User:Yiningning/sandbox: Difference between revisions
Yiningning (talk | contribs) ←Created page with '{{User sandbox}} <!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE --> {{New unreviewed article | source = ArticleWizard | date = August 2018 }} <!-- Write the text of your article belo...' |
Yiningning (talk | contribs) No edit summary Tags: use of predatory open access journal Visual edit |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
There are plentiful far-reaching reform movements in Chinese history, including economic, political and cultural impacts. It seems that a reform movement accompanies every change in the dynasty. There are different purposes for every reform movement for instance, enhancing majesty, relieving social conflicts and boosting economic development.{{User sandbox}} |
|||
{{User sandbox}} |
|||
<!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE --> |
<!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE --> |
||
{{New unreviewed article |
{{New unreviewed article |
||
| Line 9: | Line 9: | ||
== Shang Yang's Reform == |
== Shang Yang's Reform == |
||
==== |
==== Background ==== |
||
The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period were the transitional periods which experienced collapse of the feudalism system and the establishment of a centralized system .<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|title=SELECTED ARTICLES: Criticizing Lin Piao and Confucius.|last=Heng|first=Kao|publisher=Foreign Language Press|year=1974|location=Peking|pages=24-25|chapter=Western Chou Slovery Upheld by Confucius}}</ref>During this period, the use of iron farming tools and the gradual promotion of cattle farming led to that original state ownership of land gradually replaced by private ownership of land.<ref name=":02" /> Also, it caused two opposite classes----landlords and farmers. |
|||
As increase of the economic strength of the emerging landlord class, they require the political rights and it has caused changes in social position. Therefore, they have demanded political reforms, the development of feudal economy, and the establishment of rule of landlord class. Therefore Countries have started reform movements, such as the Li Yi reform in Wei State and the Wu Qi Reform in Chu State. In order to strengthen the power of the Qin State, Shang Yang started to reform in many aspects. |
|||
| ⚫ | |||
==== Measurement ==== |
|||
[[File:Statue_of_Shang_Yang.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_of_Shang_Yang.jpg|thumb|233x233px|Shang Yang's image]] |
|||
There are two stages, which have different measurements in the reform. |
|||
First stage |
|||
# Strict rule of law, all citizens whether aristocrats or commoners are equal.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/936371074|title=Staging China : new theatres in the twenty-first century|others=Li, Ruru,|isbn=9781137529442|location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire|oclc=936371074}}</ref>Even the emperor did not have privilege. |
|||
# Rewarding social rank or releasing from slavery, by farming or success in war.<ref name=":12" /> Slaves can get rid of slave status through military exploit. |
|||
# Dividing household into groups of five or ten.<ref name=":12" /> Each group response for behaviors of every member and directly controlled by local government which governors were nominated by emperor. |
|||
Second stage |
|||
# Abolishing well-field system, admitting private ownership and allowing free trade off.<ref name=":12" /> Buying and selling agricultural are permitted.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Sanft|first=Charles|date=2014|title=Shang Yang Was a Cooperator: Applying Axelrod's Analysis of Cooperation in Early China|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/536163|journal=Philosophy East and West|language=en|volume=64|issue=1|pages=174–191|doi=10.1353/pew.2014.0003|issn=1529-1898}}</ref> |
|||
# Implementing county class administration system.<ref name=":12" /> |
|||
# Moving capital to Xianyang and built palace.<ref name=":12" /> |
|||
# Unifying weights and measures.<ref name=":22" /> The weight and measures of the country has been standardized. |
|||
==== Influence ==== |
==== Influence ==== |
||
The influence of Shang Yang Reform on Qin and Qin Dynasty is very far-reaching. Shang Yang's reform is a successful reform in ancient China, not only for Qin and Qin dynasty but also entire Chinese history, especially in law aspect .<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Haitas|first=Daniel|date=2018|title=Shang Yang 商鞅 and Legalist 法家 Reform in the Ancient Chinese State of Qin 秦|url=https://doaj.org/article/1675416918714f20b18ef6ce5890255f|journal=Challenges of the Knowledge Society|volume=12|pages=524-531|via=DOAJ}}</ref> He made Qin become a powerful country and laid the foundation for the future reunification of the six countries, and determined the systematic change in legal system. <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/496094|title=The China Model|last=Bell|first=Daniel A.|date=2017-12-31|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400883486|location=Princeton|language=en|doi=10.1515/9781400883486}}</ref> |
|||
After the Shang Yang reform, it established the private ownership of land; politically, it has abolished the old system of bloodlines, improving country system. In addition, the construction of a centralized system has begun; militaryly, it has rewarded military power and achieved purpose of strong military which has greatly improved the combat effectiveness of the military and developed into the most powerful country in the later period of the Warring States<ref name=":32" />. It has created favorable conditions for Qin's next strategic development and is beneficial for unifying the country later. |
|||
| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | |||
==== |
==== Background ==== |
||
The Xianbei is an ancient northern nation in Chinese history. The Tuoba Department is a branch of the Xianbei in the eastern part of the Daxinganling Mountains.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1038708404|title=Political legitimacy in Chinese history: the case of the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-535)|last=1985-|first=Liu, Puning,|last2=1985-|first2=劉璞寧,|others=Ridderprint BV|isbn=9789462999367|location=[Netherlands]|oclc=1038708404}}</ref> The Tuoba Department continued to move south. In the Western Jin Dynasty, Tuoba department was enfeoffed a land, called Dai, which was rewards of helping emperor of Jin to fight against non-Chinese usurpers in 307.<ref name=":42" />But soon, they were destroyed the Former Qin Dynasty.<ref name=":42" /> |
|||
After the Battle of Feishui, the former Qin ruled the disintegration, Tuoba department reestablish their country and change the name to Northern Wei.<ref name=":42" /> They unified the North in 439.<ref name=":42" /> At that time, the Northern Wei Dynasty monarchs had attached great importance to the study of Han culture. Emperor Xiaowen was deeply influenced by the Han culture.<ref name=":42" /> |
|||
Around the middle period of the Northern Wei Dynasty, although the national contradictions have been gradually eased, due to the excessive exploitation and oppression of the ruling class, the class contradictions have become increasingly sharp. The peasant uprising broke out every year. In 471, Tuoba Hong became the Emperor named Xiaowen. Xiaowen emperor was rose up by his grandmother Empress Feng.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/41391|title=Food and interaction between Han and non-Han peoples during the Wei Jin Nan Bei Chao period|last=Jiang|first=Tianjiao|date=2016|website=Leiden University Repository|archive-url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/41391/Thesis%20final%20-%20Tianjiao%20Jiang.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref> He learned much knowledge of Han during his childhood.<ref name=":52" /> Since then, the peasant uprising has continued to increase, and the brutal suppression of the court has not only failed<ref name=":42" /> to calm the people's uprising, but has stimulated more contradictions and struggles. In order to alleviate social contradictions and ethnic contradictions, Emperor Xiaowen successively carried out a series of reforms, known as the reform of Emperor Xiaowen. He aimed to develop Xianbei’s economy, culture, society, politics and power strength.<ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|last=Gao|first=Xiaojun|date=2018|title=From the Margin to the Center: The Transformation of the Identity Discourse of Chinese Ethnic Minority Literature|url=http://file.scirp.org/Html/1-2820265_80808.htm|journal=Advances in Literary Study|language=en|volume=06|issue=01|pages=1–7|doi=10.4236/als.2018.61001|issn=2327-4034}}</ref> |
|||
==== Measurement ==== |
|||
# Official system: “officials were provided with salaries and the descendants of the tribal chiefs were fixed as lineages and became candidates for appointment as officials.”<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/41391|title=Food and interaction between Han and non-Han peoples during the Wei Jin Nan Bei Chao period|last=Jiang|first=Tianjiao|date=2016|website=Leiden University Repository|archive-url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/41391/Thesis%20final%20-%20Tianjiao%20Jiang.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref> |
|||
# Moving capital to Luoyang: in 494, Emperor Xiaowen moved their capital from Pingcheng to Luoyang.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hu|first=Alex J.|date=2010-02|title=An overview of the history and culture of the Xianbei (‘Monguor’/‘Tu’)|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/captchaChallenge?redirectUri=%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F14631360903531958|journal=Asian Ethnicity|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=95–164|doi=10.1080/14631360903531958|issn=1463-1369}}</ref> |
|||
# Changing last names to Han last name.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Gao|first=Xiaojun|date=2018|title=From the Margin to the Center: The Transformation of the Identity Discourse of Chinese Ethnic Minority Literature|url=http://file.scirp.org/Html/1-2820265_80808.htm|journal=Advances in Literary Study|language=en|volume=06|issue=01|pages=1–7|doi=10.4236/als.2018.61001|issn=2327-4034}}</ref> |
|||
# Learning Han language to integrating nationals especially between Han and Xianbei.<ref name=":6" /> |
|||
==== Influence ==== |
==== Influence ==== |
||
The reformation measures implemented by Emperor Xiaowen are conducive to easing class contradictions and playing a positive role in the recovery and development of the social economy. Because the Xianbei people did not have a high cultural literacy, and did not have independent political reform ideas, resulting in blindly copying the previous Han regime policy, it also inherited this gate system that has seriously affected social development. “The system was extended from Wei Jin to the Northern and Southern Dynasties until the Sui Dynasty established the imperial examination system. One of the reasons for the success of Emperor Xiaowen’s reform was that most of the Hu people were able to speak Chinese and wear Hanfu. They could only speak Hu language and wear Hufu. This reform only accelerated the process of customizing the customs. After reform, the control of emperor Xiaowen had been enhanced and he also contributed in integrating Han and Xianbei people.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Shangyi|last2=Xu|first2=Weilin|last3=Zhou|first3=Shangyi|last4=Xu|first4=Weilin|date=2018-06-22|title=Interpreting the Inheritance Mechanism of the Wu Yue Sacred Mountains in China Using Structuralist and Semiotic Approaches|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/7/2127|journal=Sustainability|language=en|volume=10|issue=7|pages=2127|doi=10.3390/su10072127}}</ref> |
|||
== Qingli Reforms == |
== Qingli Reforms == |
||
==== |
==== Background ==== |
||
==== |
==== Measurement ==== |
||
==== Influence ==== |
==== Influence ==== |
||
== The reforms of Wang Anshi == |
== The reforms of Wang Anshi == |
||
==== |
==== Background ==== |
||
The financial deficit forced the government to increase taxes. <ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Zhao|first=Xuan|last2=Drechsler|first2=Wolfgang|date=2018-01-04|title=Wang Anshi’s economic reforms: proto-Keynesian economic policy in Song Dynasty China|url=https://academic.oup.com/cje/article-abstract/42/5/1239/4788603?redirectedFrom=fulltext|journal=Cambridge Journal of Economics|language=en|volume=42|issue=5|pages=1239–1254|doi=10.1093/cje/bex087|issn=0309-166X}}</ref> In addition, there were a variety of taxes, which imposes a heavy burden on the people. Moreover, people suffered from wars and frequent natural disasters. There are constant complaints. The peasants have resisted for living. |
|||
At the same time, the intrusion of foreign enemies brought enormous survival pressure to Northern Song. After the establishing of the Northern Song Dynasty, it was not peaceful which caused many wars around frontier especially in northeastern and northwestern. Due to the political corruption in the Northern Song Dynasty and the weakness of the military, although it cost huge amounts of financial and human resources, it often ended in failure. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Song Dynasty Culture: Political Crisis and the Great Turn|last=Eno|first=R|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2008|location=Bloomington|pages=1-21}}</ref> |
|||
| ⚫ | |||
After the Song Emperor Shenzong took the throne, it seems that the Great Song Dynasty is flourishing; it actually contained contradictions and problems. Due to the serious land annexation phenomenon, a large number of peasants lost their land. It eventually resulted in a sharp drop in fiscal revenue. There was a rare fiscal deficit since the establishing of the country. Fiscal deficit in 1064 is 15,726,002.<ref name=":7" /> Under this circumstance, Wang Anshi tried to launch a reform to relieve it. Wang Anshi attempted to set a Confucian system to solve the fiscal deficit problem.<ref name=":7" /> |
|||
| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | |||
== Zhang Juzheng Reform == |
== Zhang Juzheng Reform == |
||
==== |
==== Background ==== |
||
==== |
==== Measurement ==== |
||
==== Influence ==== |
==== Influence ==== |
||
Revision as of 03:42, 19 October 2018
There are plentiful far-reaching reform movements in Chinese history, including economic, political and cultural impacts. It seems that a reform movement accompanies every change in the dynasty. There are different purposes for every reform movement for instance, enhancing majesty, relieving social conflicts and boosting economic development.
Template:New unreviewed article
Shang Yang's Reform
Background
The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period were the transitional periods which experienced collapse of the feudalism system and the establishment of a centralized system .[1]During this period, the use of iron farming tools and the gradual promotion of cattle farming led to that original state ownership of land gradually replaced by private ownership of land.[1] Also, it caused two opposite classes----landlords and farmers.
As increase of the economic strength of the emerging landlord class, they require the political rights and it has caused changes in social position. Therefore, they have demanded political reforms, the development of feudal economy, and the establishment of rule of landlord class. Therefore Countries have started reform movements, such as the Li Yi reform in Wei State and the Wu Qi Reform in Chu State. In order to strengthen the power of the Qin State, Shang Yang started to reform in many aspects.
Measurement
There are two stages, which have different measurements in the reform.
First stage
- Strict rule of law, all citizens whether aristocrats or commoners are equal.[2]Even the emperor did not have privilege.
- Rewarding social rank or releasing from slavery, by farming or success in war.[2] Slaves can get rid of slave status through military exploit.
- Dividing household into groups of five or ten.[2] Each group response for behaviors of every member and directly controlled by local government which governors were nominated by emperor.
Second stage
- Abolishing well-field system, admitting private ownership and allowing free trade off.[2] Buying and selling agricultural are permitted.[3]
- Implementing county class administration system.[2]
- Moving capital to Xianyang and built palace.[2]
- Unifying weights and measures.[3] The weight and measures of the country has been standardized.
Influence
The influence of Shang Yang Reform on Qin and Qin Dynasty is very far-reaching. Shang Yang's reform is a successful reform in ancient China, not only for Qin and Qin dynasty but also entire Chinese history, especially in law aspect .[4] He made Qin become a powerful country and laid the foundation for the future reunification of the six countries, and determined the systematic change in legal system. [5]
After the Shang Yang reform, it established the private ownership of land; politically, it has abolished the old system of bloodlines, improving country system. In addition, the construction of a centralized system has begun; militaryly, it has rewarded military power and achieved purpose of strong military which has greatly improved the combat effectiveness of the military and developed into the most powerful country in the later period of the Warring States[4]. It has created favorable conditions for Qin's next strategic development and is beneficial for unifying the country later.
Reform of Xiaowen emperor
Background
The Xianbei is an ancient northern nation in Chinese history. The Tuoba Department is a branch of the Xianbei in the eastern part of the Daxinganling Mountains.[6] The Tuoba Department continued to move south. In the Western Jin Dynasty, Tuoba department was enfeoffed a land, called Dai, which was rewards of helping emperor of Jin to fight against non-Chinese usurpers in 307.[6]But soon, they were destroyed the Former Qin Dynasty.[6]
After the Battle of Feishui, the former Qin ruled the disintegration, Tuoba department reestablish their country and change the name to Northern Wei.[6] They unified the North in 439.[6] At that time, the Northern Wei Dynasty monarchs had attached great importance to the study of Han culture. Emperor Xiaowen was deeply influenced by the Han culture.[6]
Around the middle period of the Northern Wei Dynasty, although the national contradictions have been gradually eased, due to the excessive exploitation and oppression of the ruling class, the class contradictions have become increasingly sharp. The peasant uprising broke out every year. In 471, Tuoba Hong became the Emperor named Xiaowen. Xiaowen emperor was rose up by his grandmother Empress Feng.[7] He learned much knowledge of Han during his childhood.[7] Since then, the peasant uprising has continued to increase, and the brutal suppression of the court has not only failed[6] to calm the people's uprising, but has stimulated more contradictions and struggles. In order to alleviate social contradictions and ethnic contradictions, Emperor Xiaowen successively carried out a series of reforms, known as the reform of Emperor Xiaowen. He aimed to develop Xianbei’s economy, culture, society, politics and power strength.[8]
Measurement
- Official system: “officials were provided with salaries and the descendants of the tribal chiefs were fixed as lineages and became candidates for appointment as officials.”[9]
- Moving capital to Luoyang: in 494, Emperor Xiaowen moved their capital from Pingcheng to Luoyang.[10]
- Changing last names to Han last name.[11]
- Learning Han language to integrating nationals especially between Han and Xianbei.[11]
Influence
The reformation measures implemented by Emperor Xiaowen are conducive to easing class contradictions and playing a positive role in the recovery and development of the social economy. Because the Xianbei people did not have a high cultural literacy, and did not have independent political reform ideas, resulting in blindly copying the previous Han regime policy, it also inherited this gate system that has seriously affected social development. “The system was extended from Wei Jin to the Northern and Southern Dynasties until the Sui Dynasty established the imperial examination system. One of the reasons for the success of Emperor Xiaowen’s reform was that most of the Hu people were able to speak Chinese and wear Hanfu. They could only speak Hu language and wear Hufu. This reform only accelerated the process of customizing the customs. After reform, the control of emperor Xiaowen had been enhanced and he also contributed in integrating Han and Xianbei people.[12]
Qingli Reforms
Background
Measurement
Influence
The reforms of Wang Anshi
Background
The financial deficit forced the government to increase taxes. [13] In addition, there were a variety of taxes, which imposes a heavy burden on the people. Moreover, people suffered from wars and frequent natural disasters. There are constant complaints. The peasants have resisted for living.
At the same time, the intrusion of foreign enemies brought enormous survival pressure to Northern Song. After the establishing of the Northern Song Dynasty, it was not peaceful which caused many wars around frontier especially in northeastern and northwestern. Due to the political corruption in the Northern Song Dynasty and the weakness of the military, although it cost huge amounts of financial and human resources, it often ended in failure. [14]
After the Song Emperor Shenzong took the throne, it seems that the Great Song Dynasty is flourishing; it actually contained contradictions and problems. Due to the serious land annexation phenomenon, a large number of peasants lost their land. It eventually resulted in a sharp drop in fiscal revenue. There was a rare fiscal deficit since the establishing of the country. Fiscal deficit in 1064 is 15,726,002.[13] Under this circumstance, Wang Anshi tried to launch a reform to relieve it. Wang Anshi attempted to set a Confucian system to solve the fiscal deficit problem.[13]
Measurement
Influence
Zhang Juzheng Reform
Background
Measurement
Influence
References
- ^ a b Heng, Kao (1974). "Western Chou Slovery Upheld by Confucius". SELECTED ARTICLES: Criticizing Lin Piao and Confucius. Peking: Foreign Language Press. pp. 24–25.
- ^ a b c d e f Staging China : new theatres in the twenty-first century. Li, Ruru,. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire. ISBN 9781137529442. OCLC 936371074.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ a b Sanft, Charles (2014). "Shang Yang Was a Cooperator: Applying Axelrod's Analysis of Cooperation in Early China". Philosophy East and West. 64 (1): 174–191. doi:10.1353/pew.2014.0003. ISSN 1529-1898.
- ^ a b Haitas, Daniel (2018). "Shang Yang 商鞅 and Legalist 法家 Reform in the Ancient Chinese State of Qin 秦". Challenges of the Knowledge Society. 12: 524–531 – via DOAJ.
- ^ Bell, Daniel A. (2017-12-31). The China Model. Princeton: Princeton University Press. doi:10.1515/9781400883486. ISBN 9781400883486.
- ^ a b c d e f g 1985-, Liu, Puning,; 1985-, 劉璞寧,. Political legitimacy in Chinese history: the case of the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-535). Ridderprint BV. [Netherlands]. ISBN 9789462999367. OCLC 1038708404.
{{cite book}}:|last=has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Jiang, Tianjiao (2016). "Food and interaction between Han and non-Han peoples during the Wei Jin Nan Bei Chao period" (PDF). Leiden University Repository (PDF).
{{cite web}}:|archive-url=requires|archive-date=(help) - ^ Gao, Xiaojun (2018). "From the Margin to the Center: The Transformation of the Identity Discourse of Chinese Ethnic Minority Literature". Advances in Literary Study. 06 (01): 1–7. doi:10.4236/als.2018.61001. ISSN 2327-4034.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Jiang, Tianjiao (2016). "Food and interaction between Han and non-Han peoples during the Wei Jin Nan Bei Chao period" (PDF). Leiden University Repository (PDF).
{{cite web}}:|archive-url=requires|archive-date=(help) - ^ Hu, Alex J. (2010-02). "An overview of the history and culture of the Xianbei ('Monguor'/'Tu')". Asian Ethnicity. 11 (1): 95–164. doi:10.1080/14631360903531958. ISSN 1463-1369.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b Gao, Xiaojun (2018). "From the Margin to the Center: The Transformation of the Identity Discourse of Chinese Ethnic Minority Literature". Advances in Literary Study. 06 (01): 1–7. doi:10.4236/als.2018.61001. ISSN 2327-4034.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Zhou, Shangyi; Xu, Weilin; Zhou, Shangyi; Xu, Weilin (2018-06-22). "Interpreting the Inheritance Mechanism of the Wu Yue Sacred Mountains in China Using Structuralist and Semiotic Approaches". Sustainability. 10 (7): 2127. doi:10.3390/su10072127.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ a b c Zhao, Xuan; Drechsler, Wolfgang (2018-01-04). "Wang Anshi's economic reforms: proto-Keynesian economic policy in Song Dynasty China". Cambridge Journal of Economics. 42 (5): 1239–1254. doi:10.1093/cje/bex087. ISSN 0309-166X.
- ^ Eno, R (2008). Song Dynasty Culture: Political Crisis and the Great Turn. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 1–21.