). "Topical therapies in the management of chronic rhinosinusitis: an evidence-based review with recommendations". Int Forum Allergy Rhinol (Review). 3 (4): 281–98. doi:10.1002/alr.21096. PMID 23044832. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Wijesinghe M, Weatherall M, Perrin K, Beasley R (2009). "Honey in the treatment of burns: a systematic review and meta-analysis of its efficacy". N. Z. Med. J. (Systematic review). 122 (1295): 47–60. PMID 19648986. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ a b c "Apitherapy". American Cancer Society. 1 November 2008. Retrieved May 2014. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  16. ^ Oduwole O, Meremikwu MM, Oyo-Ita A, Udoh EE (2012). "Honey for acute cough in children". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Systematic review). 3: CD007094. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007094.pub3. PMID 22419319.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ a b "Cough – Treatment". NHS Choices. 20 June 2013. Retrieved June 2014. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  18. ^ Eekhof JA, Van Wijk B, Knuistingh Neven A, van der Wouden JC (2012). "Interventions for ingrowing toenails". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Systematic review). 4: CD001541. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001541.pub3. PMID 22513901.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ O'Meara S, Al-Kurdi D, Ologun Y, Ovington LG, Martyn-St James M, Richardson R (2014). "Antibiotics and antiseptics for venous leg ulcers". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Systematic review). 1: CD003557. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003557.pub5. PMID 24408354.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Further reading

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