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==Meaning==
==Meaning==
Human–wildlife conflict is defined by the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF) as "any interaction between humans and wildlife that results in negative impacts on human social, economic or cultural life, on the conservation of wildlife populations, or on the environment.Fund for Nature Southern African Regional Programme Office . The ''Creating Co-existence'' workshop at the 5th Annual World Parks Congress (8–17 September 2003, Montreal) defined human-wildlife conflict in the context of human goals and animal needs as follows:<ref name="Madden,2004">{{cite journal|author=Madden, Francine|year=2004| journal=Human Dimensions of Wildlife| volume=9 |issue=4| pages=247–257 |publisher=Taylor & Francis Inc. | title=Creating Coexistence between Humans and Wildlife: Global Perspectives on Local Efforts to Address Human–Wildlife Conflict | issn= 1087-1209 | url=http://www.humanwildlifeconflict.org/Downloads/WPC_IUCN-HDW.pdf | doi=10.1080/10871200490505675|accessdate=17 July 2013}}</ref>
Human–wildlife conflict is defined by the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF) as "any interaction between humans and wildlife that results in negative impacts on human social, economic or cultural life, on the conservation of wildlife populations, or on the environment.<ref>SARPO, WWF. "Human wildlife conflict manual." ''Harare, Zimbabwe, WWF Southern African Regional Programme Office (SARPO)'' (2005).</ref> The ''Creating Co-existence'' workshop at the 5th Annual World Parks Congress (8–17 September 2003, Montreal) defined human-wildlife conflict in the context of human goals and animal needs as follows: “Human-wildlife conflict occurs when the needs and behavior of wildlife impact negatively on the goals of humans or when the goals of humans negatively impact the needs of wildlife."<ref>Madden, Francine (2004). "Creating Coexistence between Humans and Wildlife: Global Perspectives on Local Efforts to Address Human–Wildlife Conflict" (PDF). ''Human Dimensions of Wildlife''. Taylor & Francis Inc. '''9''' (4): 247–257. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.1080/10871200490505675. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]] 1087-1209. Retrieved 17 July 2013.</ref>
“Human-wildlife conflict occurs when the needs and behavior of wildlife impact negatively on the goals of humans or when the goals of humans negatively impact the needs of wildlife."


A 2007 review by the [[United States Geological Survey]] defines human-wildlife conflict in two contexts; firstly, actions by wildlife conflict with human goals, i.e. life, livelihood and life-style, and, secondly, human activities threaten the safety and survival of wildlife. However, in both cases, outcomes are decided by human responses to the interactions.<ref name="ClineSextonStewart2007">{{Cite report|author1=Cline, R. |author2=Sexton, N. |author3=Stewart, S.C. |date=2007 |title=A human-dimensions review of human-wildlife disturbance: a literature review of impacts, frameworks, and management solutions |url=http://www.fort.usgs.gov/Products/Publications/21567/21567.pdf |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |page=2 |docket=Open-File Report 2007-1111 |accessdate=20 July 2013 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316165127/http://www.fort.usgs.gov/Products/Publications/21567/21567.pdf |archivedate=16 March 2014 |df= }}</ref>
A 2007 review by the [[United States Geological Survey]] defines human-wildlife conflict in two contexts; firstly, actions by wildlife conflict with human goals, i.e. life, livelihood and life-style, and, secondly, human activities that threaten the safety and survival of wildlife. However, in both cases, outcomes are decided by human responses to the interactions.<ref>Cline, R.; Sexton, N.; Stewart, S.C. (2007). A human-dimensions review of human-wildlife disturbance: a literature review of impacts, frameworks, and management solutions(PDF) (Report). U.S. Geological Survey. p. 2. Open-File Report 2007-1111. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 March 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2013.</ref>


The Government of [[Yukon]] defines human-wildlife conflict simply, but through the lens of damage to property, i.e. "any interaction between wildlife and humans which causes harm, whether it’s to the human, the wild animal, or property." Here, property includes buildings, equipment and camps, livestock and pets, but does not include crops, fields or fences.
The Government of [[Yukon]] defines human-wildlife conflict simply, but through the lens of damage to property, i.e. "any interaction between wildlife and humans which causes harm, whether it’s to the human, the wild animal, or property."<ref>"Human-Wildlife Conflict". ''Environment Yukon''. Government of Yukon. 3 July 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2013.</ref> Here, property includes buildings, equipment and camps, livestock and pets, but does not include crops, fields or fences.
WAP


==History==
==History==
Human–wildlife conflicts have occurred throughout man's prehistory and recorded history. Amongst the early forms of human-wildlife conflict is the predation of the ancestors of prehistoric man by a number of predators of the [[Miocene]] such as saber-toothed cats, leopards, spotted hyenas amongst others.<ref name="KillerCats">{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.co.in/news/2002/01/0102_020107maneater.html |title=Killer Cats Hunted Human Ancestors |website=National Geographic News |author=Smilie, Shaun |date=20 May 2002 |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=19 July 2013 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316212950/http://news.nationalgeographic.co.in/news/2002/01/0102_020107maneater.html |archivedate=16 March 2014 |df= }}</ref>
Human-wildlife interactions have occurred throughout man's prehistory and recorded history. Among the early forms of human-wildlife conflict is the depredation of the ancestors of prehistoric man by a number of predators of the [[Miocene]] such as saber-toothed cats, leopards, and spotted hyenas.<ref>Smilie, Shaun (20 May 2002). "Killer Cats Hunted Human Ancestors". ''National Geographic News''. National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 16 March 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2013.</ref>


[[Fossil]] remains of early [[hominid]]s show evidence of predation; the [[Taung Child]], the fossilised skull of a young ''[[Australopithecus africanus]]'', is thought to have been killed by an eagle from the distinct marks on its skull and the fossil having been found amongst egg shells and remains of small animals.<ref name="TaungChild">{{cite web|url=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/fossils/taung-child |title=Taung Child | website=What does it mean to be human? | publisher=Smithsonian Institution | accessdate= 18 July 2013}}</ref>
[[Fossil]] remains of early [[Hominid|hominids]] show evidence of depredation; the [[Taung Child]], the fossilized skull of a young ''[[Australopithecus africanus]]'', is thought to have been killed by an eagle from the distinct marks on its skull and the fossil having been found among egg shells and remains of small animals.<ref>"Taung Child". ''What does it mean to be human?''. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 18 July 2013.</ref>


A Plio-Pleistocene horned [[crocodile]], ''[[Crocodylus anthropophagus]]'', whose fossil remains have been recorded from [[Olduvai Gorge]], was the largest predator encountered by [[Homo (genus)|prehistoric man]], as indicated by hominid specimens preserving crocodile bite marks from these sites.<ref name="CrocodylusAnthropophagus">{{cite journal| title=A New Horned Crocodile from the Plio-Pleistocene Hominid Sites at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania |author1=Brochu, Christopher A. |author2=Njau, Jackson |author3=Blumenschine, Robert J. |author4=Densmore, Llewellyn D. |journal=PLOS ONE | volume=5 |issue=2 |pages = e9333|year=2010 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0009333 | pmid=20195356 | pmc=2827537}}</ref>
A Plio-Pleistocene horned [[crocodile]], ''[[Crocodylus anthropophagus]]'', whose fossil remains have been recorded from [[Olduvai Gorge]], was the largest predator encountered by [[Homo (genus)|prehistoric man]], as indicated by hominid specimens preserving crocodile bite marks from these sites.<ref>Brochu, Christopher A.; Njau, Jackson; Blumenschine, Robert J.; Densmore, Llewellyn D. (2010). "A New Horned Crocodile from the Plio-Pleistocene Hominid Sites at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania". ''PLOS ONE''. '''5''' (2): e9333. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.1371/journal.pone.0009333. [[PubMed Central|PMC]] 2827537. [[PubMed Identifier|PMID]]20195356.</ref>


== Examples of Human-Wildlife Conflict ==
The advent of [[farming]] and [[animal husbandry]] of the [[Neolithic Revolution]] increased the scope of conflict between humans and animals. The crops and the produce formed an abundant and easily obtained food source for wild animals. Wild herbivores competed with domesticated ones for [[pasture]]. In addition, they were a [[Natural reservoir|source for diseases]] which affected [[livestock]]. The livestock attracted predators which found them an easy source to prey on. The inevitable human reaction was to eliminate such threats to agriculture and domesticated animals. In addition, land was converted to agricultural and other uses and [[Deforestation|forests cleared]], all of which impacted wild animals adversely. A number of animal species were eliminated locally or from parts of their [[Range (biology)|natural range]]. The deliberate or accidental introduction of animals in isolated island animal communities have caused extinction of a large number of species.<ref name="Gordon2009">{{cite journal|last1=Gordon |first1=Iain J. |year=2009 |title=What is the future for wild, large herbivores in human-modified agricultural landscapes? |journal=Wildlife Biology |publisher = Nordic Board for Wildlife Research |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |url=http://www.wildlifebiology.com/Downloads/Article/748/En/wb_15-1_gordon.pdf |doi=10.2981/06-087 |accessdate=20 July 2013}}</ref>


=== Africa ===
==Nature of human-wildlife conflicts==
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[[File:Tracking elephant damages to a residential colony by NCF team in the Valparai region.jpg|thumb|Asian elephant damages to houses|277x277px]]
As a tropical continent with substantial anthropogenic development, the Africa is a hotspot for biodiversity<ref name=":7">Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Da Fonseca, G. A., & Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. ''Nature'', ''403''(6772), 853.</ref> and therefore, for human-wildlife conflict. Two of the primary examples of conflict in Africa are human-predator ([[Lion|lions]], [[Leopard|leopards]], [[Cheetah|cheetahs]], etc.) and human-elephant conflict. Depredation of livestock by African predators is well documented in Kenya<ref>Manoa, David Owino, and Francis Mwaura. "Predator-Proof Bomas as a Tool in Mitigating Human-Predator Conflict in Loitokitok Sub-County Amboseli Region of Kenya." ''Natural Resources'' 7, no. 01 (2016): 28.</ref>, Namibia<ref>Marker, Laurie L., and Lorraine K. Boast. "Human–wildlife conflict 10 years later: lessons learned and their application to cheetah conservation." ''Human Dimensions of Wildlife'' 20, no. 4 (2015): 302-309.</ref>, Botswana<ref>Muir 1, 2, Matthew J. "Human–predator conflict and livestock depredations: Methodological challenges for wildlife research and policy in Botswana." ''Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy'' 13, no. 4 (2010): 293-310.</ref>, and more. [[African elephant|African elephants]] frequently clash with humans, as their long-distance migrations often intersect with farms. The resulting damage to crops, infrastructure, and at times, people, can lead to the retaliatory killing of elephants by locals.<ref>Graham, Maximilian D., Benedikt Notter, William M. Adams, Phyllis C. Lee, and Tobias Nyumba Ochieng. "Patterns of crop-raiding by elephants, Loxodonta africana, in Laikipia, Kenya, and the management of human–elephant conflict." ''Systematics and Biodiversity'' 8, no. 4 (2010): 435-445.</ref>


===Causes===
=== Asia ===
With a rapidly increasing human population and high biodiversity<ref name=":72">Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Da Fonseca, G. A., & Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. ''Nature'', ''403''(6772), 853.</ref>, interactions between people and wild animals are becoming more and more prevalent. Like human-predator in Africa, encounters between tigers, people, and their livestock is a prominent issue on the Asian continent. Attacks on humans and livestock have exacerbated major threats the [[tiger]] conservation such as mortality, removal of individuals from the wild, and negative perceptions of the animals from locals.<ref>Goodrich, John M. "Human–tiger conflict: a review and call for comprehensive plans." ''Integrative Zoology'' 5, no. 4 (2010): 300-312.</ref> Even non-predator conflicts are common, with crop-raiding by [[Asian elephant|elephants]]<ref>Desai, Ajay A., and Heidi S. Riddle. "Human-elephant conflict in Asia." ''Supported by: US Fish and Wildlife Service Asian Elephant Support'' (2015): 10-12.</ref> and [[Macaque|macaques]]<ref>Priston, Nancy EC, and Matthew R. McLennan. "Managing humans, managing macaques: Human–macaque conflict in Asia and Africa." In ''The macaque connection'', pp. 225-250. Springer, New York, NY, 2013.</ref> persisting in both rural and urban environments, respectively.
As human populations expand into wild animal [[habitat]]s, natural wildlife [[Territory (animal)|territory]] is displaced. Reduction in the availability of natural prey/food sources leads to wild animals seeking alternate sources. Alternately, new resources created by humans draw wildlife resulting in conflict. The population density of wildlife and humans increase with overlaps in geographical areas used increasing their interaction thus resulting in increased physical conflict. Byproducts of human existence offer un-natural opportunity for wildlife in the form of food and sheltered interference and potentially destructive threat for both man and animals. Competition for food resources also occurs when humans attempt to harvest natural resources such as fish and grassland pasture. Another cause of conflict comes from conservation biased toward flagship or game species that often threatens other species of concern <ref>Fedriani JM, García L, Sanchéz M, Calderon J, and C Ramo. 2017. Long-term impact of protected colonial birds on a jeopardized cork oak population: conservation bias leads to restoration failure. Journal of Applied Ecology 54: 450-458.</ref>
[[Image:Humanwildlife conflict labeled.png|thumb|900px|center|<center>Diagram of Human Wildlife Conflict in Expanding American Cities</center>]] {{clear}}


===Outcomes of conflict===
=== Antarctica ===
To this date, no instances of human-wildlife conflict have been reported in Antarctica.
⚫
[[File:Tracking elephant damages to a residential colony by NCF team in the Valparai region.jpg|thumb|Asian elephant damages to houses]]
Human–wildlife conflict occurs with various negative results. The major outcomes of human-wildlife conflict are:<ref name="WoodroffeEtAl2005">
{{cite book |url=http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item5708118/?site_locale=en_GB |title=People and wildlife: Conflict or Co-existence? |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge
|editor1=Woodroffe, Rosie |editor2=Thirgood, Simon |editor3=Rabinowitz, Alan }}</ref>
* Injury and loss of life of humans and wildlife <ref>Penteriani V, MM Delgado, F Pinchera, J Naves, A Fernández-Gil, I Kojola, S Härkönen, H Norberg, J Frank, JM Fedriani, V Sahlén, O-G Støen, JE Swenson, P Wabakken, M Pellegrini, S Herrero, J López-Bao. 2016. Human behaviour may trigger large carnivore attacks in developed countries. Scientific Reports 6, 20552; doi: 10.1038/srep20552.</ref>
* Crop damage, livestock depredation, predation of managed wildlife stock.
* Damage to human property.
* Trophic cascades.
* Destruction of habitat.
* Collapse of wildlife populations and reduction of geographic ranges.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=Samual T.|last2=Williams|first2=Kathryn S.|last3=Lewis|first3=Bradley P.|last4=Hill|first4=Russell A.|title=Population dynamics and threats to an apex predator outside protected areas: implications for carnivore management|journal=Royal Society Open Science|date=19 April 2017|volume=4|issue=4|pages=161090|doi=10.1098/rsos.161090|pmc=5414262}}</ref>
One of the initiators of the concept of man-animal conflict was Das and Guha.<ref name="DasETAl2003">
{{cite book |author1=Das, Tuhin K. |author2=Guha Indrila|title=Economics of Man-Animal Conflict: A Lesson for Wildlife Conservation|year=2003 |publisher=acb Publications|location=Kolkata|isbn=81-87500-14-X}}</ref> They described the two-sided impacts of this conflict. From one side, the source of conflict is the restriction on the local people to access forest resources. On the other side, the source of conflict is the damage incurred to them by wild animals.


=== Europe ===
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==Hidden Dimensions of Conflict==
Human-wildlife conflict in Europe includes interactions between people and both carnivores and herbivores. A variety of non-predators such as [[deer]], [[wild boar]], [[Rodent|rodents]], and [[Common starling|starlings]] have been shown to damage crops and forests.<ref name=":1">Klenke, R., Irene Ring, Andreas Kranz, Niels Jepsen, Felix Rauschmayer, and Klaus Henle. "Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Europe." ''FRAP Project, European Union'' (2011).</ref> Carnivores like raptors and bears create conflict with humans by eating both farmed and wild fish<ref name=":1" />, while others like lynxes and wolves prey upon livestock.<ref>Rigg, Robin, Slavomír Finďo, Maria Wechselberger, Martyn L. Gorman, Claudio Sillero-Zubiri, and David W. Macdonald. "Mitigating carnivore–livestock conflict in Europe: lessons from Slovakia." ''Oryx'' 45, no. 2 (2011): 272-280.</ref> Even less apparent cases of human-wildlife conflict can cause substantial losses; 500,000 deer-vehicle collisions in Europe (and 1-1.5 million in North America) led to 30,000 injuries and 200 deaths.<ref>Nyhus, Philip J. "Human–wildlife conflict and coexistence." ''Annual Review of Environment and Resources'' 41 (2016): 143-171.</ref>
⚫
Human wildlife conflict also has a range of 'hidden' dimensions that are not typically factored in when the focus is on visible impacts. These can include health impacts, opportunity and transaction costs.<ref name="Hidden Dimensions">{{cite journal |author=Barua,M., Bhagwat, S.A. and Jadhav, S. |year=2013 |title=The hidden dimensions of human-wildlife conflict: Health impacts, opportunity and transaction costs |journal= Biological Conservation |volume=157 |issue=2013 |pages=309–316 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2238296 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2012.07.014}}</ref> Case studies include work on elephants in northeast India, where elephant-man interactions are seen to lead to cases of increased imbibing of alcohol by crop guardians with resultant enhanced mortality in encounters.,<ref name="Alcohol Volatile">{{cite journal |author=Barua,M. |year=2013 |title=Volatile ecologies: towards a material politics of human-animal relations |journal= Environment and Planning A |volume=0 |issue= 6|pages=1462–1478|doi=10.1068/a46138 |url=https://www.academia.edu/5118888|accessdate=21 December 2013}}</ref> and issues related to gender in northern India.<ref name="Ogra Conflict">{{cite journal |author=Ogra, M.|year=2008 |title=Human-wildlife conflict and gender in protected area borderlands: A case study of costs, perceptions, and vulnerabilities from Uttarakhand (Uttaranchal), India |journal= Geoforum |volume=39 |issue=May 2008|pages=1408–1422 |doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2007.12.004}}</ref>


=== North America ===
==Conflict resolution or management==
Instances of human-wildlife conflict are widespread in North America. In Wisconsin, United States wolf depredation of livestock is a prominent issue that resulted in the injury or death of 377 domestic animals over a 24-year span.<ref>Treves, Adrian, Randle R. Jurewicz, Lisa Naughton-Treves, Robert A. Rose, Robert C. Willging, and Adrian P. Wydeven. "Wolf depredation on domestic animals in Wisconsin, 1976-2000." ''Wildlife Society Bulletin'' (2002): 231-241.</ref> Similar incidents were reported in the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, with reports of wolves killing pets and livestock.<ref>Vaske, Jerry J., Jennifer M. Roemer, and Jonathan G. Taylor. "Situational and emotional influences on the acceptability of wolf management actions in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem." ''Wildlife Society Bulletin'' 37, no. 1 (2013): 122-128.</ref> Expanding urban centers have created increasing human-wildlife conflicts, with interactions between human and coyotes and mountain lions documented in cities in Colorado and California, respectively, among others.<ref>Poessel, Sharon A., Stewart W. Breck, Tara L. Teel, Stephanie Shwiff, Kevin R. Crooks, and Lisa Angeloni. "Patterns of human–coyote conflicts in the Denver Metropolitan Area." ''The Journal of Wildlife Management'' 77, no. 2 (2013): 297-305.</ref><ref>Crook, Stephen ES. "Attitudes and Risk Perception Toward the Mountain Lion Bordering the Santa Cruz Mountains, California." ''society & animals'' 1, no. aop (2019): 1-25.</ref> Big cats are a similar source of conflict in Central Mexico, where reports of livestock depredation are widespread<ref>Zarco-González, Martha M., Octavio Monroy-Vilchis, Clarita Rodríguez-Soto, and Vicente Urios. "Spatial factors and management associated with livestock predations by Puma concolor in Central Mexico." ''Human ecology'' 40, no. 4 (2012): 631-638.</ref>, while interactions between humans and coyotes were observed in Canadian cities as well.<ref>Lukasik, Victoria M., and Shelley M. Alexander. "Human–coyote interactions in Calgary, Alberta." ''Human Dimensions of Wildlife'' 16, no. 2 (2011): 114-127.</ref>[[Image:Humanwildlife conflict labeled.png|thumb|740x740px|center|<center>Diagram of Human Wildlife Conflict in Expanding American Cities</center>]] {{clear}}
[[File:Predator proof coral .jpg|thumb|A traditional livestock corral surrounded by a predator-proof corral in South Gobi desert, Mongolia, to protect livestock from predators like snow leopard and wolf.]]
The aim of conflict resolution or management is to reduce the potential for human-wildlife conflicts in order to protect life and limb, safety and security of animal populations, habitat and general biodiversity, and also to minimise damage to property. The preference is always for passive, non-intrusive prevention measures but often active intervention is required to be carried out in conjunction.<ref name="Yukon">{{cite web |url=http://www.env.gov.yk.ca/environment-you/human_wildlife_conflict.php#definition |title=Human-Wildlife Conflict |date=3 July 2013 |work=Environment Yukon |publisher=Government of Yukon |accessdate=20 July 2013}}</ref>


=== Oceania ===
==Management techniques==
On K’gari-Fraser Island in Australia, attacks by wild dingoes on humans (including the death of a child) created a human-wildlife crisis that required scientific intervention to manage.<ref>Baxter, Greg, and Nicole Davies. "Movements of dingoes on K’gari-Fraser Island: implications for management." ''Australasian journal of environmental management'' 25, no. 1 (2018): 132-146.</ref> In New Zealand, distrust and dislike of introducing predatory birds (such as the New Zealand Falcon) to vineyard landscapes led to tensions between people and the surrounding wildlife.<ref>Kross, Sara M., Jason M. Tylianakis, and Ximena J. Nelson. "Effects of introducing threatened falcons into vineyards on abundance of passeriformes and bird damage to grapes." ''Conservation Biology'' 26, no. 1 (2012): 142-149.</ref><ref>Kross, Sara M., Katherine P. Ingram, Rachael F. Long, and Meredith T. Niles. "Farmer perceptions and behaviors related to wildlife and on‐farm conservation actions." ''Conservation Letters'' 11, no. 1 (2018): e12364.</ref> In extreme cases large birds have been reported to attack people who approach their nests, with human-magpie conflict in Australia a well-known example.<ref>Jones, Darryl N., and Leoni K. Thomas. "Attacks on humans by Australian magpies: management of an extreme suburban human-wildlife conflict." ''Wildlife Society Bulletin (1973-2006)'' 27, no. 2 (1999): 473-478.</ref> Even conflict in urban environments has been documented, with development increasing the frequency of human-possum interactions in Sydney.<ref>Hill, Nichola J., Kelly A. Carbery, and Elizabeth M. Deane. "Human–possum conflict in urban Sydney, Australia: public perceptions and implications for species management." ''Human dimensions of wildlife'' 12, no. 2 (2007): 101-113.</ref>
[[File:Elephant safari.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ecotourism]] by elephant safari through the [[Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary]] in [[West Bengal]], [[India]]]]
Management techniques of wildlife are of two types. The first type are the traditional techniques which aim to stop, reduce or minimize conflict by controlling animal populations in different ways. Lethal control has the longest history but has major drawbacks. Other measures, less costly in terms of life, are trans-location, regulation and preservation of animal populations. Modern methods depend upon the ecological and ethological understanding of the wildlife and its environment to prevent or minimize conflict; examples being behavioural modification and measures to reduce interaction between humans and wildlife.


=== South America ===
Potential solutions to these conflicts include [[electric fencing]], [[land use planning]], community-based [[natural resource]] management (CBNRM), compensation, payment for environmental services, [[ecotourism]], wildlife friendly products, or other field solutions.<ref>World Conservation Union on Human-wildlife conflict ''In'':
As with most continents, the depredation of livestock by wild animals is a primary source of human-wildlife conflict in South America. The killings of [[Guanaco|guanacos]] by predators in Patagonia, Chile – which possess both economic and cultural value in the region – have created tensions between ranchers and wildlife.<ref>HernÄndez, F., D. Corcoran, G. Graells, C. RÕos, and M. C. Downey. "Rancher perspectives of a livestock-wildlife conflict in Southern Chile." ''Rangelands'' 39, no. 2 (2017): 56-63.</ref> South America’s only species of bear, the [[Spectacled bear|Andean Bear]], faces population declines due to similar conflict with livestock owners in countries like Ecuador.<ref>Espinosa, Santiago, and Susan K. Jacobson. "Human-wildlife conflict and environmental education: Evaluating a community program to protect the Andean bear in Ecuador." ''The Journal of Environmental Education'' 43, no. 1 (2012): 55-65.</ref>
{{citation
|author = Alejandro Alfaro
|title = Human-Wildlife Conflict worldwide:collection of case studies, analysis of management strategies and good practices
|url = http://www.fao.org/SARD/common/ecg/1357/en/HWC_final.pdf
|publisher = FAO
|url-status = dead
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070307122134/http://www.fao.org/SARD/common/ecg/1357/en/HWC_final.pdf
|archivedate = 2007-03-07
|df =
}}</ref>


=== Marine Ecosystems ===
⚫
In efforts to reduce human-wildlife conflict, [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF) has partnered with a number of organizations to provide solutions around the globe. Their solutions are tailored to the community and species involved. For example, in [[Mozambique]], communities started to grow more [[chili pepper]] plants after making the discovery that [[elephant]]s dislike and avoid plants containing [[capsaicin]]. This creative and effective method prevents elephants from trampling community farmers' fields as well as protects the species.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/what/wherewework/coastaleastafrica/reducinghuman-wildlife.html World Wide Fund for Nature]</ref>
Human-wildlife conflict is not limited to terrestrial ecosystems, but is prevalent in the world’s oceans as well. As with terrestrial conflict, human-wildlife conflict in aquatic environments is incredibly diverse and extends across the globe. In Hawaii, for example, an increase in [[Monk seal|monk seals]] around the islands has created a conflict between locals who believe that seals “belong” and those who do not.<ref>Draheim, Megan M., Francine Madden, Julie-Beth McCarthy, and Edward CM Parsons, eds. ''Human-wildlife conflict: complexity in the marine environment''. Oxford University Press, USA, 2015.</ref> Marine predators such as [[Killer whale|killer whales]]<ref>Tixier, Paul, Mary-Anne Lea, Mark A. Hindell, Christophe Guinet, Nicolas Gasco, Guy Duhamel, and John PY Arnould. "Killer whale (Orcinus orca) interactions with blue-eye trevalla (Hyperoglyphe antarctica) longline fisheries." ''PeerJ'' 6 (2018): e5306.</ref> and [[Fur seal|fur seals]]<ref>Cummings, C. R., M. A. Lea, and J. M. Lyle. "Fur seals and fisheries in Tasmania: an integrated case study of human-wildlife conflict and coexistence." ''Biological Conservation'' (2019).</ref> compete with fisheries for food and resources, while others like [[Great white shark|great white sharks]] have a history of injuring humans.<ref name=":2">Guerra, Ana Sofia. "Wolves of the Sea: Managing human-wildlife conflict in an increasingly tense ocean." ''Marine Policy'' 99 (2019): 369-373.</ref> While many of the causes of human-wildlife conflict are the same between terrestrial and marine ecosystems (depredation, competition, human injury, etc.), ocean environments are less studied and management approaches often differ.<ref name=":2" />  

== Mitigation Strategies ==
[[File:Predator proof coral .jpg|thumb|A traditional livestock corral surrounded by a predator-proof corral in South Gobi desert, Mongolia, to protect livestock from predators like snow leopard and wolf.]]Mitigation strategies for managing human-wildlife conflict vary significantly depending on location and type of conflict. The preference is always for passive, non-intrusive prevention measures but often active intervention is required to be carried out in conjunction.<ref name=":02">"Human-Wildlife Conflict". ''Environment Yukon''. Government of Yukon. 3 July 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2013.</ref> Regardless of approach, the most successful solutions are those that include local communities in the planning, implementation, and maintenance.<ref name=":32">Pooley, Simon, M. Barua, W. Beinart, A. Dickman, G. Holmes, J. Lorimer, A. J. Loveridge et al. "An interdisciplinary review of current and future approaches to improving human–predator relations." ''Conservation Biology'' 31, no. 3 (2017): 513-523.</ref> Resolving conflicts, therefore, often requires a regional plan of attack with a response tailored to the specific crisis.<ref>Pooley, S., Barua, M., Beinart, W., Dickman, A., Holmes, G., Lorimer, J., ... & Sillero‐Zubiri, C. (2017). An interdisciplinary review of current and future approaches to improving human–predator relations. ''Conservation Biology'', ''31''(3), 513-523.</ref> Still, there are a variety of management techniques that are frequently employed to mitigate conflicts. Examples include:

* <u>[[Species translocation|Translocation]] of problematic animals</u>: Relocating so-called "problem" animals from a site of conflict to a new place is a mitigation technique used in the past, although recent research has shown that this approach can have detrimental impacts on species and is largely ineffective<ref>Bradley, E. H., Pletscher, D. H., Bangs, E. E., Kunkel, K. E., Smith, D. W., Mack, C. M., ... & Jimenez, M. D. (2005). Evaluating wolf translocation as a nonlethal method to reduce livestock conflicts in the northwestern United States. ''Conservation Biology'', ''19''(5), 1498-1508.</ref>. Translocation can decrease survival rates and lead to extreme dispersal movements for a species, and often "problem" animals will resume conflict behaviors in their new location.<ref>Massei, Giovanna, Roger J. Quy, Joanne Gurney, and Dave P. Cowan. "Can translocations be used to mitigate human–wildlife conflicts?." ''Wildlife Research'' 37, no. 5 (2010): 428-439.</ref>

* <u>Erection of fences or other barriers</u>: Building barriers around cattle bomas<ref>Manoa, David Owino, and Francis Mwaura. "Predator-Proof Bomas as a Tool in Mitigating Human-Predator Conflict in Loitokitok Sub-County Amboseli Region of Kenya." ''Natural Resources'' 7, no. 01 (2016): 28.</ref>, creating distinct [[Wildlife corridor|wildlife corridors]]<ref>Kesch, M. Kristina, Dominik T. Bauer, and Andrew J. Loveridge. "Break on through to the other side: the effectiveness of game fencing to mitigate human—wildlife conflict." ''African Journal of Wildlife Research'' 45, no. 1 (2015): 76-88.</ref>, and erecting [[Beehive fence|beehive fences]] around farms to deter elephants<ref>Ngama, Steeve, Lisa Korte, Jérôme Bindelle, Cédric Vermeulen, and John R. Poulsen. "How bees deter elephants: beehive trials with forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) in Gabon." ''PloS one'' 11, no. 5 (2016): e0155690.</ref> have all demonstrated the ability to be successful and cost-effective strategies for mitigating human-wildlife conflict.

* <u>Improving community education and perception of animals</u>: Various cultures have myriad views and values associated with the natural world, and how wildlife is perceived can play a role in exacerbating or alleviating human-wildlife conflict. In one [[Maasai people|Masaai]] community where young men once obtained status by killing lions, conservationists worked with community leaders to shift perceptions and allow those young men to achieve the same social status by protecting lions instead.<ref name=":32" />
⚫
* <u>Effective land use planning</u>: altering land use practices can help mitigate conflict between humans and crop-raiding animals. For example in [[Mozambique]], communities started to grow more [[chili pepper]] plants after making the discovery that elephants dislike and avoid plants containing [[capsaicin]]. This creative and effective method discourages elephants from trampling community farmers' fields as well as protects the species.<ref>{{Citation|title=WWF-World Wide Fund for Nature|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/springerreference_75919|work=SpringerReference|publisher=Springer-Verlag|access-date=2019-10-08}}</ref>

* <u>Compensation</u>: Compensation: in some cases, governmental systems have been established to offer monetary compensation for losses sustained due to human-wildlife conflict. These systems hope to deter the need for retaliatory killings of animals, and to financially incentivize the co-existing of humans and wildlife<ref name=":52">Nyhus, Philip J., Steven A. Osofsky, Paul Ferraro, Francine Madden, and Hank Fischer. "Bearing the costs of human-wildlife conflict: the challenges of compensation schemes." ''CONSERVATION BIOLOGY SERIES-CAMBRIDGE-'' 9 (2005): 107.</ref>. Compensation strategies have been employed in India<ref name=":62">Ogra, Monica, and Ruchi Badola. "Compensating human–wildlife conflict in protected area communities: ground-level perspectives from Uttarakhand, India." ''Human Ecology'' 36, no. 5 (2008): 717.</ref>, Italy<ref name=":52" />, and South Africa<ref>Anthony, Brandon P., Peter Scott, and Alexios Antypas. "Sitting on the fence? Policies and practices in managing human-wildlife conflict in Limpopo Province, South Africa." ''Conservation and Society'' 8, no. 3 (2010): 225.</ref>, to name a few. The success of compensation in managing human-wildlife conflict has varied greatly due to under-compensation, a lack of local participation, or a failure by the government to provide timely payments.<ref name=":52" /><ref name=":62" />

* <u>Spatial analyses and mapping conflict hotspots</u>: mapping interactions and creating spatial models has been successful in mitigating human-carnivore conflict<ref>Miller, Jennifer RB. "Mapping attack hotspots to mitigate human–carnivore conflict: approaches and applications of spatial predation risk modeling." ''Biodiversity and Conservation'' 24, no. 12 (2015): 2887-2911.</ref> and human-elephant conflict<ref name=":42">Sitati, Noah W., Matthew J. Walpole, Robert J. Smith, and Nigel Leader‐Williams. "Predicting spatial aspects of human–elephant conflict." ''Journal of Applied Ecology'' 40, no. 4 (2003): 667-677.</ref>, among others. In Kenya, for example, using grid-based geographical information systems in collaboration with simple statistical analyses allowed conservationists to establish an effective predictor for human-elephant conflict.<ref name=":42" />

*<u>[[Livestock guardian dog|Predator-deterring guard dogs]]</u>: The use of guard dogs to protect livestock from depredation has been effective in mitigating human-carnivore conflict around the globe. A recent review found that 15.4% of study cases researching human-carnivore conflict used livestock-guarding dogs as a management technique, with animal losses on average 60 times lower than the norm<ref name=":0">Moreira-Arce, Darío, Carolina S. Ugarte, Francisco Zorondo-Rodríguez, and Javier A. Simonetti. "Management tools to reduce carnivore-livestock conflicts: current gap and future challenges." ''Rangeland ecology & management'' 71, no. 3 (2018): 389-394.</ref>.

[[File:Protector of the sheep.jpg|thumb|321x321px|Livestock guardian dogs can be an effective and popular way of deterring predators and reducing human-carnivore conflicts.<ref name=":0" />]]

⚫
==Hidden Dimensions of Conflict==
⚫
Human wildlife conflict also has a range of 'hidden' dimensions that are not typically considered when the focus is on visible consequences. These can include health impacts, opportunity costs, and transaction costs.<ref>Barua,M., Bhagwat, S.A. and Jadhav, S. (2013). "The hidden dimensions of human-wildlife conflict: Health impacts, opportunity and transaction costs". ''Biological Conservation''. '''157'''(2013): 309–316. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.07.014</ref> Case studies include work on elephants in northeast India, where human-elephant interactions are correlated with increased imbibing of alcohol by crop guardians with resultant enhanced mortality in interactions<ref>Barua,M. (2013). "Volatile ecologies: towards a material politics of human-animal relations". ''Environment and Planning A''. '''0''' (6): 1462–1478. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.1068/a46138. Retrieved 21 December 2013.</ref>, and issues related to gender in northern India.<ref>Ogra, M. (2008). "Human-wildlife conflict and gender in protected area borderlands: A case study of costs, perceptions, and vulnerabilities from Uttarakhand (Uttaranchal), India". ''Geoforum''. '''39''' (May 2008): 1408–1422.</ref> In addition, research has shown that the fear caused by the presence of predators can aggravate human-wildlife conflict more than the actual damage produced by encounters.<ref name=":3">Pooley, Simon, M. Barua, W. Beinart, A. Dickman, G. Holmes, J. Lorimer, A. J. Loveridge et al. "An interdisciplinary review of current and future approaches to improving human–predator relations." ''Conservation Biology'' 31, no. 3 (2017): 513-523.</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
Line 74: Line 73:
* [[Disturbance (ecology)]]
* [[Disturbance (ecology)]]
* [[Ecopsychology]]
* [[Ecopsychology]]
* [[Emu War]]
* [[Grey Owl]]
* [[Human impact on the environment]]
* [[Human impact on the environment]]
* [[Poaching]]
* [[Poaching]]

Revision as of 04:21, 26 November 2019

Grand Canyon National Park hosts millions of visitors every year and is home to a population of Rocky Mountain elk. Interactions between humans and the elk sometimes results in injuries.[1]

Human-wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and humans, and the resultant negative impact on people, animals, resources, and habitats. It occurs when growing human populations overlap with established wildlife territory, creating competition for space and resources. Conflict takes many forms including but not limited to: loss of life or injury to humans and wild animals, depredation of livestock, and degradation of habitat. Human-wildlife conflict is a global issue present in urban and rural landscapes alike.

Previously, conflict mitigation strategies utilized lethal control, translocation, population size regulation, and endangered species preservation. Recent management now uses an interdisciplinary set of approaches to solving conflicts. These include applying scientific research, sociological studies, and the arts to reducing conflicts. As human-wildlife conflict inflicts direct and indirect consequences on people and animals, its mitigation is an important priority for the management of biodiversity and protected areas.

Meaning

Human–wildlife conflict is defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) as "any interaction between humans and wildlife that results in negative impacts on human social, economic or cultural life, on the conservation of wildlife populations, or on the environment.[2] The Creating Co-existence workshop at the 5th Annual World Parks Congress (8–17 September 2003, Montreal) defined human-wildlife conflict in the context of human goals and animal needs as follows: “Human-wildlife conflict occurs when the needs and behavior of wildlife impact negatively on the goals of humans or when the goals of humans negatively impact the needs of wildlife."[3]

A 2007 review by the United States Geological Survey defines human-wildlife conflict in two contexts; firstly, actions by wildlife conflict with human goals, i.e. life, livelihood and life-style, and, secondly, human activities that threaten the safety and survival of wildlife. However, in both cases, outcomes are decided by human responses to the interactions.[4]

The Government of Yukon defines human-wildlife conflict simply, but through the lens of damage to property, i.e. "any interaction between wildlife and humans which causes harm, whether it’s to the human, the wild animal, or property."[5] Here, property includes buildings, equipment and camps, livestock and pets, but does not include crops, fields or fences.

History

Human-wildlife interactions have occurred throughout man's prehistory and recorded history. Among the early forms of human-wildlife conflict is the depredation of the ancestors of prehistoric man by a number of predators of the Miocene such as saber-toothed cats, leopards, and spotted hyenas.[6]

Fossil remains of early hominids show evidence of depredation; the Taung Child, the fossilized skull of a young Australopithecus africanus, is thought to have been killed by an eagle from the distinct marks on its skull and the fossil having been found among egg shells and remains of small animals.[7]

A Plio-Pleistocene horned crocodile, Crocodylus anthropophagus, whose fossil remains have been recorded from Olduvai Gorge, was the largest predator encountered by prehistoric man, as indicated by hominid specimens preserving crocodile bite marks from these sites.[8]

Examples of Human-Wildlife Conflict

Africa

Asian elephant damages to houses

As a tropical continent with substantial anthropogenic development, the Africa is a hotspot for biodiversity[9] and therefore, for human-wildlife conflict. Two of the primary examples of conflict in Africa are human-predator (lions, leopards, cheetahs, etc.) and human-elephant conflict. Depredation of livestock by African predators is well documented in Kenya[10], Namibia[11], Botswana[12], and more. African elephants frequently clash with humans, as their long-distance migrations often intersect with farms. The resulting damage to crops, infrastructure, and at times, people, can lead to the retaliatory killing of elephants by locals.[13]

Asia

With a rapidly increasing human population and high biodiversity[14], interactions between people and wild animals are becoming more and more prevalent. Like human-predator in Africa, encounters between tigers, people, and their livestock is a prominent issue on the Asian continent. Attacks on humans and livestock have exacerbated major threats the tiger conservation such as mortality, removal of individuals from the wild, and negative perceptions of the animals from locals.[15] Even non-predator conflicts are common, with crop-raiding by elephants[16] and macaques[17] persisting in both rural and urban environments, respectively.

Antarctica

To this date, no instances of human-wildlife conflict have been reported in Antarctica.

Europe

Human-wildlife conflict in Europe includes interactions between people and both carnivores and herbivores. A variety of non-predators such as deer, wild boar, rodents, and starlings have been shown to damage crops and forests.[18] Carnivores like raptors and bears create conflict with humans by eating both farmed and wild fish[18], while others like lynxes and wolves prey upon livestock.[19] Even less apparent cases of human-wildlife conflict can cause substantial losses; 500,000 deer-vehicle collisions in Europe (and 1-1.5 million in North America) led to 30,000 injuries and 200 deaths.[20]

North America

Instances of human-wildlife conflict are widespread in North America. In Wisconsin, United States wolf depredation of livestock is a prominent issue that resulted in the injury or death of 377 domestic animals over a 24-year span.[21] Similar incidents were reported in the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, with reports of wolves killing pets and livestock.[22] Expanding urban centers have created increasing human-wildlife conflicts, with interactions between human and coyotes and mountain lions documented in cities in Colorado and California, respectively, among others.[23][24] Big cats are a similar source of conflict in Central Mexico, where reports of livestock depredation are widespread[25], while interactions between humans and coyotes were observed in Canadian cities as well.[26]

Diagram of Human Wildlife Conflict in Expanding American Cities

Oceania

On K’gari-Fraser Island in Australia, attacks by wild dingoes on humans (including the death of a child) created a human-wildlife crisis that required scientific intervention to manage.[27] In New Zealand, distrust and dislike of introducing predatory birds (such as the New Zealand Falcon) to vineyard landscapes led to tensions between people and the surrounding wildlife.[28][29] In extreme cases large birds have been reported to attack people who approach their nests, with human-magpie conflict in Australia a well-known example.[30] Even conflict in urban environments has been documented, with development increasing the frequency of human-possum interactions in Sydney.[31]

South America

As with most continents, the depredation of livestock by wild animals is a primary source of human-wildlife conflict in South America. The killings of guanacos by predators in Patagonia, Chile – which possess both economic and cultural value in the region – have created tensions between ranchers and wildlife.[32] South America’s only species of bear, the Andean Bear, faces population declines due to similar conflict with livestock owners in countries like Ecuador.[33]

Marine Ecosystems

Human-wildlife conflict is not limited to terrestrial ecosystems, but is prevalent in the world’s oceans as well. As with terrestrial conflict, human-wildlife conflict in aquatic environments is incredibly diverse and extends across the globe. In Hawaii, for example, an increase in monk seals around the islands has created a conflict between locals who believe that seals “belong” and those who do not.[34] Marine predators such as killer whales[35] and fur seals[36] compete with fisheries for food and resources, while others like great white sharks have a history of injuring humans.[37] While many of the causes of human-wildlife conflict are the same between terrestrial and marine ecosystems (depredation, competition, human injury, etc.), ocean environments are less studied and management approaches often differ.[37]  

Mitigation Strategies

A traditional livestock corral surrounded by a predator-proof corral in South Gobi desert, Mongolia, to protect livestock from predators like snow leopard and wolf.

Mitigation strategies for managing human-wildlife conflict vary significantly depending on location and type of conflict. The preference is always for passive, non-intrusive prevention measures but often active intervention is required to be carried out in conjunction.[38] Regardless of approach, the most successful solutions are those that include local communities in the planning, implementation, and maintenance.[39] Resolving conflicts, therefore, often requires a regional plan of attack with a response tailored to the specific crisis.[40] Still, there are a variety of management techniques that are frequently employed to mitigate conflicts. Examples include:

  • Translocation of problematic animals: Relocating so-called "problem" animals from a site of conflict to a new place is a mitigation technique used in the past, although recent research has shown that this approach can have detrimental impacts on species and is largely ineffective[41]. Translocation can decrease survival rates and lead to extreme dispersal movements for a species, and often "problem" animals will resume conflict behaviors in their new location.[42]
  • Erection of fences or other barriers: Building barriers around cattle bomas[43], creating distinct wildlife corridors[44], and erecting beehive fences around farms to deter elephants[45] have all demonstrated the ability to be successful and cost-effective strategies for mitigating human-wildlife conflict.
  • Improving community education and perception of animals: Various cultures have myriad views and values associated with the natural world, and how wildlife is perceived can play a role in exacerbating or alleviating human-wildlife conflict. In one Masaai community where young men once obtained status by killing lions, conservationists worked with community leaders to shift perceptions and allow those young men to achieve the same social status by protecting lions instead.[39]
  • Effective land use planning: altering land use practices can help mitigate conflict between humans and crop-raiding animals. For example in Mozambique, communities started to grow more chili pepper plants after making the discovery that elephants dislike and avoid plants containing capsaicin. This creative and effective method discourages elephants from trampling community farmers' fields as well as protects the species.[46]
  • Compensation: Compensation: in some cases, governmental systems have been established to offer monetary compensation for losses sustained due to human-wildlife conflict. These systems hope to deter the need for retaliatory killings of animals, and to financially incentivize the co-existing of humans and wildlife[47]. Compensation strategies have been employed in India[48], Italy[47], and South Africa[49], to name a few. The success of compensation in managing human-wildlife conflict has varied greatly due to under-compensation, a lack of local participation, or a failure by the government to provide timely payments.[47][48]
  • Spatial analyses and mapping conflict hotspots: mapping interactions and creating spatial models has been successful in mitigating human-carnivore conflict[50] and human-elephant conflict[51], among others. In Kenya, for example, using grid-based geographical information systems in collaboration with simple statistical analyses allowed conservationists to establish an effective predictor for human-elephant conflict.[51]
  • Predator-deterring guard dogs: The use of guard dogs to protect livestock from depredation has been effective in mitigating human-carnivore conflict around the globe. A recent review found that 15.4% of study cases researching human-carnivore conflict used livestock-guarding dogs as a management technique, with animal losses on average 60 times lower than the norm[52].
Livestock guardian dogs can be an effective and popular way of deterring predators and reducing human-carnivore conflicts.[52]

Hidden Dimensions of Conflict

Human wildlife conflict also has a range of 'hidden' dimensions that are not typically considered when the focus is on visible consequences. These can include health impacts, opportunity costs, and transaction costs.[53] Case studies include work on elephants in northeast India, where human-elephant interactions are correlated with increased imbibing of alcohol by crop guardians with resultant enhanced mortality in interactions[54], and issues related to gender in northern India.[55] In addition, research has shown that the fear caused by the presence of predators can aggravate human-wildlife conflict more than the actual damage produced by encounters.[56]

See also

References

  1. ^ Glionna, John M. (May 27, 2013). "Tourist and animal 'elk jams' worry Grand Canyon park rangers". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
  2. ^ SARPO, WWF. "Human wildlife conflict manual." Harare, Zimbabwe, WWF Southern African Regional Programme Office (SARPO) (2005).
  3. ^ Madden, Francine (2004). "Creating Coexistence between Humans and Wildlife: Global Perspectives on Local Efforts to Address Human–Wildlife Conflict" (PDF). Human Dimensions of Wildlife. Taylor & Francis Inc. 9 (4): 247–257. doi:10.1080/10871200490505675. ISSN 1087-1209. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
  4. ^ Cline, R.; Sexton, N.; Stewart, S.C. (2007). A human-dimensions review of human-wildlife disturbance: a literature review of impacts, frameworks, and management solutions(PDF) (Report). U.S. Geological Survey. p. 2. Open-File Report 2007-1111. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 March 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2013.
  5. ^ "Human-Wildlife Conflict". Environment Yukon. Government of Yukon. 3 July 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2013.
  6. ^ Smilie, Shaun (20 May 2002). "Killer Cats Hunted Human Ancestors". National Geographic News. National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 16 March 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  7. ^ "Taung Child". What does it mean to be human?. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
  8. ^ Brochu, Christopher A.; Njau, Jackson; Blumenschine, Robert J.; Densmore, Llewellyn D. (2010). "A New Horned Crocodile from the Plio-Pleistocene Hominid Sites at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania". PLOS ONE. 5 (2): e9333. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009333. PMC 2827537. PMID20195356.
  9. ^ Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Da Fonseca, G. A., & Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403(6772), 853.
  10. ^ Manoa, David Owino, and Francis Mwaura. "Predator-Proof Bomas as a Tool in Mitigating Human-Predator Conflict in Loitokitok Sub-County Amboseli Region of Kenya." Natural Resources 7, no. 01 (2016): 28.
  11. ^ Marker, Laurie L., and Lorraine K. Boast. "Human–wildlife conflict 10 years later: lessons learned and their application to cheetah conservation." Human Dimensions of Wildlife 20, no. 4 (2015): 302-309.
  12. ^ Muir 1, 2, Matthew J. "Human–predator conflict and livestock depredations: Methodological challenges for wildlife research and policy in Botswana." Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy 13, no. 4 (2010): 293-310.
  13. ^ Graham, Maximilian D., Benedikt Notter, William M. Adams, Phyllis C. Lee, and Tobias Nyumba Ochieng. "Patterns of crop-raiding by elephants, Loxodonta africana, in Laikipia, Kenya, and the management of human–elephant conflict." Systematics and Biodiversity 8, no. 4 (2010): 435-445.
  14. ^ Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Da Fonseca, G. A., & Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403(6772), 853.
  15. ^ Goodrich, John M. "Human–tiger conflict: a review and call for comprehensive plans." Integrative Zoology 5, no. 4 (2010): 300-312.
  16. ^ Desai, Ajay A., and Heidi S. Riddle. "Human-elephant conflict in Asia." Supported by: US Fish and Wildlife Service Asian Elephant Support (2015): 10-12.
  17. ^ Priston, Nancy EC, and Matthew R. McLennan. "Managing humans, managing macaques: Human–macaque conflict in Asia and Africa." In The macaque connection, pp. 225-250. Springer, New York, NY, 2013.
  18. ^ a b Klenke, R., Irene Ring, Andreas Kranz, Niels Jepsen, Felix Rauschmayer, and Klaus Henle. "Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Europe." FRAP Project, European Union (2011).
  19. ^ Rigg, Robin, Slavomír Finďo, Maria Wechselberger, Martyn L. Gorman, Claudio Sillero-Zubiri, and David W. Macdonald. "Mitigating carnivore–livestock conflict in Europe: lessons from Slovakia." Oryx 45, no. 2 (2011): 272-280.
  20. ^ Nyhus, Philip J. "Human–wildlife conflict and coexistence." Annual Review of Environment and Resources 41 (2016): 143-171.
  21. ^ Treves, Adrian, Randle R. Jurewicz, Lisa Naughton-Treves, Robert A. Rose, Robert C. Willging, and Adrian P. Wydeven. "Wolf depredation on domestic animals in Wisconsin, 1976-2000." Wildlife Society Bulletin (2002): 231-241.
  22. ^ Vaske, Jerry J., Jennifer M. Roemer, and Jonathan G. Taylor. "Situational and emotional influences on the acceptability of wolf management actions in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem." Wildlife Society Bulletin 37, no. 1 (2013): 122-128.
  23. ^ Poessel, Sharon A., Stewart W. Breck, Tara L. Teel, Stephanie Shwiff, Kevin R. Crooks, and Lisa Angeloni. "Patterns of human–coyote conflicts in the Denver Metropolitan Area." The Journal of Wildlife Management 77, no. 2 (2013): 297-305.
  24. ^ Crook, Stephen ES. "Attitudes and Risk Perception Toward the Mountain Lion Bordering the Santa Cruz Mountains, California." society & animals 1, no. aop (2019): 1-25.
  25. ^ Zarco-González, Martha M., Octavio Monroy-Vilchis, Clarita Rodríguez-Soto, and Vicente Urios. "Spatial factors and management associated with livestock predations by Puma concolor in Central Mexico." Human ecology 40, no. 4 (2012): 631-638.
  26. ^ Lukasik, Victoria M., and Shelley M. Alexander. "Human–coyote interactions in Calgary, Alberta." Human Dimensions of Wildlife 16, no. 2 (2011): 114-127.
  27. ^ Baxter, Greg, and Nicole Davies. "Movements of dingoes on K’gari-Fraser Island: implications for management." Australasian journal of environmental management 25, no. 1 (2018): 132-146.
  28. ^ Kross, Sara M., Jason M. Tylianakis, and Ximena J. Nelson. "Effects of introducing threatened falcons into vineyards on abundance of passeriformes and bird damage to grapes." Conservation Biology 26, no. 1 (2012): 142-149.
  29. ^ Kross, Sara M., Katherine P. Ingram, Rachael F. Long, and Meredith T. Niles. "Farmer perceptions and behaviors related to wildlife and on‐farm conservation actions." Conservation Letters 11, no. 1 (2018): e12364.
  30. ^ Jones, Darryl N., and Leoni K. Thomas. "Attacks on humans by Australian magpies: management of an extreme suburban human-wildlife conflict." Wildlife Society Bulletin (1973-2006) 27, no. 2 (1999): 473-478.
  31. ^ Hill, Nichola J., Kelly A. Carbery, and Elizabeth M. Deane. "Human–possum conflict in urban Sydney, Australia: public perceptions and implications for species management." Human dimensions of wildlife 12, no. 2 (2007): 101-113.
  32. ^ HernÄndez, F., D. Corcoran, G. Graells, C. RÕos, and M. C. Downey. "Rancher perspectives of a livestock-wildlife conflict in Southern Chile." Rangelands 39, no. 2 (2017): 56-63.
  33. ^ Espinosa, Santiago, and Susan K. Jacobson. "Human-wildlife conflict and environmental education: Evaluating a community program to protect the Andean bear in Ecuador." The Journal of Environmental Education 43, no. 1 (2012): 55-65.
  34. ^ Draheim, Megan M., Francine Madden, Julie-Beth McCarthy, and Edward CM Parsons, eds. Human-wildlife conflict: complexity in the marine environment. Oxford University Press, USA, 2015.
  35. ^ Tixier, Paul, Mary-Anne Lea, Mark A. Hindell, Christophe Guinet, Nicolas Gasco, Guy Duhamel, and John PY Arnould. "Killer whale (Orcinus orca) interactions with blue-eye trevalla (Hyperoglyphe antarctica) longline fisheries." PeerJ 6 (2018): e5306.
  36. ^ Cummings, C. R., M. A. Lea, and J. M. Lyle. "Fur seals and fisheries in Tasmania: an integrated case study of human-wildlife conflict and coexistence." Biological Conservation (2019).
  37. ^ a b Guerra, Ana Sofia. "Wolves of the Sea: Managing human-wildlife conflict in an increasingly tense ocean." Marine Policy 99 (2019): 369-373.
  38. ^ "Human-Wildlife Conflict". Environment Yukon. Government of Yukon. 3 July 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2013.
  39. ^ a b Pooley, Simon, M. Barua, W. Beinart, A. Dickman, G. Holmes, J. Lorimer, A. J. Loveridge et al. "An interdisciplinary review of current and future approaches to improving human–predator relations." Conservation Biology 31, no. 3 (2017): 513-523.
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