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==Bush Family, 2001-present==
==Bush Family, 2001-present==
{{main|Bush family}}
{{main|Bush family}}

[[Image:presidentandfirstlady.jpeg|right|thumb|The current President and First Lady of the United States wave to the crowds during [[Inauguration Day]], 2005.]]

The current First Family of the United States consists of President [[George W. Bush]], First Lady [[Laura Bush]], and First Daughters [[Barbara Pierce Bush (1981)|Barbara]] and [[Jenna Bush]]. If George W. Bush completes his term, his family will remain the First Family until January 20, 2009. Barbara and Jenna were also the nation's First Granddaughters, from January 20, 1989-January 20, 1993. Barbara was eight years old at the time of her grandfather's inaugration and twelve years old when he left office. Barbara was a First Daughter of Texas from 1995, when she was fourteen, to 2001, when she was nineteen.
The current First Family of the United States consists of President [[George W. Bush]], First Lady [[Laura Bush]], and First Daughters [[Barbara Pierce Bush (1981)|Barbara]] and [[Jenna Bush]]. If George W. Bush completes his term, his family will remain the First Family until January 20, 2009. Barbara and Jenna were also the nation's First Granddaughters, from January 20, 1989-January 20, 1993. Barbara was eight years old at the time of her grandfather's inaugration and twelve years old when he left office. Barbara was a First Daughter of Texas from 1995, when she was fourteen, to 2001, when she was nineteen.


==Clinton Family, 1993-2001==
==Clinton Family, 1993-2001==

[[Image:inauguration1997.jpeg|left|thumb|Then President Bill Clinton, First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, and First Daughter Chelsea Clinton at the President's second inauguration in 1997.]]

The First Family of the United States from January 20, 1993-January 20, 2001, consisted of President [[Bill Clinton]], First Lady [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]], and First Daughter [[Chelsea Clinton]]. Bill Clinton and his family moved into the White House on January 20, 1993. President Clinton enjoyed quiet weekends with his wife and daughter in the White House Family Quarters, where he read voraciously and played with his beloved cat and dog, Socks and Buddy. President Clinton regularly hosted family at the White House and made frequent use of Camp David, particularly around Thanksgiving. Hillary was forty-six years old when her husband was inaugurated and she became the [[First Lady of the United States]]. She drew heated criticism for expanding the traditional role of First Lady, in such ways as having offices in the [[The West Wing of the White House|West Wing]] (she remains the only First Lady to have done this) and for playing a large part in pushing the 1994 medical reform initiative. Chelsea was born a First Daughter of Arkansas. Until she left the White House in 2001, the two-year period between her father's first and second terms as governor would be the only time when she did not have an official title. She was thirteen years old on January 20, 1993, when she became the sole First Daughter of the United States. She had a bedroom in the back of the White House and was known to routinely have sleepovers on the third floor of the Mansion.
The First Family of the United States from January 20, 1993-January 20, 2001, consisted of President [[Bill Clinton]], First Lady [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]], and First Daughter [[Chelsea Clinton]]. Bill Clinton and his family moved into the White House on January 20, 1993. President Clinton enjoyed quiet weekends with his wife and daughter in the White House Family Quarters, where he read voraciously and played with his beloved cat and dog, Socks and Buddy. President Clinton regularly hosted family at the White House and made frequent use of Camp David, particularly around Thanksgiving. Hillary was forty-six years old when her husband was inaugurated and she became the [[First Lady of the United States]]. She drew heated criticism for expanding the traditional role of First Lady, in such ways as having offices in the [[The West Wing of the White House|West Wing]] (she remains the only First Lady to have done this) and for playing a large part in pushing the 1994 medical reform initiative. Chelsea was born a First Daughter of Arkansas. Until she left the White House in 2001, the two-year period between her father's first and second terms as governor would be the only time when she did not have an official title. She was thirteen years old on January 20, 1993, when she became the sole First Daughter of the United States. She had a bedroom in the back of the White House and was known to routinely have sleepovers on the third floor of the Mansion.


==Bush Family, 1989-1993==
==Bush Family, 1989-1993==

[[Image:bushandbarbara1992.jpeg|right|thumb|President George H. W. Bush and First Lady Barbara Pierce Bush at the Republican National Convention in 1992.]]
The First Family of the United States from January 20, 1989-January 20, 1993, consisted of President George H. W. Bush; First Lady Barbara Pierce Bush; First Sons George W., [[Jeb Bush|Jeb]], [[Neil Bush|Neil]], and [[Marvin Bush]]; First Daughter [[Dorothy Bush]] (later Dorothy Bush Koch); and, arguably, First Grandsons George, Jeb Jr., Pierce, and Walker Bush; and First Granddaughters Barbara, Jenna, Noelle, Lauren, Ashley, and Dorothy Bush. George Bush liked entertaining his grandchildren in the White House Family Quarters, and made frequent use of the White House Movie Theatre. The President would put some slippers on with his business suit and sneak off to watch a flick with the First Lady and one of the children. More than many other First Ladies, Barbara Bush is said to have loved life in the White House.
The First Family of the United States from January 20, 1989-January 20, 1993, consisted of President George H. W. Bush; First Lady Barbara Pierce Bush; First Sons George W., [[Jeb Bush|Jeb]], [[Neil Bush|Neil]], and [[Marvin Bush]]; First Daughter [[Dorothy Bush]] (later Dorothy Bush Koch); and, arguably, First Grandsons George, Jeb Jr., Pierce, and Walker Bush; and First Granddaughters Barbara, Jenna, Noelle, Lauren, Ashley, and Dorothy Bush. George Bush liked entertaining his grandchildren in the White House Family Quarters, and made frequent use of the White House Movie Theatre. The President would put some slippers on with his business suit and sneak off to watch a flick with the First Lady and one of the children. More than many other First Ladies, Barbara Bush is said to have loved life in the White House.


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==Reagan Family, 1981-1989==
==Reagan Family, 1981-1989==

[[Image:reagan1980's.jpeg|left|thumb|President Ronald Reagan, First Lady Nancy Reagan, and the First Sons and First Daughters during Christmastime at the White House in the 1980's.]]

President [[Ronald Reagan]] had children [[Maureen Reagan]] and [[Michael Reagan]] from his first wife [[Jane Wyman]], and [[Patti Davis]] and [[Ron Reagan]] from second wife [[Nancy Reagan]]. All the children were adults during the presidency, with the youngest, Ron Reagan in his twenties when his father became president.
President [[Ronald Reagan]] had children [[Maureen Reagan]] and [[Michael Reagan]] from his first wife [[Jane Wyman]], and [[Patti Davis]] and [[Ron Reagan]] from second wife [[Nancy Reagan]]. All the children were adults during the presidency, with the youngest, Ron Reagan in his twenties when his father became president.


==Carter Family, 1977-1981==
==Carter Family, 1977-1981==

[[Image:carterhalloween1978.jpeg|right|thumb|President Jimmy Carter, First Lady Rosalynn Carter, and First Daughter Amy Carter attend a White House Halloween party in 1978.]]

The First Family of the United States from 1977-1981 consisted of President Jimmy Carter, First Lady Rosalynn Carter, First Daughter Amy Carter, and three First Sons (all of them grown). Miss Carter, born on October 19, 1967, was the First Daughter of Georgia from 1971-1975, when she was aged three to seven years old. In 1977, at the age of nine, Miss Carter became the sole First Daughter of the United States. She was the only true child to occupy the White House since First Daughter Caroline Kennedy and First Son John F. Kennedy, Jr. roamed the Mansion's halls between 1961 and 1963.
The First Family of the United States from 1977-1981 consisted of President Jimmy Carter, First Lady Rosalynn Carter, First Daughter Amy Carter, and three First Sons (all of them grown). Miss Carter, born on October 19, 1967, was the First Daughter of Georgia from 1971-1975, when she was aged three to seven years old. In 1977, at the age of nine, Miss Carter became the sole First Daughter of the United States. She was the only true child to occupy the White House since First Daughter Caroline Kennedy and First Son John F. Kennedy, Jr. roamed the Mansion's halls between 1961 and 1963.
Miss Carter enjoyed having sleepovers in a tree house on the South Lawn--always supervised by the Secret Servicem of course. Her cat, Misty Malarky Ying Yang, received notable fame during this time.
Miss Carter enjoyed having sleepovers in a tree house on the South Lawn--always supervised by the Secret Servicem of course. Her cat, Misty Malarky Ying Yang, received notable fame during this time.
The First Lady spent much of her tenure as an advocate for the rights of the mentally ill. She was heartbroken by her husband's 1980 defeat.
The First Lady spent much of her tenure as an advocate for the rights of the mentally ill. She was heartbroken by her husband's 1980 defeat.
First Daughter Amy, however, is said to have pined for her native Georgia and been unconfortable with the media attention focused on her. She was happy to leave the White House on January 20, 1981. She was thirteen years old at the time.
First Daughter Amy, however, is said to have pined for her native Georgia and been unconfortable with the media attention focused on her. She was happy to leave the White House on January 20, 1981. She was thirteen years old at the time.


==Ford Family, 1974-1977==

[[Image:fordfamilysometime.jpeg|left|thumb|President Ford, First Lady Betty Ford, First Sons Michael, John, and Steven Ford, First Daughter Susan Ford, and President Ford's daughter-in-law Gayle stand in the Oval Office on August 9, 1974.]]

The Ford family's path to the White House a historically unique one. A Congressman from Michigan, Ford had been serving in the House of Representatives since 1949 when Vice President Spirow T. Agnew suddenly resigned on October 10, 1973. Ford was nominated for the vice presidency on October 12th and finally confirmed on December 6, 1973.

He would hold his office for less than a year before being hurled into the White House by Richard Nixon's stunning resignation on August 9, 1974. The nation's only-ever unelected president did little to improve his public standing when, a month after taking command, he granted former President Nixon a full pardon.

President Ford was exceptionally unpopular during his very brief term, but he nonetheless discharged the duties of his office in an honorable fashion, as did his family execute their own. First Lady Betty Ford was known for her often-unintentional outspokenness, which once manifested itself in a remark to a reporter that she wouldn't really be terribly upset if she learned that her daughter Susan had tried marijuana.

First Daughter Susan Ford was a teenage high school student during her time in the White House. Her school's Senior Prom was held in the [[East Room]] of the Mansion.

The President and Mrs. Ford also had three other children, First Sons Michael, John ("Jack"), and Steve, but only the First Daughter was a minor during her father's presidency.

President Ford was defeated for reelection in 1976, making the Fords' Washington tenure one of the shortest in American history.




==Nixon Family, 1969-1974==
==Nixon Family, 1969-1974==

[[Image:nixonscirca1968.jpeg|left|thumb|President Richard M. Nixon, First Lady Patricia Ryan Nixon, First Daughters Tricia and Julie Nixon, and First Daughter Julie's husband, David Eisenhower II, sit down to dinner in the family's private dining room, circa 1969.]]

President [[Richard Nixon]], his wife [[Pat Nixon]], their two daughters [[Tricia Nixon Cox|Tricia]] and [[Julie Nixon Eisenhower]] (who was married to [[David Eisenhower]], the grandson of President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]].
President [[Richard Nixon]], his wife [[Pat Nixon]], their two daughters [[Tricia Nixon Cox|Tricia]] and [[Julie Nixon Eisenhower]] (who was married to [[David Eisenhower]], the grandson of President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]].

One of the most thrilling occurrences during Nixon's entire tenure (at least, from a social point of view), was the marriage of his daughter Tricia in 1971. The First Daughter and Edward Cox were wed in a fairytale ceremony in the Rose Garden of the White House on June 12th. The wedding was something of a public sensation, and was covered by the major papers and news networks for days.

The rest of the Nixon presidency, unfortunately, would not be so pleasant and carefree. Between 1969 and 1972, the early part of Nixon's first term, anti-Vietnam sentiment reached its peak. On several occasions, there was genuine fear that mobs in Washington posed serious danger to the First Family.

President Nixon's troubles did not end with withdrawal from Vietnam, though; beginning immediately after his 1972 reelection, Nixon was haunted and harassed by the ever-growing typhoon that was the [[Watergate scandal]].

Finally, when impeachment appeared inevitable, Nixon reached an agonizing decision. To avoid the ratification of charges against him by the House of Representatives, he became on August 9, 1974 the only president in history to ever resign his office. As incoming President Gerald R. Ford said consoloningly to an exhausted and bewildered America, "Our long national nightmare is over."


==Kennedy Family, 1961-1963==
==Kennedy Family, 1961-1963==
{{main|Kennedy family}}
{{main|Kennedy family}}

[[Image:jackieandjohn.jpeg|right|thumb|President John F. Kennedy, First Lady Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy, First Daughter Caroline Kennedy, and First Son John F. Kennedy, Jr. vacationing at Hyannisport.]]

President [[John F. Kennedy]], his wife [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Kennedy]], their children [[Caroline Kennedy]], [[John F. Kennedy, Jr.]] and [[Patrick Bouvier Kennedy]] (who was born prematurely and died shortly after birth). The president's brother [[Robert F. Kennedy]] was the Attorney General.
President [[John F. Kennedy]], his wife [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Kennedy]], their children [[Caroline Kennedy]], [[John F. Kennedy, Jr.]] and [[Patrick Bouvier Kennedy]] (who was born prematurely and died shortly after birth). The president's brother [[Robert F. Kennedy]] was the Attorney General.


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The Kennedys' greatest hallmark, particularly in the case of the First Lady, was their unwavering grace, which was demonstrated all too clearly following the assassination of President Kennedy on November 22, 1963. The image of Mrs. Kennedy, standing tall like an iron empress in her black mourning, reaching a strong hand down to comfort her children even as silent tears poured down her own face, has been the most powerful part of her legacy.
The Kennedys' greatest hallmark, particularly in the case of the First Lady, was their unwavering grace, which was demonstrated all too clearly following the assassination of President Kennedy on November 22, 1963. The image of Mrs. Kennedy, standing tall like an iron empress in her black mourning, reaching a strong hand down to comfort her children even as silent tears poured down her own face, has been the most powerful part of her legacy.


In the book "Remembering Jackie," it is said that, "At 34, she embodied our national grief--and enhanced our national dignity."
In the book "Remembering Jackie," it is said that, "At 34, she embodied our national grief--and enhanced our national dignity."

==Eisenhower Family, 1953-1961==
From January 20, 1953, to January 20, 1961, the White House was occupied by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, First Lady Mamie Doud Eisenhower, and, to an extent, the couple's two grandchildren.

During Eisenhower's presidency, his son David served as Assistant Staff Director of the White House.

The Eisenhowers held a formal view of the presidency and the the institution of the First Family, believing that both roles should be treated with a certain amount of ceremony and pomp. As such, the First Couple dressed in full evening attire and was officially served their dinner by the White House staff every night.

The First Lady inspired a curious mix of despisement and dread in the household staff, who were put off by her haughtiness and secretly referred to her as, "Madame Sunshine" because of her tendency to sleep until noon. The Eisenhowers were a conservative family and perfectly represented an America that was basking in the contented glow of peace and prosperity. There was no need to make waves, and the Eisenhowers happily obliged the American people's sense of quiet affluence. They were highly popular during their time in the White House.


==Lincoln Family==
==Lincoln Family==

Revision as of 14:34, 30 July 2006

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The First Family of the United States consists of the President of the United States, the President's wife (usually the First Lady), and their children. The family is afforded Secret Service protection while the President remains in office and share in the perquisites of the Presidency, including the use of Air Force One, the White House, and Camp David.

Bush Family, 2001-present

The current First Family of the United States consists of President George W. Bush, First Lady Laura Bush, and First Daughters Barbara and Jenna Bush. If George W. Bush completes his term, his family will remain the First Family until January 20, 2009. Barbara and Jenna were also the nation's First Granddaughters, from January 20, 1989-January 20, 1993. Barbara was eight years old at the time of her grandfather's inaugration and twelve years old when he left office. Barbara was a First Daughter of Texas from 1995, when she was fourteen, to 2001, when she was nineteen.

Clinton Family, 1993-2001

The First Family of the United States from January 20, 1993-January 20, 2001, consisted of President Bill Clinton, First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, and First Daughter Chelsea Clinton. Bill Clinton and his family moved into the White House on January 20, 1993. President Clinton enjoyed quiet weekends with his wife and daughter in the White House Family Quarters, where he read voraciously and played with his beloved cat and dog, Socks and Buddy. President Clinton regularly hosted family at the White House and made frequent use of Camp David, particularly around Thanksgiving. Hillary was forty-six years old when her husband was inaugurated and she became the First Lady of the United States. She drew heated criticism for expanding the traditional role of First Lady, in such ways as having offices in the West Wing (she remains the only First Lady to have done this) and for playing a large part in pushing the 1994 medical reform initiative. Chelsea was born a First Daughter of Arkansas. Until she left the White House in 2001, the two-year period between her father's first and second terms as governor would be the only time when she did not have an official title. She was thirteen years old on January 20, 1993, when she became the sole First Daughter of the United States. She had a bedroom in the back of the White House and was known to routinely have sleepovers on the third floor of the Mansion.

Bush Family, 1989-1993

The First Family of the United States from January 20, 1989-January 20, 1993, consisted of President George H. W. Bush; First Lady Barbara Pierce Bush; First Sons George W., Jeb, Neil, and Marvin Bush; First Daughter Dorothy Bush (later Dorothy Bush Koch); and, arguably, First Grandsons George, Jeb Jr., Pierce, and Walker Bush; and First Granddaughters Barbara, Jenna, Noelle, Lauren, Ashley, and Dorothy Bush. George Bush liked entertaining his grandchildren in the White House Family Quarters, and made frequent use of the White House Movie Theatre. The President would put some slippers on with his business suit and sneak off to watch a flick with the First Lady and one of the children. More than many other First Ladies, Barbara Bush is said to have loved life in the White House.

George W. Bush was aged forty-three to forty-seven at the time that his father was President, and he never actually lived in the White House. He did, however, make frequent visits to the Executive Mansion with his wife and daughters. Mr. Bush worked with his father in the 1988 presidential campaign. In April of 1989, just three months after his father took office, the First Son acquired a large share in the Texas Rangers baseball franchise and became managing general partner of the team. Mr. Bush also helped in his father's reelection campaign in 1992, but George H. W. Bush was defeated by Democrat Bill Clinton, and Bush ceased to be First Son on January 20, 1993.

Jeb Bush was aged thirty-five to thirty-nine when his father lived in the White House. Jeb Bush was a frequent visitor to the Executive Mansion, though not so much as his brother George. During much of his father's presidency, Jeb was involved in the IntrAmerica Investment Corporation in Miami, Florida, netting extensive real-estate profits for Cuban immigrant and self-made millionaire Armando Codina. The First Son soon became a partner in the firm, and received over 40% of its profits.

Neil Bush celebrated his thirty-fourth birthday just two days after his father became the 41st President of the United States. During his father's four-year presidency, Neil Bush was on the Board of Directors of Silverado Savings and Loan. As the savings and loan crisis of the 1980's escalated during the first Bush presidency, Neil found himself implicated in Silverado's financial failure, which cost the economy $1 billion. In the end, Neil was not indicted, but was fined $60,000.00 and forbidden to take part in any banking activity in the future. The scandal made Bush one of the most controversial of the recent First Children.

Marvin Bush was aged thirty-two to thirty-six during his father's presidency, and he never actually lived in the White House. Mr. Bush was involved in non-controversial business dealings during his father's presidency. He tended to enjoy visiting the Bush Compound more than he did the White House itself.

Dorothy Bush was aged thirty to thirty-four during her father's presidency. She became the sole First Daughter of the United States on January 20, 1989, and, like her successor, was kept largely out of the spotlight and did not generate much scandal. She and her two children were insistent on maintaining a private life. They spent a good deal of time at the Bush Compound in Kennebunkport, Maine.

George P. Bush was aged twelve to sixteen when his grandfather was President. During this time, Bush attended the same Miami high school as Enique Iglesias. As a half-Mexican, Bush was one of the few members of any First Family to be Hispanic. Jeb Bush, Jr. was only five years old when he became First Grandson on January 20, 1989. He was nine years old when his grandfather left office on January 20, 1993. During this time, Jeb, Jr. attended a private elementary school in Miami, Florida. He was one of the few Hispanic First Family members. Noelle was aged eleven to fifteen when her grandfather was President. She remained mostly out of the public eye during this time, when she was attending private middle and high schools. She was also one of the few Hispanic First Family members. Lauren was aged four to eight years old during her grandfather's presidency. During this time, Lauren attended the elite Houston-area Kinkaid school. She ceased to be First Daughter on January 20, 1993.

Reagan Family, 1981-1989

President Ronald Reagan had children Maureen Reagan and Michael Reagan from his first wife Jane Wyman, and Patti Davis and Ron Reagan from second wife Nancy Reagan. All the children were adults during the presidency, with the youngest, Ron Reagan in his twenties when his father became president.

Carter Family, 1977-1981

The First Family of the United States from 1977-1981 consisted of President Jimmy Carter, First Lady Rosalynn Carter, First Daughter Amy Carter, and three First Sons (all of them grown). Miss Carter, born on October 19, 1967, was the First Daughter of Georgia from 1971-1975, when she was aged three to seven years old. In 1977, at the age of nine, Miss Carter became the sole First Daughter of the United States. She was the only true child to occupy the White House since First Daughter Caroline Kennedy and First Son John F. Kennedy, Jr. roamed the Mansion's halls between 1961 and 1963. Miss Carter enjoyed having sleepovers in a tree house on the South Lawn--always supervised by the Secret Servicem of course. Her cat, Misty Malarky Ying Yang, received notable fame during this time. The First Lady spent much of her tenure as an advocate for the rights of the mentally ill. She was heartbroken by her husband's 1980 defeat. First Daughter Amy, however, is said to have pined for her native Georgia and been unconfortable with the media attention focused on her. She was happy to leave the White House on January 20, 1981. She was thirteen years old at the time.

Nixon Family, 1969-1974

President Richard Nixon, his wife Pat Nixon, their two daughters Tricia and Julie Nixon Eisenhower (who was married to David Eisenhower, the grandson of President Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Kennedy Family, 1961-1963

President John F. Kennedy, his wife Jacqueline Kennedy, their children Caroline Kennedy, John F. Kennedy, Jr. and Patrick Bouvier Kennedy (who was born prematurely and died shortly after birth). The president's brother Robert F. Kennedy was the Attorney General.

The Kennedys are widely considered to have been the most glamorous and iconic of all the American First Families. President Kennedy's youthful vigor and realistic idealism, embodied in his establishment of the Peace Corps, drew hima tremendous youth following that is unknown to politicians today.

Mrs. Kennedy, the First Lady, was something of a fashion goddess during her tenure in the White House. From her elegant evening gowns, to her stylish hair-dos, to her signature pillbox hats, Mrs. Kennedy defined the tastes of an entire era. She is considered to have been the most graceful First Lady in American history, and many have since tried to imitate her incredible poise and composure. Jacqueline Kennedy was, in every sense, a lady. She was a beautiful woman who spread beauty with her everywhere she went.

In 1961, the year her husband entered the White House, Mrs. Kennedy renovated the Mansion from basement to ceiling. That year, she gave a televised tour to show the nation what she had done to refurbish the President's House. The First Lady took a building whose appearance had been declining and whose history had been neglected, and transformed it into the majestic combination museum, workspace, and private home that we know today.

Jacqueline Kennedy was almost solely responsible for returning some of President James Madison's French Empire furniture to the Blue Room, where it can still be viewed today.

The Kennedys' greatest hallmark, particularly in the case of the First Lady, was their unwavering grace, which was demonstrated all too clearly following the assassination of President Kennedy on November 22, 1963. The image of Mrs. Kennedy, standing tall like an iron empress in her black mourning, reaching a strong hand down to comfort her children even as silent tears poured down her own face, has been the most powerful part of her legacy.

In the book "Remembering Jackie," it is said that, "At 34, she embodied our national grief--and enhanced our national dignity."

Lincoln Family

Abraham Lincoln had four children from his wife Mary Todd Lincoln, of whom only Robert Todd Lincoln survived into adulthood. The others were Edward (Eddie) Baker Lincoln (1846-1850), William (Willie) Wallace Lincoln (1850-1862) and Thomas (Tad) Lincoln (1853-1871).

Washington Family

George Washington was married to Martha Washington. He did not have any children of his own, but adopted Martha's children John (Jack) Parke Custis (1754-1781) and Martha "Patsy" Parke Custis (1756-1773), and raised her two youngest grandchildren, Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Parke Custis (April 30, 1781 - October 10, 1857).