Gender expression: Difference between revisions
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{{merge to|Gender role|discuss=Talk:Gender role#Proposed merge with Gender expression|date=December 2018}} |
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A '''gender expression''' is a person's behavior, mannerisms, interests, and appearance that are associated with [[gender]] in a particular cultural context, specifically with the categories of [[femininity]] or [[masculinity]]. This also includes [[gender role]]s. These categories rely on [[stereotype]]s about gender. |
A '''gender expression''' is a person's behavior, mannerisms, interests, and appearance that are associated with [[gender]] in a particular cultural context, specifically with the categories of [[femininity]] or [[masculinity]]. This also includes [[gender role]]s. These categories rely on [[stereotype]]s about gender. |
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==Defining gender expression== |
==Defining gender expression== |
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Gender expression typically reflects a person's [[gender identity]] (their internal sense of their own gender), but this is not always the case.<ref name="Summers">{{cite book|last1=Summers|first1=Randal W.|title=Social Psychology: How Other People Influence Our Thoughts and Actions [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695923|page=232|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5nF1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA232}}</ref><ref name="APA2015">{{cite journal|author1=American Psychological Association|title=Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Transgender and Gender Nonconforming People|journal=American Psychologist|date=December 2015|volume=70|issue=9|page=861|url=http://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/transgender.pdf|doi=10.1037/a0039906}}</ref> Gender expression is separate and independent both from [[sexual orientation]] and [[Sex assignment|gender assigned at birth]]. A type of gender expression that is considered atypical for a person's externally perceived gender may be described as [[Gender variance|gender non-conforming]]. |
Gender expression typically reflects a person's [[gender identity]] (their internal sense of their own gender), but this is not always the case.<ref name="Summers">{{cite book|last1=Summers|first1=Randal W.|title=Social Psychology: How Other People Influence Our Thoughts and Actions [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695923|page=232|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5nF1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA232|language=en}}</ref><ref name="APA2015">{{cite journal|author1=American Psychological Association|title=Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Transgender and Gender Nonconforming People|journal=American Psychologist|date=December 2015|volume=70|issue=9|page=861|url=http://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/transgender.pdf|doi=10.1037/a0039906}}</ref> Gender expression is separate and independent both from [[sexual orientation]] and [[Sex assignment|gender assigned at birth]]. A type of gender expression that is considered atypical for a person's externally perceived gender may be described as [[Gender variance|gender non-conforming]]. |
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In men and boys, typical or masculine gender expression is often described as ''manly'', while atypical or feminine expression is known as [[Effeminacy|effeminate]]. In girls and young women, atypically masculine expression is called [[tomboy]]ish. In lesbian and queer women, masculine and feminine expressions are known as [[butch and femme]] respectively. A mixture of typical and atypical expression may be described as [[Androgyny|androgynous]]. A type of expression that is perceived as neither typically feminine or masculine can be described as gender-neutral or undifferentiated. |
In men and boys, typical or masculine gender expression is often described as ''manly'', while atypical or feminine expression is known as [[Effeminacy|effeminate]]. In girls and young women, atypically masculine expression is called [[tomboy]]ish. In lesbian and queer women, masculine and feminine expressions are known as [[butch and femme]] respectively. A mixture of typical and atypical expression may be described as [[Androgyny|androgynous]]. A type of expression that is perceived as neither typically feminine or masculine can be described as gender-neutral or undifferentiated. |
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==Evaluating gender expression== |
==Evaluating gender expression== |
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The [[Bem Sex-Role Inventory]] was designed to evaluate gender expression objectively (within a White American cultural context). |
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Gender expression is typically reliant upon how you present yourself to the public, whether that be extremely masculine, feminine, or somewhere in between. A study conducted in 2006 analyzed the experiences of [[transgender]] youth to find out more about their experiences with gender expression. Those conducting the study received input from 31 transgender young adults. The participants were asked to describe whether or not a series of statements pertaining to their gender expression applied to them when they were age 13 or younger. These statements consisted of wanting to be born the opposite sex, wearing clothing of the opposite sex, and describing themselves as more masculine, feminine, or [[Androgyny|androgynous]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Grossman|first=Arnold H.|last2=D'augelli|first2=Anthony R.|last3=Salter|first3=Nickolas P.|date=2006-01-04|title=Male-to-Female Transgender Youth|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1300/J461v02n01_04?needAccess=true|journal=Journal of GLBT Family Studies|volume=2|issue=1|pages=71–92|doi=10.1300/j461v02n01_04|issn=1550-428X}}</ref> They also asked about whether or not participants in the study planned to or already had taken hormones or had a surgical procedure to change parts of their bodies. All of these statements pertain to how gender expression can be evaluated on an individual basis.<ref name=":0" /> |
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A common tool for evaluating gender expression previous to the 1970s was called the Masculinity-Femininity Scale of the [[Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory]] (MMPI).<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Factor|first=Rhonda J.|last2=Rothblum|first2=Esther D.|date=2016-12-16|title=A Comparison of Trans Women, Trans Men, Genderqueer Individuals, and Cisgender Brothers and Sisters on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory: Ratings by Self and Siblings|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00918369.2016.1273717?needAccess=true|journal=Journal of Homosexuality|volume=64|issue=13|pages=1872–1889|doi=10.1080/00918369.2016.1273717|issn=0091-8369}}</ref> This test was created to assess whether an individual exhibited more masculine or feminine traits. Individuals were asked a series of true and false questions to determine where they stood on the scale of masculinity and femininity. However, the vast majority of the questions contained very stereotypical definitions of masculinity and femininity.<ref name=":1" /> With the wave of feminism throughout the United States in the 1970s, a new inventory was created, called the [[Bem Sex-Role Inventory]] (BSRI). The BSRI is a test in which an individual reports their personality traits and characteristics of themselves and the test then returns a score of how feminine, masculine, or androgynous you are.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|date=May 2017|title=Masculine and Feminine Traits on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, 1993-2012: a Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis|url=http://electra.lmu.edu:2048/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eft&AN=122896359&site=eds-live&scope=site|journal=Sex Roles|volume=76|issue=9-10|pages=556–565|doi=10.1007/s11199-016-0625-y}}</ref> A study conducted with college students between 1993 and 2012 shows the change in male and female scores on the BSRI. The study showed that women’s femininity scores decreased significantly, whereas their masculinity scores remained relatively the same. Additionally, men’s and women’s scores have become increasingly similar throughout the years.<ref name=":2" /> Some criticisms of the BSRI are that personality traits may not correspond to an individual’s actual behavior and that there is a lack of cultural sensitivity in the test questions.<ref name=":1" /> |
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== History == |
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Most of the history surrounding gender expression has been tied to the traditional ideals of feminine and masculine. [[Androgyny]] was something that wasn’t accepted in many Western countries, but there have been some cultures that have shown understandings of multiple genders and expressions.<ref name=":0">Drescher, Jack. “Queer Diagnoses: Parallels and Contrasts in the History of Homosexuality, |
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Gender Variance, and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual.” ''Archives of Sexual Behavior'', vol. 39, no. 2, 2009, pp. 427–460., doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9531-5. |
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https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-009-9531-5</ref> |
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For example, Native American and Polynesian societies had names for more than just male and female genders.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Third Sex, Third Gender: beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History.|last=Herdt|first=Gilbert|publisher=Zone Books|year=2003|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> Many Native American tribes recognized five genders; female, two spirit female, male, two spirit male, and transgender.<ref>Brayboy, Duane. “Two Spirits, One Heart, Five Genders.” ''IndianCountryToday.com'', Indian Country Today, 7 Sept. 2017, newsmaven.io/indiancountrytoday/archive/two-spirits-one-heart-five-genders-9UH_xnbfVEWQHWkjNn0rQQ/.</ref> Polynesian had a third gender called, “[[Fa'afafine|Fa’afafines]]”. Many anthropologists say that while sexuality made not have been as understood, gender identity and expression was. Feminine and masculine didn’t always apply to someone’s sex at birth.<ref name=":1" /> |
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In European cultures, straying outside of the gender expressions of masculine or feminine were stigmatized. Androgyny was seen as monstrous. People who strayed from traditional gender expressions were seen as deviant and often were highly sexualized. While it wasn’t accepted, it seems that people were aware of androgyny. Traces of it can be seen in art and culture, especially in ancient Greek and Roman societies. An example is [[Bacchus (Michelangelo)|Michelangelo’s ''Bacchus'']] which depicts [[Dionysus|Bacchus]], the Roman god of wine. The figure seems to be visibly drunk and his body is both masculine and feminine, and it was originally banned by the Cardinal.<ref name=":1" /> |
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Being aware didn’t mean that gender expression wasn’t criminalized. [[Cross-dressing|Crossdressing]] was banned in various countries.<ref name=":0" /> Even though historically, hermaphrodites were the closest understood example of varying gender identity and expression, they didn’t have the same rights. It was illegal in 1845 for [[hermaphrodite]]s to marry in South Carolina and this law remained for a while. Intersex individuals also couldn’t own land unless they presented themselves as more masculine. Often times, the government of judicial system choose whether intersex individuals would express themselves as male or female. Expressing yourself as both or somewhere in between was not allowed or really understood.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Katrina|first=Rose|date=2004|title=A History Of Gender Variance in Pre-20th Century Anglo-American Law.|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tjwl14&div=8&g_sent=1&casa_token=&collection=journals|journal=Texas Journal of Women and the Law|volume=14|pages=|via=}}</ref> |
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=== Thomas/Thomasine Hall === |
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One famous examples of an intersex man in American history is Thomas or [[Thomas(ine) Hall|Thomasine Hall]]. They were the first person to be declared neither male nor female by the court of Virginia in 1629. There is documentation that they also went back and forth between male and female throughout their lifetime. Thomas/Thomasine was raised female but expressed a male identity in order to serve in the military. Once they wanted to return to Plymouth, they changed their identity to female, but then went back to expressing themselves as more masculine to journey to Chesapeake in order to work as an indentured servant.<ref name=":2" /> |
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It was the earliest and largest case of a person not being defined as male or female. It also started to show society that gender expressions could vary. A person could go back and forth between male and female or identify as somewhere in between. Still, Thomas/Thomasine was not accepted, and people did not understand his identity. If he wasn't intersex, he would have faced more consequences.<ref name=":2" /> |
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=== Gender Roles and Expression === |
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Gender roles still affect society in large ways. Whether it is what shoes and clothes men and women should wear, if men should cry, and what jobs women should seek out. Many culture’s definition of masculine, feminine, and gender as still very black and white. Historically gender roles were even more intense. Women were supposed to be at home and raise children while men were supposed to provide for the family and show little emotion.<ref name=":0" /> Feminine men were seen as weak and strong women were ostracized. Many women were burned at the stake and accused of being witches during the 1692 [[Salem witch trials|Salem Witch Trials]]. These women were seen as masculine and strong and were punished because of it.<ref>Colburn, Josephine. “Gender and the Salem Witchcraft Trials.” ''Western Oregon University'', 2012. http://www.wou.edu/history/files/2015/08/Colburn-Josephine1.pdf</ref> |
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Historically homosexual men were seen as more feminine, and people explained this shift from how men were supposed to behave by saying that gay men has different brains. Sexuality and gender expression were seen as the same thing. If you didn’t behave as extremely masculine you were assumed to be gay.<ref name=":0" /> In the 1970s homosexuality laws made it illegal for doctors to say that patients who displayed gender variance suffered from mental illness. This US law started to get rid of the connection between sexuality and gender expression, but the stigma is still a common misconception today.<ref name=":2" /> |
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== References == |
== References == |
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== Bibliography == |
== Bibliography == |
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* Brayboy, Duane. “Two Spirits, One Heart, Five Genders.” ''IndianCountryToday.com'', Indian Country Today, 7 Sept. 2017, newsmaven.io/indiancountrytoday/archive/two-spirits-one-heart-five-genders-9UH_xnbfVEWQHWkjNn0rQQ/. |
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*Colburn, Josephine. “Gender and the Salem Witchcraft Trials.” ''Western Oregon University'', 2012. |
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*Drescher, Jack. “Queer Diagnoses: Parallels and Contrasts in the History of Homosexuality, Gender Variance, and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual.” ''Archives of Sexual Behavior'', vol. 39, no. 2, 2009, pp. 427–460., doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9531-5. |
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*Herdt, Gilbert H. ''Third Sex, Third Gender: beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History''. Zone Books, 2003. |
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*Rose, Katrina c. “A History Of Gender Variance in Pre-20th Century Anglo-American Law.” ''Texas Journal of Women and the Law'', vol. 14, 2004. |
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== External links == |
== External links == |
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[[Category:Gender studies]] |
[[Category:Gender studies]] |
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[[Category:Discrimination]] |
[[Category:Discrimination]] |
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{{gender-stub}} |
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Revision as of 21:38, 26 March 2019
 | It has been suggested that this article be merged into Gender role. (Discuss) Proposed since December 2018. |
A gender expression is a person's behavior, mannerisms, interests, and appearance that are associated with gender in a particular cultural context, specifically with the categories of femininity or masculinity. This also includes gender roles. These categories rely on stereotypes about gender.
Defining gender expression
Gender expression typically reflects a person's gender identity (their internal sense of their own gender), but this is not always the case.[1][2] Gender expression is separate and independent both from sexual orientation and gender assigned at birth. A type of gender expression that is considered atypical for a person's externally perceived gender may be described as gender non-conforming.
In men and boys, typical or masculine gender expression is often described as manly, while atypical or feminine expression is known as effeminate. In girls and young women, atypically masculine expression is called tomboyish. In lesbian and queer women, masculine and feminine expressions are known as butch and femme respectively. A mixture of typical and atypical expression may be described as androgynous. A type of expression that is perceived as neither typically feminine or masculine can be described as gender-neutral or undifferentiated.
The term gender expression is used in the Yogyakarta Principles, which concern the application of international human rights law in relation to sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression and sex characteristics.[3]
Evaluating gender expression
The Bem Sex-Role Inventory was designed to evaluate gender expression objectively (within a White American cultural context).
References
- ^ Summers, Randal W. (2016). Social Psychology: How Other People Influence Our Thoughts and Actions [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 232. ISBN 9781610695923.
- ^ American Psychological Association (December 2015). "Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Transgender and Gender Nonconforming People" (PDF). American Psychologist. 70 (9): 861. doi:10.1037/a0039906.
- ^ Yogyakarta Principles plus 10
Bibliography
- Serano, Julia (2016). Whipping Girl: A transsexual woman on sexism and the scapegoating of femininity (2nd ed.), Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.
External links
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