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==Religious Fertility Effect==
==Religious Fertility Effect==
Religiosity and fertility are two sociological factors which can be seen to have influence over each other with fertility rates, fertility decisions and other reproductive behaviours and attitudes differing amongst people of various religious and non-religious groups.
Introduction & Summary of sections

__TOC__
__TOC__
==Fertility Rates==
==Fertility Rates==
Studies from the 50s and 60s reported higher fertility in Catholics compared to other religious and non-religious groups in Western countries <ref>Jones, G.W. and Nortman, D. 1968 ‘Roman Catholic Fertility and Family Planning: A Comparative Review of the Research Literature’. ''Studies in Family Planning'', 1: 1–27. </ref>. The prohibition of contraception by the Church was the main contributor to this. However, by the 70s these differences amongst religious groups had, for the most part, disappeared <ref>Derosas, R. and van Poppel, F.W.A. 2006 ''Religion and the Decline of Fertility in the Western World''. Springer: Dordrecht. </ref> <ref>Westoff, C.F. and Jones, E.F. 1979 ‘The End of “Catholic” Fertility’. ''Demography'', 16: 209–17.
Comparison of fertility rates amongst religious and non-religious groups as well as religious value-based behaviors and attitudes that impact this


Yusuf, J. B. (2014). Contraception and Sexual and Reproductive Awareness Among Ghanaian Muslim Youth: Issues, Challenges, and Prospects for Positive Development. ''SAGE Open''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014541771</nowiki></ref>, whilst the gap between the religious and non-religious remained <ref>Philipov, D. and Berghammer, C. 2007 ‘Religion and Fertility Ideals, Intentions and Behaviour: A Comparative Study of European Countries’. ''Vienna Yearbook of Population Research'', 5: 271–305.</ref>.
==='''Current Rates'''===

Another study from 1996 found that when individuals marry within their religious groups, fertility rates and family size is found to be larger. This was concluded to be a result of the bargaining effect and marital stability effect, where partners are likely to have matching preferences regarding fertility decisions and are less likely to separate (especially in the context of religious households). <ref>Lehrer, E. (2009). R''eligion, economics, and demography: the effects of religion on education, work, and the family''. London: Routledge. [[International Standard Book Number|''ISBN'']] ''[[Special%3ABookSources/9781135990664|9781135990664]].''</ref>

Further studies in Western countries from the late 2000s report clear differences in fertility rates by religious intensity. This intensity was determined by church attendance rates as well as self-reported religiosity.<ref>Philipov, D. and Berghammer, C. 2007 ‘Religion and Fertility Ideals, Intentions and Behaviour: A Comparative Study of European Countries’. ''Vienna Yearbook of Population Research'', 5: 271–305.</ref> <ref>Zhang, L. 2008 ‘Religious Affiliation, Religiosity and Male and Female Fertility’. ''Demographic Research'', 18: 233–62. </ref>

In comparison to other religious groups in Europe, Muslims families have more children, but a convergence over time is evident, reflecting the impact of social and cultural factors over religious ones.<ref>Pew Research Center 2011 ''The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Projections for 2010–2030''. Pew Research Center: Washington, DC</ref> <ref>Westoff, C.F. and Frejka, T. 2007 ‘Religiousness and Fertility among European Muslims’. ''Population and Development Review'', 33: 785–809. </ref>.This trend was also observed in Muslim majority countries by Abbasi-Shavazi and Jones (2005)<ref>Abbasi-Shavazi, M.J. and Jones, G.W. 2005 ‘Socio-economic and Demographic Setting of Muslim Populations’. In: Jones, G.W. and Karim, M.S. (eds) ''Islam, the State and Population'', pp. 9–39. Hurst and Co.: London. </ref> and Abbasi-Shavazi and Torabi (2012)<ref>Abbasi-Shavazi, M.J. and Torabi, F. 2012 ‘Women’s Education and Fertility in Islamic Countries’. In: ''Population Dynamics in Muslim Countries'', pp. 43–62. Springer: Dordrecht</ref> who also argue that this could be explained, for the most part, by socio-economic and cultural factors. ''' '''

Fertility trends globally have historically shown lower rates of fertility a characteristic of more developed countries, whilst higher rates of fertility are common amongst less developed and developing countries'''.''' <ref>Lutz, W., Butz, W., & KC, S. (2014). ''World population and human capital in the twenty-first century ed. by Wolfgang Lutz, William P. Butz and Samir KC'' (pp. 40-145). Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> However, this has found to not always the case, especially where religious intensity is prevalent. For example, in Israel, a society that exhibits higher levels of development and affluence than many in Europe and East Asia, continues to show high fertility and high fertility intentions, with the period Total Fertility Rate (TFR) averaging 3.0 since the 80s <ref>CBS 2011 ''Statistical Abstract of Israel'' ''2011''. Chapter 3: Vital Statistics (No. 62). The Central Bureau of Statistics: Jerusalem. </ref>. In addition to pro-natalist policies, religious diversity and intensity has sustained these rates. Some population subgroups, especially the ‘ultra-religious’ Jews, maintain traditional values in tandem with very high fertility <ref>Bystrov, E. 2012 ‘The Second Demographic Transition in Israel: One for All?’ ''Demographic Research'', 27: 261–98</ref><ref>DellaPergola, S. 2007 ‘Actual, Intended, and Appropriate Family Size in Israel: Trends, Attitudes and Policy Implications: A Preliminary Report’. Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry: Jerusalem.</ref>


==='''Outlook/Projections'''===
==='''Outlook/Projections'''===


Slowing impact of religiosity. Whilst many countries that historically had strong religious convictions as major source that drove high rates of fertility and influenced fertility decisions, many are beginning to decline. Additionally, the characterisation of low fertility is no longer held exclusively by richer Western countries. <ref>Lutz, W., Butz, W., & KC, S. (2014). ''World population and human capital in the twenty-first century ed. by Wolfgang Lutz, William P. Butz and Samir KC'' (pp. 40-145). Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>
Projected fertility rates/population as well as any changing levels of impact religion has on fertility i.e. changes in how followers allow religion to guide their actions


In some contexts, religious fertility differences have a crucial impact on the future religious composition of a population <ref>Hout, M., Greeley, A. and Wilde, M.J. 2001 ‘The Demographic Imperative in Religious Change in the United States’. ''American Journal of Sociology'', 107: 468– 500</ref><ref>Kaufmann, E. 2010 ''Shall the Religious Inherit the Earth? Demography and Politics in the Twenty-First Century''. Profile Books: London. </ref><ref>Skirbekk, V., Kaufmann, E. and Goujon, A. 2010 ‘Secularism, Fundamentalism, or Catholicism? The Religious Composition of the United States to 2043’. ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'', 49: 293–310.</ref>. With the behaviours and attitudes of religious groups in regard to fertility decisions, for example the use contraception and abortion, the erosion of religion should have a negative effect on fertility, but with secular countries such as Sweden and France still displaying higher fertility rates and vice versa with countries like China, Brazil and Iran also joining the growing list of low fertility countries; <ref>Lutz, W., Butz, W., & KC, S. (2014). ''World population and human capital in the twenty-first century ed. by Wolfgang Lutz, William P. Butz and Samir KC'' (pp. 40-145). Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> suggesting that the link may be more complex, especially when attempting to forecast future rates of fertility against religiosity amongst religious and non-religious groups and countries.
==Family Structure==
The impact of religion on family structures and in-turn its impact on fertility rates


==Contraception==
==Contraception==
The Catholic Church opposed artificial birth control as early as can historically trace. Most Protestant groups on the other hand have come to accept birth control on the basis of “Biblically allowable freedom of conscience” <ref>Campbell, Flann (Nov 1960). "Birth Control and the Christian Churches". ''Population Studies''. Population Investigation Committee. '''14''' (2): 131–147. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.2307/2172010. [[JSTOR]] 2172010.</ref>'''.''' However, other groups believe birth control to promote promiscuous behaviour outside of marriage. <ref>Citizen Link (2005). ''"Abstinence Policy"the original. Retrieved 2019-5-23''</ref>
The differing perceptions and attitudes towards contraception and their use

The Qur'an does not discuss the morality of contraception, however, it does encourage procreation. <ref name=":0">Yusuf, J. B. (2014). Contraception and Sexual and Reproductive Awareness Among Ghanaian Muslim Youth: Issues, Challenges, and Prospects for Positive Development. ''SAGE Open''. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014541771</nowiki></ref> The Coitus interruptus method of birth control, was practiced during the time of Muhammad and he never explicitly opposed it. <ref name=":0" /><ref>Contraception: Permissible?. (2010). ''Living Shari`Ah''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://archive.islamonline.net/?p=1000</nowiki></ref> On the basis of this, Modern day scholars permit other forms of contraception, as long as both parties consent, it does not cause permanent sterility and does not cause harm to the body. <ref name=":0" />

In Hinduism, texts such as The Mahabharata state that the termination of an embryo is sinful. <ref>Mahabharata (p. Section LXXXIII).</ref> However, other texts such as The Dharma explains it violates the Ahimsa (nonviolent rule of conduct) when conceiving more than can be supported violates. <ref>Stacey, D. (2019). What Are Religious Views on Birth Control?. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-are-religious-views-on-birth-control-906618</nowiki></ref> This is particularly evident in India, where such a large and dense population, has resulted in much of the discussion of contraception focusing on overpopulation personal and religious morals and ethics.<ref>BBC - Religions - Hinduism: Contraception. (2009). ''BBC- Religion and Ethics.'' Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/hinduethics/contraception.shtml</nowiki></ref>

Jewish views on contraception depend on the branch followed, i.e. Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. Orthodox Jews only consider acceptable under specific circumstances, such as if the couple already has two children. Conservative Judaism encourages traditional views and morals regarding contraception, however, is willing to make exceptions on the grounds of fitting into the practices of modern Western society. ''' '''Reform Judaism permits individual followers exercise their own judgment on if and how they use birth control.<ref>BBC - Religions - Judaism: Contraception. (2009). ''BBC- Religion and Ethics.'' Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/jewishethics/contraception.shtml</nowiki></ref>

Attitudes towards contraception in Buddhism are founded on the idea that killing is wrong. It is commonly viewed that methods that prevent conception are permissible whilst methods that stop the development of a fertilised egg is not.<ref>BBC - Religions - Buddhism: Contraception. (2009). ''BBC- Religion and Ethics.'' Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/buddhistethics/contraception.shtml</nowiki></ref>

==Abortion==
Christianity: There is no explicit prohibition of abortion in the "Old" or "New Testament" in the Christian Bible.<ref>Luker, K. (1985). ''Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood'' (pp. 184-185). Los Angeles: University of California Press.</ref>

Other than indirect abortion,<ref>Kaczor, C. (2015). ''The ethics of abortion : women's rights, human life, and the question of justice'' (2nd ed., p. 187). New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.</ref> deliberate abortion is viewed as immoral and strongly opposed by the Catholic,<ref>Pius XII (1951). Allocution to Large Families.. Vatican: Pius XII</ref> Eastern Orthodox <ref>''"The Orthodox Perspective on Abortion at the occasion of the National Sanctity of Human Life Day 2009".'' Retrieved 2019-5-20</ref>, Oriental Orthodox and most evangelical Protestant churches. Whilst other mainline Protestant groups are more accepting of the practice. <ref>The Office of the General Assembly Presbyterian Church (U.S.A. (1992). ''Special Committee on Problem Pregnancies and Abortion''. Louisville: Office of the General Assembly Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.pcusa.org/site_media/media/uploads/oga/pdf/problem-pregnancies.pdf</nowiki></ref>

Whilst there are differing opinions, the general consensus regarding the termination of a pregnancy in Islam is before 120 days – the point after which the fetus is believed to become a living a soul according.<ref name=":1">Pew Forum. (2013). ''Religious Groups’ Official Positions on Abortion''. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.pewforum.org/2013/01/16/religious-groups-official-positions-on-abortion/</nowiki></ref>

Abortion is not explicitly mentioned in the sacred Islam text, the Qur’an, however, intentional murder is condemned. In all schools of Islamic thought, it is permissible in order to save a mother’s life.<ref>BBC - Religions - Islam: Abortion. (2008). ''BBC – Religion and Ethics.'' Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/abortion_1.shtml</nowiki></ref>

Abortion is strongly opposed in the classical texts of Hinduism. Additionally, scholars and women's rights advocates have given support to banning sex-selective abortions, due to the prevalence of abortion in Hindu culture in India where the cultural preference for sons overrules the religious ban on abortion. However, cases where the life of the mother is at risk or life-threatening developmental anomaly occur in the foetus it is supported.<ref>BBC - Religions - Hinduism: Abortion. (2006). ''BBC – Religion and Ethics.'' Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/hinduethics/abortion_1.shtml</nowiki></ref>

In Judaism, the Talmud, responsa and rabbinic literature are referred to when dealing with the issue of abortion.

Orthodox Jews only permit abortion when the life or health of the pregnant woman is at risk.<ref>Bank, R. (2002). ''The everything Judaism book'' (p. 186). Avon, Mass.: Adams Media.</ref> Whilst other denominations support the right for safe and accessible abortions.<ref name=":1" />

No official view in regard to abortion exists in Buddhism, this is further complicated by the belief that there is no single starting point in a life.<ref>BBC - Religions - Buddhism: Abortion. (2009). ''BBC- Religion and Ethics.'' Retrieved from <nowiki>http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/buddhistethics/abortion.shtml</nowiki></ref> <ref>Keown, D. (2009). Buddhism and Abortion. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.patheos.com/resources/additional-resources/2009/08/buddhism-and-abortion</nowiki></ref> Additionally, the Dalai Lama has commented on the issue as “negative” but should be considered on a case by case situation under certain circumstances. <ref>Dreifus, C. (1993). The New York Times. ''The Dalai Lama''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.nytimes.com/1993/11/28/magazine/the-dalai-lama.html</nowiki></ref>


==Sources==
==Sources==

Revision as of 12:49, 23 May 2019

Religious Fertility Effect

Religiosity and fertility are two sociological factors which can be seen to have influence over each other with fertility rates, fertility decisions and other reproductive behaviours and attitudes differing amongst people of various religious and non-religious groups.

Fertility Rates

Studies from the 50s and 60s reported higher fertility in Catholics compared to other religious and non-religious groups in Western countries [1]. The prohibition of contraception by the Church was the main contributor to this. However, by the 70s these differences amongst religious groups had, for the most part, disappeared [2] [3], whilst the gap between the religious and non-religious remained [4].

Another study from 1996 found that when individuals marry within their religious groups, fertility rates and family size is found to be larger. This was concluded to be a result of the bargaining effect and marital stability effect, where partners are likely to have matching preferences regarding fertility decisions and are less likely to separate (especially in the context of religious households). [5]

Further studies in Western countries from the late 2000s report clear differences in fertility rates by religious intensity. This intensity was determined by church attendance rates as well as self-reported religiosity.[6] [7]

In comparison to other religious groups in Europe, Muslims families have more children, but a convergence over time is evident, reflecting the impact of social and cultural factors over religious ones.[8] [9].This trend was also observed in Muslim majority countries by Abbasi-Shavazi and Jones (2005)[10] and Abbasi-Shavazi and Torabi (2012)[11] who also argue that this could be explained, for the most part, by socio-economic and cultural factors.  

Fertility trends globally have historically shown lower rates of fertility a characteristic of more developed countries, whilst higher rates of fertility are common amongst less developed and developing countries. [12] However, this has found to not always the case, especially where religious intensity is prevalent. For example, in Israel, a society that exhibits higher levels of development and affluence than many in Europe and East Asia, continues to show high fertility and high fertility intentions, with the period Total Fertility Rate (TFR) averaging 3.0 since the 80s [13]. In addition to pro-natalist policies, religious diversity and intensity has sustained these rates. Some population subgroups, especially the ‘ultra-religious’ Jews, maintain traditional values in tandem with very high fertility [14][15]

Outlook/Projections

Slowing impact of religiosity. Whilst many countries that historically had strong religious convictions as major source that drove high rates of fertility and influenced fertility decisions, many are beginning to decline. Additionally, the characterisation of low fertility is no longer held exclusively by richer Western countries. [16]

In some contexts, religious fertility differences have a crucial impact on the future religious composition of a population [17][18][19]. With the behaviours and attitudes of religious groups in regard to fertility decisions, for example the use contraception and abortion, the erosion of religion should have a negative effect on fertility, but with secular countries such as Sweden and France still displaying higher fertility rates and vice versa with countries like China, Brazil and Iran also joining the growing list of low fertility countries; [20] suggesting that the link may be more complex, especially when attempting to forecast future rates of fertility against religiosity amongst religious and non-religious groups and countries.

Contraception

The Catholic Church opposed artificial birth control as early as can historically trace. Most Protestant groups on the other hand have come to accept birth control on the basis of “Biblically allowable freedom of conscience” [21]. However, other groups believe birth control to promote promiscuous behaviour outside of marriage. [22]

The Qur'an does not discuss the morality of contraception, however, it does encourage procreation. [23] The Coitus interruptus method of birth control, was practiced during the time of Muhammad and he never explicitly opposed it. [23][24] On the basis of this, Modern day scholars permit other forms of contraception, as long as both parties consent, it does not cause permanent sterility and does not cause harm to the body. [23]

In Hinduism, texts such as The Mahabharata state that the termination of an embryo is sinful. [25] However, other texts such as The Dharma explains it violates the Ahimsa (nonviolent rule of conduct) when conceiving more than can be supported violates. [26] This is particularly evident in India, where such a large and dense population, has resulted in much of the discussion of contraception focusing on overpopulation personal and religious morals and ethics.[27]

Jewish views on contraception depend on the branch followed, i.e. Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. Orthodox Jews only consider acceptable under specific circumstances, such as if the couple already has two children. Conservative Judaism encourages traditional views and morals regarding contraception, however, is willing to make exceptions on the grounds of fitting into the practices of modern Western society.  Reform Judaism permits individual followers exercise their own judgment on if and how they use birth control.[28]

Attitudes towards contraception in Buddhism are founded on the idea that killing is wrong. It is commonly viewed that methods that prevent conception are permissible whilst methods that stop the development of a fertilised egg is not.[29]

Abortion

Christianity: There is no explicit prohibition of abortion in the "Old" or "New Testament" in the Christian Bible.[30]

Other than indirect abortion,[31] deliberate abortion is viewed as immoral and strongly opposed by the Catholic,[32] Eastern Orthodox [33], Oriental Orthodox and most evangelical Protestant churches. Whilst other mainline Protestant groups are more accepting of the practice. [34]

Whilst there are differing opinions, the general consensus regarding the termination of a pregnancy in Islam is before 120 days – the point after which the fetus is believed to become a living a soul according.[35]

Abortion is not explicitly mentioned in the sacred Islam text, the Qur’an, however, intentional murder is condemned. In all schools of Islamic thought, it is permissible in order to save a mother’s life.[36]

Abortion is strongly opposed in the classical texts of Hinduism. Additionally, scholars and women's rights advocates have given support to banning sex-selective abortions, due to the prevalence of abortion in Hindu culture in India where the cultural preference for sons overrules the religious ban on abortion. However, cases where the life of the mother is at risk or life-threatening developmental anomaly occur in the foetus it is supported.[37]

In Judaism, the Talmud, responsa and rabbinic literature are referred to when dealing with the issue of abortion.

Orthodox Jews only permit abortion when the life or health of the pregnant woman is at risk.[38] Whilst other denominations support the right for safe and accessible abortions.[35]

No official view in regard to abortion exists in Buddhism, this is further complicated by the belief that there is no single starting point in a life.[39] [40] Additionally, the Dalai Lama has commented on the issue as “negative” but should be considered on a case by case situation under certain circumstances. [41]

Sources

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

  1. ^ Jones, G.W. and Nortman, D. 1968 ‘Roman Catholic Fertility and Family Planning: A Comparative Review of the Research Literature’. Studies in Family Planning, 1: 1–27.
  2. ^ Derosas, R. and van Poppel, F.W.A. 2006 Religion and the Decline of Fertility in the Western World. Springer: Dordrecht.
  3. ^ Westoff, C.F. and Jones, E.F. 1979 ‘The End of “Catholic” Fertility’. Demography, 16: 209–17. Yusuf, J. B. (2014). Contraception and Sexual and Reproductive Awareness Among Ghanaian Muslim Youth: Issues, Challenges, and Prospects for Positive Development. SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014541771
  4. ^ Philipov, D. and Berghammer, C. 2007 ‘Religion and Fertility Ideals, Intentions and Behaviour: A Comparative Study of European Countries’. Vienna Yearbook of Population Research, 5: 271–305.
  5. ^ Lehrer, E. (2009). Religion, economics, and demography: the effects of religion on education, work, and the family. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781135990664.
  6. ^ Philipov, D. and Berghammer, C. 2007 ‘Religion and Fertility Ideals, Intentions and Behaviour: A Comparative Study of European Countries’. Vienna Yearbook of Population Research, 5: 271–305.
  7. ^ Zhang, L. 2008 ‘Religious Affiliation, Religiosity and Male and Female Fertility’. Demographic Research, 18: 233–62.
  8. ^ Pew Research Center 2011 The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Projections for 2010–2030. Pew Research Center: Washington, DC
  9. ^ Westoff, C.F. and Frejka, T. 2007 ‘Religiousness and Fertility among European Muslims’. Population and Development Review, 33: 785–809.
  10. ^ Abbasi-Shavazi, M.J. and Jones, G.W. 2005 ‘Socio-economic and Demographic Setting of Muslim Populations’. In: Jones, G.W. and Karim, M.S. (eds) Islam, the State and Population, pp. 9–39. Hurst and Co.: London.
  11. ^ Abbasi-Shavazi, M.J. and Torabi, F. 2012 ‘Women’s Education and Fertility in Islamic Countries’. In: Population Dynamics in Muslim Countries, pp. 43–62. Springer: Dordrecht
  12. ^ Lutz, W., Butz, W., & KC, S. (2014). World population and human capital in the twenty-first century ed. by Wolfgang Lutz, William P. Butz and Samir KC (pp. 40-145). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  13. ^ CBS 2011 Statistical Abstract of Israel 2011. Chapter 3: Vital Statistics (No. 62). The Central Bureau of Statistics: Jerusalem.
  14. ^ Bystrov, E. 2012 ‘The Second Demographic Transition in Israel: One for All?’ Demographic Research, 27: 261–98
  15. ^ DellaPergola, S. 2007 ‘Actual, Intended, and Appropriate Family Size in Israel: Trends, Attitudes and Policy Implications: A Preliminary Report’. Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry: Jerusalem.
  16. ^ Lutz, W., Butz, W., & KC, S. (2014). World population and human capital in the twenty-first century ed. by Wolfgang Lutz, William P. Butz and Samir KC (pp. 40-145). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  17. ^ Hout, M., Greeley, A. and Wilde, M.J. 2001 ‘The Demographic Imperative in Religious Change in the United States’. American Journal of Sociology, 107: 468– 500
  18. ^ Kaufmann, E. 2010 Shall the Religious Inherit the Earth? Demography and Politics in the Twenty-First Century. Profile Books: London.
  19. ^ Skirbekk, V., Kaufmann, E. and Goujon, A. 2010 ‘Secularism, Fundamentalism, or Catholicism? The Religious Composition of the United States to 2043’. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 49: 293–310.
  20. ^ Lutz, W., Butz, W., & KC, S. (2014). World population and human capital in the twenty-first century ed. by Wolfgang Lutz, William P. Butz and Samir KC (pp. 40-145). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  21. ^ Campbell, Flann (Nov 1960). "Birth Control and the Christian Churches". Population Studies. Population Investigation Committee. 14 (2): 131–147. doi:10.2307/2172010. JSTOR 2172010.
  22. ^ Citizen Link (2005). "Abstinence Policy"the original. Retrieved 2019-5-23
  23. ^ a b c Yusuf, J. B. (2014). Contraception and Sexual and Reproductive Awareness Among Ghanaian Muslim Youth: Issues, Challenges, and Prospects for Positive Development. SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014541771
  24. ^ Contraception: Permissible?. (2010). Living Shari`Ah. Retrieved from https://archive.islamonline.net/?p=1000
  25. ^ Mahabharata (p. Section LXXXIII).
  26. ^ Stacey, D. (2019). What Are Religious Views on Birth Control?. Retrieved from https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-are-religious-views-on-birth-control-906618
  27. ^ BBC - Religions - Hinduism: Contraception. (2009). BBC- Religion and Ethics. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/hinduethics/contraception.shtml
  28. ^ BBC - Religions - Judaism: Contraception. (2009). BBC- Religion and Ethics. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/jewishethics/contraception.shtml
  29. ^ BBC - Religions - Buddhism: Contraception. (2009). BBC- Religion and Ethics. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/buddhistethics/contraception.shtml
  30. ^ Luker, K. (1985). Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (pp. 184-185). Los Angeles: University of California Press.
  31. ^ Kaczor, C. (2015). The ethics of abortion : women's rights, human life, and the question of justice (2nd ed., p. 187). New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
  32. ^ Pius XII (1951). Allocution to Large Families.. Vatican: Pius XII
  33. ^ "The Orthodox Perspective on Abortion at the occasion of the National Sanctity of Human Life Day 2009". Retrieved 2019-5-20
  34. ^ The Office of the General Assembly Presbyterian Church (U.S.A. (1992). Special Committee on Problem Pregnancies and Abortion. Louisville: Office of the General Assembly Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). Retrieved from https://www.pcusa.org/site_media/media/uploads/oga/pdf/problem-pregnancies.pdf
  35. ^ a b Pew Forum. (2013). Religious Groups’ Official Positions on Abortion. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from https://www.pewforum.org/2013/01/16/religious-groups-official-positions-on-abortion/
  36. ^ BBC - Religions - Islam: Abortion. (2008). BBC – Religion and Ethics. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/abortion_1.shtml
  37. ^ BBC - Religions - Hinduism: Abortion. (2006). BBC – Religion and Ethics. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/hinduethics/abortion_1.shtml
  38. ^ Bank, R. (2002). The everything Judaism book (p. 186). Avon, Mass.: Adams Media.
  39. ^ BBC - Religions - Buddhism: Abortion. (2009). BBC- Religion and Ethics. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/buddhistethics/abortion.shtml
  40. ^ Keown, D. (2009). Buddhism and Abortion. Retrieved from https://www.patheos.com/resources/additional-resources/2009/08/buddhism-and-abortion
  41. ^ Dreifus, C. (1993). The New York Times. The Dalai Lama. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/1993/11/28/magazine/the-dalai-lama.html
  42. ^ Lehrer, Evelyn (2009). Religion, economics, and demography: the effects of religion on education, work, and the family. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781135990664.
  43. ^ Marsh, Margaret, Ronner, Wanda (2008). The fertility doctor: John Rock and the reproductive revolution. Baltimore, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ Wolfgang Lutz, William P. Butz, and Samir KC (2014). World population and human capital in the twenty-first century. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198703167.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ Zhang, Li (2008). "Religious affiliation, religiosity, and male and female fertility". Demographic Research. 18: 233–262.
  46. ^ Goldscheider, C., & Mosher, W. (1991). "Patterns of Contraceptive Use in the United States: The Importance of Religious Factors". Studies in Family Planning. 22(2): 102–115.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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