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[[File:Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Image of Prajnaparamita.jpeg|thumb|Prajñāpāramitā personified. From the ''{{IAST|Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra}}''.|262x262px]] {{Buddhist term |title=Prajñāpāramitā |en=Perfection of<br>Transcendent Wisdom |sa=प्रज्ञापारमिता<br>([[IAST]]: Prajñāpāramitā) |vi=Bát-nhã-ba-la-mật-đa |zh=般若波羅蜜多 |zh-Latn=bōrě bōluómìduō |mn=Төгөлдөр билгүүн |my=ပညာပါရမီတ |my-Latn=pjɪ̀ɴɲà pàɹəmìta̰ |ja=般若波羅蜜多 |ja-Latn=hannya-haramitta |km=ប្រាជ្ញាបារមីតា<br>(Prach-Nha-Baromei-Da) |ko=반야바라밀다 |ko-Latn=Banyabaramilda |th=ปรัชญาปารมิตา |bo=་ཤེས་རབ་ཀྱི་ཕ་རོལ་ཏུ་ཕྱིན་པ་<br>(shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa) |si=[[:si:ප්‍රඥා පාරමිතා (බුදු දහම)|ප්‍රඥාව]] }} [[File:Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva Nalanda.jpeg|thumb|[[Avalokiteśvara]]. ''{{IAST|Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra}}'' manuscript. [[Nalanda|Nālandā]], [[Bihar]], [[India]].|262x262px]] {{MahayanaBuddhism}} '''Prajñāpāramitā''' means "the Perfection of (Transcendent) Wisdom" in [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna Buddhism]]. Prajñāpāramitā refers to this perfected way of seeing the nature of reality, as well as to a particular body of [[sutra]]s and to the personification of the concept in the [[Bodhisattva]] known as the "Great Mother" (Tibetan: Yum Chenmo). The word ''Prajñāpāramitā'' combines the [[Sanskrit]] words ''[[Prajñā (Buddhism)|prajñā]]'' "wisdom" with ''[[pāramitā]]'' "perfection". Prajñāpāramitā is a central concept in [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] and is generally associated with the doctrine of emptiness ([[Shunyata]]) or 'lack of [[Svabhava]]' (essence) and the works of [[Nagarjuna]]. Its practice and understanding are taken to be indispensable elements of the [[Bodhisattva]] path. According to [[Edward Conze]] the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras are "a collection of about forty texts...composed in India between approximately 100 BC and AD 600."<ref>Conze, E. Perfect Wisdom: The Short Prajnaparamita Texts, Buddhist Publishing Group, 1993</ref> Some Prajnāpāramitā sūtras are thought to be among the earliest [[Mahāyāna sūtras]].<ref>Williams, Paul. ''Buddhist Thought.'' Routledge, 2000, pages 131.</ref><ref>Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd edition.'' Routledge, 2009, pg. 47.</ref> One of the important features of the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras is [[anutpada]] (unborn, no origin).<ref>Buswell, Robert; Lopez, Donald S. Jr., eds. (2014), ''The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism'', Princeton University Press pg. 945   "In the PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ literature and the MADHYAMAKA school,  the notion of production comes under specific criticism  (see VAJRAKAṆĀ),  with NĀGĀRJUNA famously asking,  e.g.,  how an effect can be produced from a cause that is either the same as or different from itself.  The prajñāpāramitā sūtras thus famously declare that all dharmas are actually ANUTPĀDA,  or “unproduced.”"</ref><ref>King, Richard (1995), ''Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: The Mahāyāna Context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā'', SUNY Press pg.113 "It is equally apparent that one of the important features of the Prajnaparamita positition is that of the nonarising (anutpada) of dharmas."</ref> ==History== ===Earliest texts=== ====''{{IAST|Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā}}''==== Western scholars have traditionally considered the earliest sūtra in the Prajñāpāramitā class to be the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' or "Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines", which was probably put in writing in the 1st century BCE.<ref>Mäll, Linnart. ''Studies in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā and other essays.'' 2005. p. 96</ref> This chronology is based on the views of [[Edward Conze]], who largely considered dates of translation into other languages. The first translation of the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' into [[Chinese language|Chinese]] occurred in the 2nd century CE. This text also has a corresponding version in verse format, called the ''{{IAST|Ratnaguṇasaṃcaya Gāthā}}'', which some believe to be slightly older because it is not written in standard literary Sanskrit. However, these findings rely on late-dating Indian texts, in which verses and mantras are often kept in more archaic forms. Additionally, a number of scholars have proposed that the Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā teachings were first developed by the [[Caitika]] subsect of the [[Mahāsāṃghika]]s. They believe that the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' originated amongst the southern Mahāsāṃghika schools of the [[Coastal Andhra|Āndhra]] region, along the [[Krishna River|Kṛṣṇa River]].<ref>Guang Xing. ''The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.'' 2004. pp. 65-66 "Several scholars have suggested that the Prajnaparamita probably developed among the Mahasamghikas in Southern India, in the Andhra country, on the Krsna River."</ref> These Mahāsāṃghikas had two famous monasteries near [[Amaravathi village, Guntur district|Amarāvati]] and the [[Dharanikota|Dhānyakataka]], which gave their names to the Pūrvaśaila and Aparaśaila schools.<ref name="Guang Xing 2004. p. 66"/> Each of these schools had a copy of the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' in [[Prakrit]].<ref name="Guang Xing 2004. p. 66">Guang Xing. ''The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.'' 2004. p. 66</ref> Guang Xing also assesses the view of the Buddha given in the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' as being that of the Mahāsāṃghikas.<ref name="Guang Xing 2004. p. 66"/> [[Edward Conze]] estimates that this sūtra originated around 100 BCE.<ref name="Guang Xing 2004. p. 66"/> In 2012, Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima published a damaged and partial [[Kharosthi|Kharoṣṭhī]] manuscript of the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā''.<ref>Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima, [https://web.archive.org/web/20131004225647/http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/ARIRIAB/pdf/ARIRIAB-15.pdf A first‐century Prajñāpāramitā manuscript from Gandhāra&nbsp;— parivarta 1 (Texts from the Split Collection 1)]. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University XV (2012), 19-61.</ref> It is [[radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dated]] to ca. 75 CE, making it one of the oldest Buddhist texts in existence. It is very similar to the first Chinese translation of the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'' by [[Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)|Lokakṣema]] (ca. 179 CE) whose source text is assumed to be in the [[Gāndhārī language]]. Comparison with the standard Sanskrit text shows that it is also likely to be a translation from Gāndhāri as it expands on many phrases and provides glosses for words that are not present in the Gāndhārī. This points to the text being composed in Gāndhārī, the language of [[Gandhara]] (the region now called the Northwest Frontier of Pakistan, including [[Peshawar]], [[Taxila]] and [[Swat Valley]]). The "Split" ms. is evidently a copy of an earlier text, confirming that the text may date before the first century of the common era. ====''Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā''==== In contrast to western scholarship, Japanese scholars have traditionally considered the ''[[Diamond Sutra|Diamond Sūtra]]'' (''Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'') to be from a very early date in the development of Prajñāpāramitā literature.<ref name="Williams, Paul 1989 p.42">Williams, Paul. ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: the Doctrinal Foundations''. London, UK: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-02537-0}}. p.42</ref> The usual reason for this relative chronology which places the ''Vajracchedikā'' earlier is not its date of translation, but rather a comparison of the contents and themes.<ref>Schopen, Gregory. ''Figments and Fragments of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India.'' 2005. p. 55</ref> Some western scholars also believe that the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' was adapted from the earlier ''Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra''.<ref name="Williams, Paul 1989 p.42" /> Examining the language and phrases used in both the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'' and the ''Vajracchedikā'', [[Gregory Schopen]] also sees the ''Vajracchedikā'' as being earlier than the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā''.<ref name="Schopen, Gregory 2005. pp. 31-32">Schopen, Gregory. ''Figments and Fragments of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India.'' 2005. pp. 31-32</ref> This view is taken in part by examining parallels between the two works, in which the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'' seems to represent the later or more developed position.<ref name="Schopen, Gregory 2005. pp. 31-32"/> According to Schopen, these works also show a shift in emphasis from an oral tradition (''Vajracchedikā'') to a written tradition (''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'').<ref name="Schopen, Gregory 2005. pp. 31-32"/> ===Overview of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras=== [[File:Arapacana manjusri - AP State archaeological museum (1).jpg|thumb|Arapacana manjusri with prajnaparamita in his right hand. Statue belongs to 18 CAD, Tibet. Currently at YSR state archaeological museum|349x349px]] An Indian commentary on the ''[[Mahāyāna-samgraha|Mahāyānasaṃgraha]]'', entitled ''Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā'', gives a classification of teachings according to the capabilities of the audience: {{quote|[A]ccording to disciples' grades, the Dharma is [classified as] inferior and superior. For example, the inferior was taught to the merchants [[Trapusa and Bahalika|Trapuṣa and Ballika]] because they were ordinary men; the middle was taught to the group of five because they were at the stage of saints; the eightfold ''Prajñāpāramitās'' were taught to bodhisattvas, and [the ''Prajñāpāramitās''] are superior in eliminating conceptually imagined forms. The eightfold [''Prajñāpāramitās''] are the teachings of the Prajñāpāramitā as follows: the ''Triśatikā'', ''Pañcaśatikā'', ''Saptaśatikā'', ''Sārdhadvisāhasrikā'', ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'', ''Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā'', ''Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā'', and ''Śatasāhasrikā''.<ref>Hamar, Imre. ''Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism.'' 2007. p. 94</ref>}} The titles of these eight Prajñāpāramitā texts are given according to their length. The texts may have other Sanskrit titles as well, or different variations which may be more descriptive. The lengths specified by the titles are given below. # ''Triśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'': 300 lines, alternatively known as the ''[[Diamond Sutra|Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]]'' (''Diamond Sūtra'') # ''Pañcaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'': 500 lines # ''Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'': 700 lines, the bodhisattva [[Manjusri|Mañjuśrī]]'s exposition of Prajñāpāramitā # ''Sārdhadvisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'': 2500 lines, from the questions of Suvikrāntavikrāmin Bodhisattva # ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'': 8000 lines # ''Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'': 18,000 lines # ''Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'': 25,000 lines, alternatively known as the ''[[Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra|Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra]]''{{citation needed|reason=It is unclear whether the 25,000-line sutra or the 100,000-line sutra is alternatively referred to as the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra|date=May 2015}} # ''Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'': 100,000 lines, alternatively known as the ''[[Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra|Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra]]''{{citation needed|reason=It is unclear whether the 25,000-line sutra or the 100,000-line sutra is alternatively referred to as the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra|date=May 2015}} According to Joseph Walser, there is evidence that the ''Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' (25,000 lines) and the ''Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' (100,000 lines) have a connection with the [[Dharmaguptaka]] sect, while the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' (8000 lines) does not.<ref>Williams, Paul. ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.'' 2008. p. 6</ref> In addition to these, there are also other Prajñāpāramitā sūtras such as the ''[[Heart Sutra]]'' (''Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya''), which exists in a shorter and longer versions. Regarding the shorter texts, Edward Conze writes, "Two of these, the ''Diamond Sūtra'' and the ''Heart Sūtra'' are in a class by themselves and deservedly renowned throughout the world of Northern Buddhism. Both have been translated into many languages and have often been commented upon.".<ref>Conze, Edward. ''The Short Prajñāpāramitā Texts.'' 1973. p. 9</ref> Some scholars consider the Diamond Sutra to be much earlier than Conze does.<ref>Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: the Doctrinal Foundations. London, UK: Routledge. p. 42.</ref> Scholar, Jan Nattier argues the Heart Sutra to be an apocryphal text composed in China from extracts of the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā and other texts ca 7th century.<ref>Jan Nattier. 1992. The Heart Sūtra : a Chinese apocryphal text? Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. Vol. 15 (2), p.153-223.</ref> Red Pine, does not support Nattiers argument and believes the Prajnaparamita Hridaya Sutra to be of Indian origin.<ref>"The Heart Sutra Translation and Commentary", 2004. p.22-24</ref> [[Tantra|Tāntric]] versions of the Prajñāpāramitā literature were produced from the year 500 CE on and include sutras such as the Adhyardhaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā (150 lines). Additionally, Prajñāpāramitā [[Terma (religion)|terma]] teachings are held by some [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhists]] to have been conferred upon [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] by the [[Nagaraja|Nāgarāja]] "King of the [[Nāga]]s", who had been guarding them at the bottom of the sea. ===Commentaries and translations=== There are various Indian and later Chinese commentaries on the Prajñāpāramitā sutras. The Indo-Tibetan tradition cites four major Indian commentators:<ref name="Brunnholzl, Karl 2011, page 42">Brunnholzl, Karl; Gone Beyond: The Prajnaparamita Sutras The Ornament Of Clear Realization And Its Commentaries In The Tibetan Kagyu Tradition (Tsadra) 2011, page 42.</ref> *[[Nagarjuna]]'s (2nd century) various texts, including the ''Maha-prajnaparamita-sastra'' which only survives in Chinese and is traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna. It is a commentary on the 'Perfection of Wisdom in Five Thousand Lines'.<ref>LAMOTTE, ÉTIENNE; THE TREATISE ON THE GREAT VIRTUE OF WISDOM OF NĀGĀRJUNA (MAHĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀŚĀSTRA)</ref> *[[Maitreya]]/[[Asanga]] - [[Abhisamayalamkara]] (''Ornament of clear realization''), the central Prajñāpāramitā shastra in the Tibetan tradition. *[[Vasubandhu]] (4th century). *[[Damstrásena]] - ''Satasahasrika-paramita-brhattika''. *[[Dignaga]] - ''Prajnaparamitarthasamgraha-karika''. The sutras were first brought to [[Tibet]] in the reign of [[Trisong Detsen]] (742-796) by scholars [[Jinamitra]] and [[Silendrabodhi]] and the translator Yeshe De.<ref name="Brunnholzl, Karl 2011, page 42"/> ===Prajñāpāramitā in Central Asia=== {{see also|Buddhism in Central Asia}} By the middle of the 3rd century CE, it appears that some Prajñāpāramitā texts were known in [[Central Asia]], as reported by the Chinese monk Zhu Shixing, who brought back a manuscript of the ''Prajñāpāramitā'' of 25,000 lines:<ref>Heirman, Ann. Bumbacher, Stephan Peter. ''The Spread of Buddhism.'' 2007. p. 100</ref> {{quote|When in 260 AD, the Chinese monk Zhu Shixing chose to go to [[Kingdom of Khotan|Khotan]] in an attempt to find original Sanskrit ''sūtras'', he succeeded in locating the Sanskrit ''Prajñāpāramitā'' in 25,000 verses, and tried to send it to China. In Khotan, however, there were numerous [[Hinayana|Hīnayānists]] who attempted to prevent it because they regarded the text as [[heterodox]]. Eventually, Zhu Shixing stayed in Khotan, but sent the manuscript to [[Luoyang]] where it was translated by a Khotanese monk named Mokṣala. In 296, the Khotanese monk Gītamitra came to [[Chang'an]] with another copy of the same text.}} ===China=== In China, there was extensive translations of many Prajñāpāramitā texts beginning in the second century CE, main translators include: [[Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)|Lokakṣema]] (支婁迦讖), Zhī Qīan (支謙), [[Dharmarakṣa]] (竺法護), Mokṣala (無叉羅), [[Kumārajīva]] (鳩摩羅什, 408 CE), [[Xuánzàng]] (玄奘), Făxián (法賢) and Dānapāla (施護).<ref>Orsborn, M. B.. (2012). Chiasmus in the early Prajñāpāramitā : literary parallelism connecting criticism & hermeneutics in an early Mahāyāna sūtra. (Thesis). Page 41. University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR. Retrieved from https://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4775259</ref> These translations were very influential in the development of [[East Asian Mādhyamaka]] and on [[Chinese Buddhism]]. [[Xuanzang]] (fl. c. 602–664) was a Chinese scholar who traveled to India and returned to China with three copies of the ''Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' which he had secured from his extensive travels.<ref name="Wriggins, Sally Hovey 2004 p.206">Wriggins, Sally Hovey (2004). ''The Silk Road Journey with Xuanzang''. Boulder, Colorado: WestviewPress. {{ISBN|0-8133-6599-6}}. p.206</ref> Xuanzang, with a team of disciple translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE using the three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation.<ref name="Wriggins, Sally Hovey 2004 p.206"/> Xuanzang was being encouraged by a number of the disciple translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of dreams quickened his decision, Xuanzang determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 fascicles.<ref>Wriggins, Sally Hovey (2004). ''The Silk Road Journey with Xuanzang''. Boulder, Colorado: WestviewPress. {{ISBN|0-8133-6599-6}}. p.207</ref> There are also later commentaries from Zen Buddhists on the Heart and Diamond sutra and [[Kūkai]]'s commentary (9th century) is the first known Tantric commentary. ==Themes in Prajñāpāramitā sutras== ===Core themes=== [[Image:Rabjor or Subhuti.jpg|thumb|280x280px|A Tibetan illustration of [[Subhuti]], a major character in the PP sutras.]] An important theme in these sutras is the meaning and profundity of the perfection (''pāramitā'') of ''[[prajña]]'' - a state of consciousness which is an understanding of reality arising from deep thinking and analysis as well as [[meditative]] insight. It is non-conceptual and [[non-dual]] as well as [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendental]].<ref>Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism, the doctrinal foundations, pages 49-50.</ref> A common trope in the ''Prajñāpāramitā sutras'' is the negation of a previous statement in the form 'A is not A, therefore it is A', or more often negating only a part of the statement as in, “XY is a Y-less XY”.<ref>Orsborn, M. B.. (2012). Chiasmus in the early Prajñāpāramitā : literary parallelism connecting criticism & hermeneutics in an early Mahāyāna sūtra. (Thesis). Page 171. University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR. Retrieved from https://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4775259</ref> Japanese Buddhologist, Hajime Nakamura, calls this negation the 'logic of not' (Sanskrit: na prthak).<ref>Nagatomo, Shigenori (2000). The Logic of the Diamond Sutra: A is not A, therefore it is A; Asian Philosophy 10 (3), 217–244</ref> An example from the [[Diamond sutra]] of this use of negation is: :As far as ‘all dharmas’ are concerned, Subhuti, all of them are dharma-less. That is why they are called ‘all dharmas.’<ref name="ReferenceA">Harrison, Paul. Vajracchedika Prajñaparamita Diamond Cutting Transcendent Wisdom</ref> The rationale behind this form is the juxtaposition of conventional truth with ultimate truth as taught in the Buddhist [[two truths doctrine]]. The negation of conventional truth is supposed to expound the ultimate truth of the emptiness ([[shunyata]]) of all reality - the idea that nothing has an ontological essence and all things are merely conceptual, having no true ontological essence. From the point of view of the ultimate, all things are "like a magical illusion...like a dream".<ref>Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism, the doctrinal foundations, pages 52.</ref> According to Karl Brunnholzl, this "perfection of wisdom" means that "all phenomena from form up through omniscience being utterly devoid of any intrinsic characteristics or nature of their own."<ref>Brunnholzl, Karl; Gone Beyond: The Prajnaparamita Sutras The Ornament Of Clear Realization And Its Commentaries In The Tibetan Kagyu Tradition (Tsadra) 2011, page 28.</ref> Furthermore, "such omniscient wisdom is always nonconceptual and free from reference points since it is the constant and panoramic awareness of the nature of all phenomena and does not involve any shift between meditative equipoise and subsequent attainment."<ref>Brunnholzl, Karl; Gone Beyond: The Prajnaparamita Sutras The Ornament Of Clear Realization And Its Commentaries In The Tibetan Kagyu Tradition (Tsadra) 2011, page 30.</ref> Another key theme of the sutras is the [[Bodhisattva]] ideal and the [[Mahayana]] (Great Vehicle), which sees the goal of the Buddhist path as becoming a [[Buddha]] for the sake of all sentient beings, not just yourself: :They make up their minds that ‘one single self we shall tame . . . one single self we shall :lead to final Nirvana.’ A Bodhisattva should certainly not in such a way train himself. :On the contrary, he should train himself thus: ‘My own self I will place in Suchness [the :true way of things], and, so that all the world might be helped, I will place all beings :into Suchness, and I will lead to Nirvana the whole immeasurable world of beings.’<ref name="huntingtonarchive.org">Conze, Edward, THE PERFECTION OF WISDOM IN EIGHT THOUSAND LINES & ITS VERSE SUMMARY, http://huntingtonarchive.org/resources/downloads/sutras/02Prajnaparamita/Astasahasrika.pdf</ref> The Bodhisattva is said to generate "great compassion" for all beings on their path to liberation and yet also maintain a sense of equanimity and distance from them due to his understanding of emptiness, due to which, the Bodhisattva understands that even after bringing countless beings to nirvana, "no living being whatsoever has been brought to nirvana."<ref name="ReferenceA"/> [[Bodhisattvas]] and [[Mahāsattva]]s are also willing to give up all of their meritorious deeds for sentient beings and develop skillful means ([[upaya]]) in order to help them. According to Paul Williams, another major theme of the early sutras is "the phenomenon of laudatory self reference – the lengthy praise of the sutra itself, the immense merits to be obtained from treating even a verse of it with reverence, and the nasty penalties which will accrue in accordance with [[karma]] to those who denigrate the scripture."<ref>Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism, the doctrinal foundations, page 46.</ref> ===Later additions=== According to [[Edward Conze]], the PP sutras added much new doctrinal material in the later layers and the larger texts. Conze lists the later accretions as:<ref name="huntingtonarchive.org"/> #Increasing sectarianism, with all the rancor, invective and polemics that that implies #Increasing scholasticism and the insertion of longer and longer Abhidharma lists #Growing stress on skill in means, and on its subsidiaries such as the Bodhisattva’s Vow and the four means of conversion, and its logical sequences, such as the distinction between provisional and ultimate truth #A growing concern with the Buddhist of faith, with its celestial Buddhas and Bodhisattva and their Buddha-fields; #A tendency towards verbosity, repetitiveness and overelaboration #Lamentations over the decline of the Dharma #Expositions of the hidden meaning which become the more frequent the more the original meaning becomes obscured #Any reference to the Dharma body of the Buddha as anything different from a term for the collection of his teachings #A more and more detailed doctrine of the graded stages (bhumi) of a Bodhisattva’s career. ==Prajñāpāramitā in visual art== The Prajnaparamita is often personified as a ''bodhisattvadevi'' (female bodhisattva). Artifacts from [[Nalanda]] depict the Prajnaparamita personified as a deity. The depiction of Prajnaparamita as a Yidam deity can also be found in ancient Java and Cambodian art. ===Prajñāpāramitā in Ancient Indonesia=== [[File:Prajnaparamita Java Front.JPG|thumb|Prajñāpāramitā statue from East Java, Indonesia.|551x551px]] {{main article|Prajnaparamita of Java}} [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]] took root in ancient [[Java]] [[Sailendra]] court in the 8th century CE. The Mahayana reverence of female buddhist deity started with the cult of [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tara]] enshrined in the 8th century [[Kalasan]] temple in Central Java. Some of Prajnaparamita's important functions and attributes can be traced to those of the goddess Tara. Tara and Prajnaparamita are both referred to as mothers of all Buddhas, since Buddhas are born from wisdom. The Sailendra dynasty was also the ruling family of [[Srivijaya]] in Sumatra. During the reign of the third Pala king Devapala (815-854) in India, Srivijaya Maharaja [[Balaputra]] of Sailendras also constructed one of Nalanda’s main monasteries in India itself. Thereafter manuscript editions of the ''Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra'' circulating in Sumatra and Java instigated the cult of the Goddess of Transcendent Wisdom.<ref>[http://www.asianartnewspaper.com/article/early-buddhist-manuscript-painting%3A-the-palm-leaf-tradition Asian Art] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312213139/http://www.asianartnewspaper.com/article/early-buddhist-manuscript-painting%3A-the-palm-leaf-tradition |date=March 12, 2012 }}</ref> In the 13th century, the tantric buddhism gained royal patronage of king [[Kertanegara of Singhasari]], and thereafter some of Prajnaparamita statues were produced in the region, such as the Prajnaparamita of Singhasari in East Java and Prajnaparamita of [[Muaro Jambi Regency]], [[Sumatra]]. Both of East Java and Jambi Prajnaparamitas bear resemblance in style as they were produced in same period, however unfortunately Prajnaparamita of Jambi is headless and was discovered in poor condition. The statue of Prajnaparamita of East Java is probably the most famous depiction of the goddess of transcendental wisdom, and is considered the masterpiece of classical ancient Java Hindu-Buddhist art in Indonesia. It was discovered in the Cungkup Putri ruins near Singhasari temple, [[Malang]], [[East Java]]. Today the beautiful and serene statue is displayed on 2nd floor Gedung Arca, [[National Museum of Indonesia]], [[Jakarta]]. ==Selected English translations== {| class="wikitable" |- ! Author ! Title ! Publisher ! Notes ! Year |- | [[Edward Conze]] | Selected Sayings from the Perfection of Wisdom {{ISBN|978-0877737094}} | Buddhist Society, London | Portions of various Perfection of Wisdom sutras | 1978 |- | [[Edward Conze]] | The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom {{ISBN|0-520-05321-4}} | University of California | Mostly the version in 25,000 lines, with some parts from the versions in 100,000 and 18,000 lines | 1985 |- | [[Edward Conze]] | Buddhist Wisdom Books {{ISBN|0-04-440259-7}} | Unwin | The Heart Sutra and the Diamond Sutra with commentaries | 1988 |- | [[Edward Conze]] | The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and its Verse Summary {{ISBN|81-7030-405-9}} | Four Seasons Foundation | The earliest text in a combination of strict translation and summary | 1994 |- | [[Edward Conze]] | Perfect Wisdom; The Short Prajnaparamita Texts {{ISBN|0-946672-28-8}} | Buddhist Publishing Group, Totnes. (Luzac reprint) | Most of the short sutras: Perfection of Wisdom in 500 Lines, 700 lines, The Heart Sutra and The Diamond Sutra, one word, plus some Tantric sutras, all without commentaries. | 2003 |- | [[Tashi Tsering (Jamyang Buddhist Centre)|Geshe Tashi Tsering]] | Emptiness: The Foundation of Buddhist Thought, {{ISBN|978-0-86171-511-4}} | Wisdom Publications | A guide to the topic of emptiness from a Tibetan Buddhist perspective, with English translation of the Heart Sutra | 2009 |- | [[Lex Hixon]] | Mother of the Buddhas: Meditation on the Prajnaparamita Sutra {{ISBN|0-8356-0689-9}} | Quest | Selected verses from the Prajnaparamita in 8000 lines | 1993 |- | [[R.C. Jamieson]] | The perfection of wisdom, {{ISBN|978-0-67088-934-1}} | Penguin Viking | Foreword by H.H. the Dalai Lama; illustrated with Cambridge University Library Manuscript Add.1464 & Manuscript Add.1643 | 2000|- |- | Richard H. Jones | The Heart of Buddhist Wisdom: Plain English Translations of the Heart Sutra, the Diamond-Cutter Sutra, and other Perfection of Wisdom Texts, {{ISBN|978-1478389576}} | Jackson Square Books | Clear translations and summaries of the most important texts with essays | 2012 |- | [[Kelsang Gyatso|Geshe Kelsang Gyatso]] | [[The New Heart of Wisdom|Heart of Wisdom]] {{ISBN|0-948006-77-3}} | Tharpa | The Heart Sutra with a Tibetan commentary | 2001 |- | Lopez, Donald S. | Elaborations on Emptiness {{ISBN|0-691-00188-X}} | Princeton | The Heart Sutra with eight complete Indian and Tibetan commentaries | 1998 |- | Lopez, Donald S. | The Heart Sutra Explained {{ISBN|0-88706-590-2}} | SUNY | The Heart Sutra with a summary of [[History of Buddhism in India|Indian]] commentaries | 1987 |- | Rabten, Geshe | Echoes of Voidness {{ISBN|0-86171-010-X}} | Wisdom | Includes the Heart Sutra with [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan]] commentary | 1983 |- | [[Thich Nhat Hanh]] | The Heart of Understanding {{ISBN|0-938077-11-2}} | Parallax Press | The Heart Sutra with a [[Chinese Chán#Thiền in Vietnam|Vietnamese Thiền]] commentary | 1988 |- | [[Thich Nhat Hanh]] | The Diamond that Cuts Through Illusion {{ISBN|0-938077-51-1}} | Parallax Press | The Diamond Sutra with a Vietnamese Thiền commentary | 1992 |- | [[Red Pine (author)|Red Pine]] | The Diamond Sutra: The Perfection of Wisdom; Text and Commentaries Translated from Sanskrit and Chinese {{ISBN|1-58243-256-2}} | Counterpoint | The Diamond Sutra with [[Chinese Chán|Chán]]/[[Zen]] commentary | 2001 |- | [[Red Pine (author)|Red Pine]] | The Heart Sutra: the Womb of Buddhas {{ISBN|978-1593760090}} | Counterpoint | Heart Sutra with commentary | 2004 |- | [[14th Dalai Lama]] | Essence of the Heart Sutra, {{ISBN|978-0-86171-284-7}} | Wisdom Publications | Heart Sutra with commentary by the 14th Dalai Lama | 2005 |- | Doosun Yoo | Thunderous Silence: A Formula For Ending Suffering: A Practical Guide to the Heart Sutra, {{ISBN|978-1614290537}} | Wisdom Publications | English translation of the Heart Sutra with [[Korean Seon]] commentary | 2013 |- | [[Kazuaki Tanahashi]] | The Heart Sutra: A Comprehensive Guide to the Classic of Mahayana Buddhism, {{ISBN|978-1611800968}} | [[Shambhala Publications]] | English translation of the Heart Sutra with history and commentary | 2015 |} ==References== {{wikisource|Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra}} {{wikisource|Shorter Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya Sūtra}} {{wikisource|Longer Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya Sūtra}} {{Reflist}} ==Literature== * {{cite book | last      = Karashima | first     = Seishi | year      = 2010 | url       = http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/BPPB/pdf/BPPB-11.pdf | title     = A Glossary of Lokakṣema's translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpr̄amitā | series    = Bibliotheca philologica et philosophica Buddhica | volume    = Vol XI | publisher = The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka Univ | isbn      = 978-4-904234-03-7 }} * Müller, F. Max, trans (1894). [https://archive.org/details/buddhistmahy02cowe Buddhist Mahâyâna texts Vol.2], Oxford, Clarendon Press. (The Vagrakkedikâ, the larger Pragñâ-pâramitâ-hridaya-sûtra, the smaller Pragñâ-pâramitâ-hridaya-sûtra) * {{cite thesis | last       = Orsborn | first      = M.B. | others     = alias 釋慧峰 Shi Huifeng | year       = 2012 | title      = Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra | url        = http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/181019/1/FullText.pdf | type       = PhD Dissertation | publisher  = University of Hong Kong | accessdate = {{date | 6 oct 2014}} }} * {{cite thesis | author     = Qing, Fa | year       = 2001 | url        = http://hdl.handle.net/1880/40730 | format     = PDF | title      = The development of Prajna in Buddhism from early Buddhism to the Prajnaparamita system: With special reference to the Sarvastivada tradition | type       = PhD Dissertation | publisher  = University of Calgary | others     = Advisor: Kawamura, Leslie S. | isbn       = 0612648362 | accessdate = {{date | 6 oct 2014}} }} * {{cite book | editor-last      = Vaidya | editor-first     = P.L | year      = 1960 | url       = | title     = Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā with Haribhadra’s Commentary Called āloka | series    = Buddhist Sanskrit Texts | volume    = 4 | place = Darbhanga | publisher = The Mithila Institute | isbn      = }} ==External links== {{Commons category|Prajnaparamita}} *[http://lapislazulitexts.com/T08_0232.html Mahāprajñāpāramitā Mañjuśrīparivarta Sūtra: English Translation], Lapis Lazuli Texts *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120129205655/http://users.rcn.com/dante.interport/prajna.html The Prajnaparamita Literature] Bibliography of the Prajnaparamita Literature *[http://www.lotsawahouse.org/topics/prajnaparamita Lotsawa House] Translations of several Tibetan texts on the Prajnaparamita {{Buddhism topics}} [[Category:Mahayana sutras]] [[Category:Female buddhas and supernatural beings]]

[[Category:Wisdom]]