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| isbn= 978-0-89042-555-8 }}</ref> however, the principle that memories can be altered by outside influences is overwhelmingly accepted by scientists.<ref>Paterson, H. M., Kemp, R. I., & Forgas, J. P. (2010). "Co-witnesses, confederates, and conformity: The effects of discussion and delay on eyewitness memory.," ''Psychiatry, Psychology and Law.''</ref><ref>Loftus, Elizabeth F. ''Memory: Surprising New Insights Into How We Remember and Why We Forget'' (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1980).</ref><ref>Schacter, Daniel L. The Seven Sins of Memory : How the Mind Forgets and Remembers (Houghton Mifflin Co., 2001).</ref><ref>''Association for Psychological Science'' (2008, August 20). "False Memories Affect Behavior."</ref>
| isbn= 978-0-89042-555-8 }}</ref> however, the principle that memories can be altered by outside influences is overwhelmingly accepted by scientists.<ref>Paterson, H. M., Kemp, R. I., & Forgas, J. P. (2010). "Co-witnesses, confederates, and conformity: The effects of discussion and delay on eyewitness memory.," ''Psychiatry, Psychology and Law.''</ref><ref>Loftus, Elizabeth F. ''Memory: Surprising New Insights Into How We Remember and Why We Forget'' (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1980).</ref><ref>Schacter, Daniel L. The Seven Sins of Memory : How the Mind Forgets and Remembers (Houghton Mifflin Co., 2001).</ref><ref>''Association for Psychological Science'' (2008, August 20). "False Memories Affect Behavior."</ref>


False memories may be the result of [[recovered memory therapy]], a term also defined by the FMSF in the early 1990s,<ref name="Whitfield">{{cite book | title = Misinformation Concerning Child Sexual Abuse and Adult Survivors | last = Whitfield | first = Charles L. |author2=Joyanna L. Silberg|author3=Paul Jay Fink | page = 56 | publisher = [[Haworth Press]] | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-7890-1901-9 }}</ref> which describes a range of therapy methods that are prone to creating [[confabulation]]s. Some of the influential figures in the genesis of the theory are forensic psychologist [[Ralph Underwager]], psychologist [[Elizabeth Loftus]] and sociologist [[Richard Ofshe]].
False memories may be the result of [[recovered memory therapy]], a term also defined by the FMSF in the early 1990s,<ref name="Whitfield">{{cite book | title = Misinformation Concerning Child Sexual Abuse and Adult Survivors | last = Whitfield | first = Charles L. |author2=Joyanna L. Silberg|author3=Paul Jay Fink | page = 56 | publisher = [[Haworth Press]] | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-7890-1901-9 }}</ref> which describes a range of therapy methods that are allegedly prone to creating [[confabulation]]s. Some of the influential figures in the genesis of the theory are forensic psychologist [[Ralph Underwager]], psychologist [[Elizabeth Loftus]] and sociologist [[Richard Ofshe]].


== Definition ==
== Definition ==
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</ref>
</ref>
and the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] does not include it. [[Paul R. McHugh]], member of the FMSF, stated that the term was not adopted into the fourth version of the manual due to the pertinent committee being headed by believers in [[recovered memory]].{{sfn|McHugh|2008|p=55}}
and the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] does not include it. [[Paul R. McHugh]], member of the FMSF, stated that the term was not adopted into the fourth version of the manual due to the pertinent committee being headed by believers in [[recovered memory]].{{sfn|McHugh|2008|p=55}}

===Criticism===
Dallam<ref name="Dallam"/> has argued that concept of "false memory syndrome" as defined by the FMSF rests on several assumptions that lack empirical support:

<blockquote>
:Assumption 1: A recovered memory is likely to be false memory. [...] The assumption that delayed memories should be considered false is countered by countless studies of traumatized populations. At last count, over 68 studies have documented the reality of recovering forgotten memories of trauma [...] At the same time, research has shown that the misremembering of childhood events is more often characterized by forgetting negative experiences that actually happened than it is by remembering ones that did not. [...]

:Assumption 2: Recovered memories are usually caused by therapists practicing "recovered memory therapy." [...] The assumption that recovered memories are usually caused by therapists using suggestive techniques is countered by numerous studies reporting that a substantial proportion of those who recover memories of abuse, do so without ever having participated in therapy [...]

:Assumption 3: It is easy to implant false memories of traumatic events. [...] There is currently mixed data on the ability of authority figures to "implant" wholly false traumatic memories; however, memory researchers agree that the creation of illusory memories require substantial suggestive influence

:Assumption 4: People who recover memories are highly suggestible. [...] the assumption that adults who recover memories of abuse are highly suggestible has not been supported by research specifically designed to test its validity. In fact, investigators have found that the memory of patients who reported having recovered memories of childhood sexual trauma were actually ''less'' subject to distortion following suggestive prompts than psychiatric patients who did not report having recovered such memories [...]

:Assumption 5: "False Memory Syndrome" is common. [...] the FMSF has never performed any epidemiological research to support its claims. In fact, a major problem hampering the study of the construct is that it is not being found in the clinical populations where its proponents claim the syndrome is rampant. [...]

:Assumption 6: Alleged perpetrators are immune to FMS. [...] Critics, however, point out that in the case of "False Memory Syndrome" the "outcome" (i.e., a false memory) proceeds ''a priori'' from the assumption that the disputed memories are in fact false [...] The FMSF has never tested this assumption as it does not investigate the backgrounds of those claiming to be falsely accused
</blockquote>


== Recovered memory therapy ==
== Recovered memory therapy ==
{{Main|Recovered memory therapy}}
{{Main|Recovered memory therapy}}
Recovered memory therapy is used to describe the therapeutic processes and methods that are believed to create false memories and false memory syndrome. These methods include [[hypnosis]], sedatives and probing questions where the therapist believes [[repressed memories]] of traumatic events are the cause of their client's problems.{{sfn|McHugh|2008|p=63}} The term is not listed in [[DSM-IV]] or used by any mainstream [[Psychotherapy#Specific schools and approaches|formal psychotherapy modality]].<ref name="Whitfield" />
Recovered memory therapy is used to describe the therapeutic processes and methods that are believed to create false memories and false memory syndrome. These methods include [[hypnosis]], sedatives and probing questions where the therapist believes [[repressed memories]] of traumatic events are the cause of their client's problems.{{sfn|McHugh|2008|p=63}} The term "recovered memory therapy" is not listed in [[DSM-IV]] or used by any mainstream [[Psychotherapy#Specific schools and approaches|formal psychotherapy modality]].<ref name="Whitfield" />


[[Memory consolidation]] becomes a critical element of false memory and recovered memory syndromes. Once stored in the [[hippocampus]], the memory may last for years or even for life, regardless that the memorized event never actually took place. [[Fixation (psychology)|Obsession]] to a particular false memory, planted memory, or indoctrinated memory can shape a person's actions or even result in [[delusional disorder]].
[[Memory consolidation]] becomes a critical element of false memory and recovered memory syndromes. Once stored in the [[hippocampus]], the memory may last for years or even for life, regardless that the memorized event never actually took place. [[Fixation (psychology)|Obsession]] to a particular false memory, planted memory, or indoctrinated memory can shape a person's actions or even result in [[delusional disorder]].


Mainstream psychiatric and psychological professional associations now harbor strong skepticism towards the notion of recovered memories of trauma. They argue that self-help books, and recovered memory therapists can influence adults to develop false memories.{{citation needed|date=September 2011}} According to this theory, psychologists and psychiatrists may accidentally implant these false memories.{{Citation needed | date = April 2008}} The [[American Psychiatric Association]] and [[American Medical Association]] condemn such practices, whether they are formally called "Recovered Memory Therapy" or simply a collection of techniques that fit the description. In 1998, the Royal College of Psychiatrists Working Group on Reported Recovered Memories of Sexual Abuse wrote:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse: implications for clinical practice|journal=British Journal of Psychiatry|volume=172|pages=296–307|authors=Brandon S, Boakes J, Glaser D & Green R|year=1998|doi=10.1192/bjp.172.4.296|pmid=9722329}}</ref>
Critics{{who?} in psychiatric and psychological professional associations now harbor strong skepticism towards the notion of recovered memories of trauma. They argue that self-help books, and recovered memory therapists can influence adults to develop false memories.{{citation needed|date=September 2011}} According to this theory, psychologists and psychiatrists may accidentally implant these false memories.{{Citation needed | date = April 2008}} The [[American Psychiatric Association]] and [[American Medical Association]] condemn such practices, whether they are formally called "Recovered Memory Therapy" or simply a collection of techniques that fit the description. In 1998, the Royal College of Psychiatrists Working Group on Reported Recovered Memories of Sexual Abuse wrote:<ref>{{cite journal|title=Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse: implications for clinical practice|journal=British Journal of Psychiatry|volume=172|pages=296–307|authors=Brandon S, Boakes J, Glaser D & Green R|year=1998|doi=10.1192/bjp.172.4.296|pmid=9722329}}</ref>


<blockquote>
<blockquote>
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That such techniques have been used in the past is undeniable. Their continued use is cause for [[malpractice]] litigation worldwide.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.fortea.us/english/psiquiatria/malpractice.htm | title = Malpractice Suit Against Dr. Bennett Braun | publisher = Fortea.us | accessdate = 2010-12-12 }}</ref> An Australian psychologist was de-registered for engaging in them.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nsw/NSWPST/2010/1.html | title = HEALTH CARE COMPLAINTS COMMISSION v TYNAN [2010&#93; NSWPST 1 | publisher = Austlii.edu.au | date = 10 February 2010 | accessdate = 2010-12-12 }}</ref>
That such techniques have been used in the past is undeniable. Their continued use is cause for [[malpractice]] litigation worldwide.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.fortea.us/english/psiquiatria/malpractice.htm | title = Malpractice Suit Against Dr. Bennett Braun | publisher = Fortea.us | accessdate = 2010-12-12 }}</ref> An Australian psychologist was de-registered for engaging in them.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nsw/NSWPST/2010/1.html | title = HEALTH CARE COMPLAINTS COMMISSION v TYNAN [2010&#93; NSWPST 1 | publisher = Austlii.edu.au | date = 10 February 2010 | accessdate = 2010-12-12 }}</ref>

On the other hand, not all researchers reject the concept of traumatic amnesia outright:
<blockquote>
research suggests that recovered memories are no more and no less accurate than continuous memories [...] Longitudinal studies have demonstrated that individuals with legally documented abuse histories have recovered accurate abuse-related memories after claiming to have forgotten the traumatic experience [...] and substantial proportions of those who recover memories of abuse have been able to find external corroborative evidence to support their memory [...] After reviewing the evidence, Scheflin and Brown (1996) suggested that if courts require an evidentiary hearing on the issue of whether repressed memories are reliable, then they "must, consistent with the science, hold either that such memories are reliable or that all memory, repressed or otherwise, is unreliable".<ref name="Dallam"/>
</blockquote>


== Evidence for false memories ==
== Evidence for false memories ==

Revision as of 22:04, 10 July 2015

False memory syndrome (FMS) describes a condition in which a person's identity and relationships are affected by memories that are factually incorrect but that they strongly believe.[1] Peter J. Freyd originated the term,[2] which the False Memory Syndrome Foundation (FMSF) subsequently popularized. The term is not recognized as a mental disorder[3] in any of the medical manuals, such as the ICD-10[4] or the DSM-5;[5] however, the principle that memories can be altered by outside influences is overwhelmingly accepted by scientists.[6][7][8][9]

False memories may be the result of recovered memory therapy, a term also defined by the FMSF in the early 1990s,[10] which describes a range of therapy methods that are allegedly prone to creating confabulations. Some of the influential figures in the genesis of the theory are forensic psychologist Ralph Underwager, psychologist Elizabeth Loftus and sociologist Richard Ofshe.

Definition

False memory syndrome is a condition in which a person's identity and interpersonal relationships center around a memory of a traumatic experience that is objectively false but that the person strongly believes. Note that the syndrome is not characterized by false memories as such. We all have inaccurate memories. Rather, the syndrome is diagnosed when the memory is so deeply ingrained that it orients the individual's entire personality and lifestyle—disrupting other adaptive behavior. False memory syndrome is destructive because the person assiduously avoids confronting evidence that challenges the memory. Thus it takes on a life of its own; the memory becomes encapsulated and resistant to correction. Subjects may focus so strongly on the memory that it effectively distracts them from coping with real problems in their life.[11]

The FMS concept is controversial,[12][13] and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders does not include it. Paul R. McHugh, member of the FMSF, stated that the term was not adopted into the fourth version of the manual due to the pertinent committee being headed by believers in recovered memory.[2]

Criticism

Dallam[12] has argued that concept of "false memory syndrome" as defined by the FMSF rests on several assumptions that lack empirical support:

Assumption 1: A recovered memory is likely to be false memory. [...] The assumption that delayed memories should be considered false is countered by countless studies of traumatized populations. At last count, over 68 studies have documented the reality of recovering forgotten memories of trauma [...] At the same time, research has shown that the misremembering of childhood events is more often characterized by forgetting negative experiences that actually happened than it is by remembering ones that did not. [...]
Assumption 2: Recovered memories are usually caused by therapists practicing "recovered memory therapy." [...] The assumption that recovered memories are usually caused by therapists using suggestive techniques is countered by numerous studies reporting that a substantial proportion of those who recover memories of abuse, do so without ever having participated in therapy [...]
Assumption 3: It is easy to implant false memories of traumatic events. [...] There is currently mixed data on the ability of authority figures to "implant" wholly false traumatic memories; however, memory researchers agree that the creation of illusory memories require substantial suggestive influence
Assumption 4: People who recover memories are highly suggestible. [...] the assumption that adults who recover memories of abuse are highly suggestible has not been supported by research specifically designed to test its validity. In fact, investigators have found that the memory of patients who reported having recovered memories of childhood sexual trauma were actually less subject to distortion following suggestive prompts than psychiatric patients who did not report having recovered such memories [...]
Assumption 5: "False Memory Syndrome" is common. [...] the FMSF has never performed any epidemiological research to support its claims. In fact, a major problem hampering the study of the construct is that it is not being found in the clinical populations where its proponents claim the syndrome is rampant. [...]
Assumption 6: Alleged perpetrators are immune to FMS. [...] Critics, however, point out that in the case of "False Memory Syndrome" the "outcome" (i.e., a false memory) proceeds a priori from the assumption that the disputed memories are in fact false [...] The FMSF has never tested this assumption as it does not investigate the backgrounds of those claiming to be falsely accused

Recovered memory therapy

Main article: Recovered memory therapy

Recovered memory therapy is used to describe the therapeutic processes and methods that are believed to create false memories and false memory syndrome. These methods include hypnosis, sedatives and probing questions where the therapist believes repressed memories of traumatic events are the cause of their client's problems.[14] The term "recovered memory therapy" is not listed in DSM-IV or used by any mainstream formal psychotherapy modality.[10]

Memory consolidation becomes a critical element of false memory and recovered memory syndromes. Once stored in the hippocampus, the memory may last for years or even for life, regardless that the memorized event never actually took place. Obsession to a particular false memory, planted memory, or indoctrinated memory can shape a person's actions or even result in delusional disorder.

Critics{{who?} in psychiatric and psychological professional associations now harbor strong skepticism towards the notion of recovered memories of trauma. They argue that self-help books, and recovered memory therapists can influence adults to develop false memories.[citation needed] According to this theory, psychologists and psychiatrists may accidentally implant these false memories.[citation needed] The American Psychiatric Association and American Medical Association condemn such practices, whether they are formally called "Recovered Memory Therapy" or simply a collection of techniques that fit the description. In 1998, the Royal College of Psychiatrists Working Group on Reported Recovered Memories of Sexual Abuse wrote:[15]

No evidence exists for the repression and recovery of verified, severely traumatic events, and their role in symptom formation has yet to be proved. There is also striking absence in the literature of well-corroborated cases of such repressed memories recovered through psychotherapy. Given the prevalence of childhood sexual abuse, even if only a small proportion are repressed and only some of them are subsequently recovered, there should be a significant number of corroborated cases. In fact there are none.

That such techniques have been used in the past is undeniable. Their continued use is cause for malpractice litigation worldwide.[16] An Australian psychologist was de-registered for engaging in them.[17]

On the other hand, not all researchers reject the concept of traumatic amnesia outright:

research suggests that recovered memories are no more and no less accurate than continuous memories [...] Longitudinal studies have demonstrated that individuals with legally documented abuse histories have recovered accurate abuse-related memories after claiming to have forgotten the traumatic experience [...] and substantial proportions of those who recover memories of abuse have been able to find external corroborative evidence to support their memory [...] After reviewing the evidence, Scheflin and Brown (1996) suggested that if courts require an evidentiary hearing on the issue of whether repressed memories are reliable, then they "must, consistent with the science, hold either that such memories are reliable or that all memory, repressed or otherwise, is unreliable".[12]

Evidence for false memories

Human memory is created and highly suggestible, and can create a wide variety of innocuous, embarrassing, and frightening memories through different techniques—including guided imagery, hypnosis, and suggestion by others. Though not all individuals exposed to these techniques develop memories, experiments suggest a significant number of people do, and will actively defend the existence of the events, even if told they were false and deliberately implanted. Questions about the possibility of false memories created an explosion of interest in suggestibility of human memory and resulted in an enormous increase in the knowledge about how memories are encoded, stored and recalled, producing pioneering experiments such as the lost in the mall technique.[18] In Roediger and McDermott's (1995) experiment, subjects were presented with a list of related items (such as candy, sugar, honey) to study. When asked to recall the list, participants were just as, if not more, likely to recall semantically related words (such as sweet) than items that were actually studied, thus creating false memories.[19] This experiment, though widely replicated, remains controversial due to debate considering that people may store semantically related items from a word list conceptually rather than as language, which could account for errors in recollection of words without the creation of false memories. Susan Clancy discovered that people claiming to have been victims of alien abductions are more likely to recall semantically related words than a control group in such an experiment.[20]

The lost in the mall technique is a research method designed to implant a false memory of being lost in a shopping mall as a child to test whether discussing a false event could produce a "memory" of an event that did not happen. In her initial study, Elizabeth Loftus found that 25% of subjects came to develop a "memory" for the event which had never actually taken place.[21] Extensions and variations of the lost in the mall technique found that an average of one third of experimental subjects could become convinced that they experienced things in childhood that had never really occurred—even highly traumatic, and impossible events.[22]

Experimental researchers have demonstrated that memory cells in the hippocampus of mice can be modified to artificially create false memories.[23][24]

Court cases

Sexual abuse cases

The question of the accuracy and dependability of a repressed memory that someone has later recalled has contributed to some investigations and court cases, including cases of alleged sexual abuse or child sexual abuse (CSA).[25][26][27] while others have been deemed confabulations or "false memories" that were not legally admissible.[citation needed] The research of Elizabeth Loftus has been used to counter claims of recovered memory in court[21] and it has resulted in stricter requirements for the use of recovered memories being used in trials, as well as a greater requirement for corroborating evidence. In addition, some states no longer allow prosecution based on recovered memory testimony. Insurance companies have become reluctant to insure therapists against malpractice suits relating to recovered memories.[21][28][29]

Supporters of recovered memories believe that there is "overwhelming evidence that the mind is capable of repressing traumatic memories of child sexual abuse."[30] Whitfield states that the "false memory" defense is "seemingly sophisticated, but mostly contrived and often erroneous." He states that this defense has been created by "accused, convicted and self-confessed child molesters and their advocates" to try to "negate their abusive, criminal behavior."[31] Brown states that when pro-false memory expert witnesses and attorneys state there is no causal connection between CSA and adult psychopathology, that CSA doesn't cause specific trauma-related problems like borderline and dissociative identity disorder, that other variables than CSA can explain the variance of adult psychopathology and that the long-term effects of CSA are non-specific and general, that this testimony is inaccurate and has the potential of misleading juries.[32]

Malpractice cases

During the late 1990s, there were multiple lawsuits in the United States in which psychiatrists and psychologists were successfully sued, or settled out of court, on the charge of propagating iatrogenic memories of childhood sexual abuse, incest and satanic ritual abuse.[33]

Some of these suits were brought by individuals who later declare that their recovered memories of incest or satanic ritual abuse had been false. The False Memory Syndrome Foundation uses the term retractors to describe these individuals, and have shared their stories publicly.[34] There is debate regarding the total number of retractions as compared to the total number of allegations,[10] and the reasons for retractions.[35]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ McHugh, PR (2008). Try to remember: Psychiatry's clash over meaning, memory and mind. Dana Press. pp. 66–7. ISBN 1-932594-39-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  2. ^ a b McHugh 2008, p. 55.
  3. ^ Rix, Rebecca (2000). Sexual abuse litigation: a practical resource for attorneys, clinicians, and advocates. Routledge. p. 33. ISBN 0-7890-1174-3.
  4. ^ "icd 10 codes: psychiatry". Priory Lodge Education Ltd. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
  5. ^ American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8.
  6. ^ Paterson, H. M., Kemp, R. I., & Forgas, J. P. (2010). "Co-witnesses, confederates, and conformity: The effects of discussion and delay on eyewitness memory.," Psychiatry, Psychology and Law.
  7. ^ Loftus, Elizabeth F. Memory: Surprising New Insights Into How We Remember and Why We Forget (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1980).
  8. ^ Schacter, Daniel L. The Seven Sins of Memory : How the Mind Forgets and Remembers (Houghton Mifflin Co., 2001).
  9. ^ Association for Psychological Science (2008, August 20). "False Memories Affect Behavior."
  10. ^ a b c Whitfield, Charles L.; Joyanna L. Silberg; Paul Jay Fink (2001). Misinformation Concerning Child Sexual Abuse and Adult Survivors. Haworth Press. p. 56. ISBN 0-7890-1901-9. Cite error: The named reference "Whitfield" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  11. ^ McHugh 2008, pp. 67–68.
  12. ^ a b c Dallam, S. (2002). "Crisis or Creation: A systematic examination of false memory claims". Journal of Child Sexual Abuse. 9 (3/4): 9–36. doi:10.1300/J070v09n03_02. PMID 17521989. Retrieved 2008-06-27.
  13. ^ Dalenberg, C (2006). "Recovered memory and the Daubert criteria: recovered memory as professionally tested, peer reviewed, and accepted in the relevant scientific community". Trauma Violence Abuse. 7 (4): 274–310. doi:10.1177/1524838006294572. PMID 17065548.
  14. ^ McHugh 2008, p. 63.
  15. ^ "Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse: implications for clinical practice". British Journal of Psychiatry. 172: 296–307. 1998. doi:10.1192/bjp.172.4.296. PMID 9722329. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  16. ^ "Malpractice Suit Against Dr. Bennett Braun". Fortea.us. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  17. ^ "HEALTH CARE COMPLAINTS COMMISSION v TYNAN [2010] NSWPST 1". Austlii.edu.au. 10 February 2010. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  18. ^ Schacter, DL (2002). The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 123–30. ISBN 0-618-21919-6.
  19. ^ Roediger, Henry L.; Kathleen B. McDermott (July 1995). "Creating False Memories: Remembering Words Not Presented in Lists". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 4. 21: 803–814. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.803. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  20. ^ "Starship memories". Harvard Gazette. October 31, 2002. Retrieved 2014-02-23.
  21. ^ a b c Wilson, A (2002-11-03). "War & remembrance: Controversy is a constant for memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus, newly installed at UCI". The Orange County Register. Retrieved 2009-01-19.
  22. ^ Strange, D; Clifasefi S; Garry M (2007). "False memories.". Do Justice and Let the Sky Fall: Elizabeth F. Loftus and Her Contributions to Science, Law, and Academic Freedom. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 137–68. ISBN 0805852328. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ Ramirez, S., et al., (2013). Creating a False Memory in the Hippocampus Science 26 July 2013: Vol. 341 no. 6144 pp. 387-391 doi:10.1126/science.1239073
  24. ^ Jha, Alok (25 July 2013). "False memory planted in mouse's brain". The Guardian.
  25. ^ "Are Recovered Memories Reliable?". Religioustolerance.org. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  26. ^ Colleen Born. "Elizabeth Loftus". Muskingum.edu. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  27. ^ "The Recovered Memory Project". Brown.edu. 1993-05-03. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  28. ^ Neimark, J. (1996). The diva of disclosure, memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus. Psychology Today, 29, 48-53,80.
  29. ^ Saletan, W (2010-06-04). "The memory doctor: the future of false memories". Slate. Retrieved 2012-05-08.
  30. ^ Murphy, W. "Debunking 'false memory'myths in sexual abuse cases". Archived from the original on 2008-01-07. Retrieved 2008-01-10.
  31. ^ Whitfield, C. (March 2002). "The "False Memory" Defense Using Disinformation and Junk Science In and Out of Court". Journal of Child Sexual Abuse. 9 (3/4): 53–78. doi:10.1300/J070v09n03_04. Retrieved 2008-01-11.
  32. ^ Brown, D. (2001). "(Mis)representation of the Long-Term Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse in the Courts". Journal of Child Sexual Abuse. 9 (3/4): 79–107. doi:10.1300/J070v09n03_05. PMID 17521992. Retrieved 2008-01-28.
  33. ^ "Recovered Memory Lawsuit Sparks Litigation". Psychiatrictimes.com. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
  34. ^ Macdonald, Gail (1999). "Women Against Women". Making of an Illness: My Experience With Multiple Personality Disorder. Sudbury, Ontario: Laurentian University Press. p. 111. ISBN 0-88667-045-4. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ Summit, R. (1983). "The child sexual abuse accommodation syndrome". Child Abuse & Neglect. 7 (2): 177–193. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(83)90070-4. PMID 6605796.
  • Template:DMOZ
  • Template:Dmoz
  • [1] is a website with information from all sides of the issue. Primary resources include an extensive bibliography / abstract database and pre-print archive. Also available are sections for criminal investigation, criminal defense and many other useful resources.
  • False Memory Syndrome, Child & Woman Abuse Study Unit, London Metropolitan Hospital. Argues that "false memories" are real memories.
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