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[[File:Xingurivermap.png|thumb|300px|Amazon basin with Xingu highlighted]]
{{about|the river|other uses|Xingu (disambiguation){{!}}Xingu}}
The '''Xingu River''' ({{IPAc-en|ʃ|iː|ŋ|ˈ|ɡ|uː}} {{respell|sheeng|GOO}}; {{lang-pt|Rio Xingu}}, {{IPA-pt|ʃĩˈɡu}})
{{Infobox river
is a long north-flowing river in the eastern [[Amazon basin]] of Brazil. It is the easternmost major tributary of the Amazon. To the east is the [[Tocantins River]], a small part of which may enter the Amazon. To the west is the [[Tapajos River]].
| name = Xingu River
| name_native = Rio Xingu ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]), Byti ([[Kayapó language|Mẽbêngôkre]])
| name_native_lang =
| name_other =
| name_etymology =
<!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->
| image = Rio Xingu.jpg
| image_size = 300
| image_caption = Xingu River from space, downstream section.
| map = Xingurivermap.png
| map_size = 300
| map_caption = Map of the [[Amazon Basin]] with the Xingu River highlighted
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_map_size = 300
| pushpin_map_caption=
<!---------------------- LOCATION -->
| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[Brazil]]
| subdivision_type2 =
| subdivision_name2 =
| subdivision_type3 =
| subdivision_name3 =
| subdivision_type4 =
| subdivision_name4 =
| subdivision_type5 =
| subdivision_name5 =
<!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->
| length = {{convert|1640|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name=fao>{{cite book |last1=Ziesler |first1=R. |last2=Ardizzone |first2=G.D. |title=The Inland waters of Latin America |year=1979 |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ad770b/AD770B06.htm |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] |isbn=92-5-000780-9 |chapter=Amazon River System |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021061745/http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ad770b/AD770B06.htm |archivedate=21 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| width_min =
| width_avg =
| width_max =
| depth_min =
| depth_avg =
| depth_max =
| discharge1_location=
| discharge1_min =
| discharge1_avg = {{convert|9680|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
| discharge1_max =
<!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->
| source1 =
| source1_location =
| source1_coordinates=
| source1_elevation =
| mouth = [[Amazon River]]
| mouth_location =
| mouth_coordinates = {{coord|1|31|59|S|52|14|30|W|display=inline,title}}
| mouth_elevation =
| progression =
| river_system =
| basin_size = {{convert|520300|km2|abbr=on}}
| tributaries_left = [[Iriri River]], [[Pardo River (Xingu)|Pardo River]]
| tributaries_right =
| custom_label =
| custom_data =
| extra =
}}
The '''Xingu River''' ({{IPAc-en|ʃ|iː|ŋ|ˈ|ɡ|uː}} {{respell|sheeng|GOO}}; {{lang-pt|Rio Xingu}}, {{IPA-pt|ʃĩˈɡu}}; [[Kayapó language|Mẽbêngôkre]]: ''Byti'', {{IPA|[bɯˈti]}}<ref name="Passos-2018">{{cite thesis|last=Passos |first=João Lucas Moraes |date=2018 |title=Caminhos mẽbêngôkre: andando, nomeando, sentando sobre a terra |type=Ph.D. dissertation |location=Brasília |publisher=Universidade de Brasília}}</ref>{{rp|73}}) is a {{Convert|1640|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<ref name=fao/> river in north [[Brazil]]. It is a southeast tributary of the [[Amazon River]] and one of the largest [[Clearwater river (river type)|clearwater river]]s in the [[Amazon basin]],<ref>{{cite news | author=Perez, M.S. | url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/where-the-xingu-bends-and-will-soon-break | title=Where the Xingu Bends and Will Soon Break | publisher=American Scientist | accessdate=1 October 2017 }}</ref> accounting for about 5% of its water.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://amazonwaters.org/waters/flows-and-floods/ | title=Waters | publisher=Amazon Waters | accessdate=10 October 2017 }}</ref>


It is about 2100km long, about as long as the Ohio River and its Allegheny tributary. Its basin is about 504,000 km<sup>2</sup>, roughly the size of France, and makes up about 7.3 percent of the Amazon basin.<ref>per Smithonian Atlas. Other sources have different figures and it is not clear why they differ. It is also not clear which branch is the official headwaters.</ref> Its average discharge is about 9,700 m<sup>3</sup> /s, which contributes about 4-5% of the Amazon’s waters. Since it is a [[Clearwater river (river type)|clearwater river]] flowing off the [[Brazilian Highlands]] it contributes relatively little sediment to the main river.
__TOC__


The river can rise as much as five meters. High water is in Mar-Apr and low water is in Sep-Oct, although this varies with location. At Altamira in the period 1971-1995 the highest flow was 32,298 and lowest flow 808 m<sup>3</sup>/s. <ref>[http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P3630050.html GRDC - Amazon Basin - Station: Altamira]</ref>.
==Description and history==
The first Indigenous Park in Brazil was created in the river basin by the Brazilian government in the early 1960s. This park marks the first indigenous territory recognized by the Brazilian government and it was the world's largest indigenous preserve on the date of its creation. Currently, fourteen tribes live within [[Xingu Indigenous Park]], surviving on natural resources and extracting from the river most of what they need for food and water.


==Description==
The Brazilian government is building the [[Belo Monte Dam]], which will be the world's third-largest hydroelectric dam, on the Lower Xingu. Construction of this dam is under legal challenge by environment and indigenous groups, who assert the dam would have negative environmental and social impacts along with reducing the flow by up to 80% along a {{Convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on|-1}} stretch known as the Volta Grande ("Big Bend").<ref name=rainfoun>{{cite web|title=Summary and History of the Belo Monte Dam: Rainforest Foundation |url=http://www.rainforestfoundationuk.org/files/Belo%20Monte%20Factsheet.pdf |publisher=Summary and History of the Belo Monte Dam: Rainforest Foundation |accessdate=9 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106172656/http://rainforestfoundationuk.org/files/Belo%20Monte%20Factsheet.pdf |archivedate=6 January 2011 }}</ref> The river flow in this stretch is highly complex and includes major sections of [[rapids]].<ref name=Fitzgerald2018>{{Cite journal |author1=Fitzgerald |author2=Perez | author3=Sousa |author4=Gonçalves |author5=Py-Daniel |author6=Lujan |author7=Zuanon |author8=Winemiller |author9=Lundberg |date=2018 |title=Diversity and community structure of rapids-dwelling fishes of the Xingu River: Implications for conservation amid large-scale hydroelectric development | journal=Biological Conservation |volume=222 | pages=104–112 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2018.04.002 }}</ref> More than 450 fish species have been documented in the Xingu River Basin and it is estimated that the total is around 600 fish species, including many [[endemics]].<ref>Camargo, M., T. Giarrizzo and V. Isaac (2004). ''Review of the geographic distribution of fish fauna in the Xingu River Basin, Brazil.'' [[Ecotropica]] 10: 123–147</ref> At least 193 fish species living in rapids are known from the lower Xingu,<ref name=Fitzgerald2018/> and at least 26 of these are endemic.<ref name=Hyland/> From 2008 to 2018 alone, 24 new fish species have been described from the river.<ref name=Fitzgerald2018/><ref name=Hyland>Hyland, T: ''[http://exelmagazine.org/article/race-against-time/ Race against time.]'' Retrieved 4 June 2014.</ref><ref name=Sousa2018>{{cite journal| author1=Sousa, L.M. | author2=M.S. Chaves | author3=A. Akama | author4=J. Zuanon | author5=M.H. Sabaj | year=2018 | title=Platydoras birindellii, new species of striped raphael catfish (Siluriformes: Doradidae) from the Xingu Basin, Brazil | journal=Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia | volume=166 | issue=1 | pages=1–13 | doi=10.1635/053.166.0106 }}</ref> Many species are seriously threatened by the dam, which will significantly alter the flow in the Volta Grande rapids.<ref name=Fitzgerald2018/><ref>Ekström, J. (23 December 2007) ''[http://www.planetcatfish.com/shanesworld/shanesworld.php?article_id=360 Hydroelectric dam constructions in Amazonas.]'' Retrieved 10 February 2013.</ref><ref>Survival International (2009). ''[http://assets.survivalinternational.org/documents/266/Experts_Panel_BeloMonte_summary_oct2009.pdf Experts Panel Assesses Belo Monte Dam Viability].'' Retrieved 10 February 2013.</ref>
[[File:Rio Xingu, Altamira-PA.png|300px|thumb|Big Bend (Volta Grande), Belo Monte reservoir inside. Altamira town at top of loop at left.]]
Its mouth is about 420 km from the Atlantic. Ocean tides are felt about 100km up the Xingu. The lower river north of the Big Bend is very broad, at least at high water.


About 180km south of the mouth (in a straight line) is the Volta Grande or Big Bend where the river makes an S-curve. The [[Trans-Amazonian Highway]] crosses here. Near the highway is the [[Belo Monte Dam]]. The river drops a few hundred feet to the Amazon lowland and the numerous cataracts are a major divide for aquatic life. The rapids tended to block European expansion upriver.
In the Upper Xingu region was a highly self-organized [[pre-Columbian]] anthropogenic landscape, including deposits of fertile agricultural [[terra preta]], black soil in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], with a network of roads and polities each of which covered about 250 square kilometers.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Heckenberger|first=Michael J.|author2=J. Christian Russell |author3=Carlos Fausto |author4=Joshua R. Toney |author5=Morgan J. Schmidt |author6=Edithe Pereira |author7=Bruna Franchetto |author8=Afukaka Kuikuro |date=2008-09-29|title=Pre-Columbian Urbanism, Anthropogenic Landscapes, and the Future of the Amazon|journal=Science|publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science|volume=321|issue=5893|pages=1214–1217|doi=10.1126/science.1159769|pmid=18755979|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/2b80ef3f6f890437d35ce22a47c18aa7e27520b6}}</ref>
About 270km south of the Amazon the Xingu's major tributary, the [[Iriri River]], joins from the west. It flows north perhaps 500km before turning east to join the Xingu. To the west is the low [[Serra do Cachimbo]] which separates the basins of the Xingu and Tapajos.


South of the Big Bend it flows northward about 900km through undeveloped rainforest. The exception is a significant area of deforestation and development near [[São Félix do Xingu]] where the [[Fresco River]] comes in from the east. This is about 550km south of the mouth. About 900km south of its mouth in enters [[Pará]] from [[Mato Grosso]]. The headwaters of the Xingu in Mato Grosso was one of the last parts of Brazil to be reached by Europeans. For this see [[Xingu Indigenous Park]].
Near the source of Xingu River is [[Culuene River]], a 600&nbsp;km tributary.
[[File:Rio Xingu, Vitória do Xingu - Pará.jpg|thumb|300px|Rapids at Vitoria, north of Big Bend, probably at low water]]
[[File:Rio Xingu.jpg|thumb|300px|Middle Xingu. São Felix deforestation at top right]]
It flows through the [[Amazonian rainforest]] except for some scrub-savanna at its headwaters. Around half of its basin is in conservation units. The areas of deforestation are along the Trans-Amazon highway, a projection from the east near São Felix do Xingu and on three sides of the headwaters area.


The only developed crossings appear to be the Trans-Amazon Highway and a dirt road with ferry in Mato Grosso west of [[São José do Xingu]]. The only notable towns are [[Porto de Moz]] near the mouth, [[Vitória do Xingu]], [[Altamira, Para]] on the Big Bend and São Felix.
==In popular culture==
*The name is the title of a humorous [[Edith Wharton]] [[short story]] from 1911.
*"Xingu" is the title of a song on ''[[Waterfall Cities]]'', a 1999 album by [[Ozric Tentacles]].
*The river is also honoured in the album ''[[Aguas da Amazonia]]''.
*A [[Xingu (beer)|beer]] produced near the river is sold in the international market under the name "Xingu".
*In the novel ''[[Relic (novel)|Relic]]'' by [[Douglas Preston]] and [[Lincoln Child]], the Xingu River is the location of the doomed Whittlesey/Maxwell expedition responsible for discovering evidence of the lost Kothoga tribe and their savage god Mbwun.
*It is the name of a 2011 Brazilian movie, directed by famous Brazilian [[Film director|film-maker]] [[Cao Hamburger]]. The movie tells the story of the [[Villas-Bôas brothers]] 1943 expedition to the region, which led to the creation of the indigenous reserve twenty years later.


Historical tribes were, from north to south, the Apenqu at the mouth, the [[Takunyapé language|Taconyape]], [[Juruna]] along most of the river, then the [[Kayapo]] and the tribes of the Xingu Indigenous Park.
==See also==
*[[Percy Fawcett]]
*[[Aloysius Pendergast]]
*[[Xingu National Park]]
*[[Xingu peoples]]


==References==
==Fish==
The numerous rapids prevent most migratory fish from using the river. More than 450 fish species have been documented in the Xingu River Basin and it is estimated that the total is around 600 fish species, including many [[endemics]].<ref>Camargo, M., T. Giarrizzo and V. Isaac (2004). ''Review of the geographic distribution of fish fauna in the Xingu River Basin, Brazil.'' [[Ecotropica]] 10: 123–147</ref> At least 193 fish species living in rapids are known from the lower Xingu,<ref name=Fitzgerald2018/> and at least 26 of these are endemic.<ref name=Hyland/> From 2008 to 2018 alone, 24 new fish species have been described from the river.<ref name=Fitzgerald2018/><ref name=Hyland>Hyland, T: ''[http://exelmagazine.org/article/race-against-time/ Race against time.]'' Retrieved 4 June 2014.</ref><ref name=Sousa2018>{{cite journal| author1=Sousa, L.M. | author2=M.S. Chaves | author3=A. Akama | author4=J. Zuanon | author5=M.H. Sabaj | year=2018 | title=Platydoras birindellii, new species of striped raphael catfish (Siluriformes: Doradidae) from the Xingu Basin, Brazil | journal=Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia | volume=166 | issue=1 | pages=1–13 | doi=10.1635/053.166.0106 }}</ref> Many species are seriously threatened by the dam, which will significantly alter the flow in the Volta Grande rapids.<ref name=Fitzgerald2018/><ref>Ekström, J. (23 December 2007) ''[http://www.planetcatfish.com/shanesworld/shanesworld.php?article_id=360 Hydroelectric dam constructions in Amazonas.]'' Retrieved 10 February 2013.</ref><ref>Survival International (2009). ''[http://assets.survivalinternational.org/documents/266/Experts_Panel_BeloMonte_summary_oct2009.pdf Experts Panel Assesses Belo Monte Dam Viability].'' Retrieved 10 February 2013.</ref>
{{reflist}}
* Cowell, Adrian. 1973. ''The Tribe that Hides from Man''. The Bodely Head, London.
* ''Original text from 1911 [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''


==Sources and footnotes==
==Further reading==
*Smithsoniam Atals of the Amazon, 2003, Chapters 1,2,3 and 8.
*Heinsdijk, Dammis, and Ricardo Lemos Fróes. ''Description of Forest-Types on "Terra Firme" between the Rio Tapajós and the Rio Xingú in the Amazon Valley''. 1956.
*footnotes {{reflist}}
*Sipes, Ernest "Brazilian Indians: what FUNAI Won't Tell YOU". 2002.
*[http://www.brazzillog.com/2003/html/news/articles/aug03/p118aug03.htm Brazilian Indians: What FUNAI Won't Tell You]

==Movies==
* {{IMDb title|id=2142055|title=Xingu|3=(2012)}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2011}}


[[Category:Tributaries of the Amazon River]]
[[Category:Tributaries of the Amazon River]]

Revision as of 04:10, 8 October 2020

Amazon basin with Xingu highlighted

The Xingu River (/ʃiːŋˈɡuː/ sheeng-GOO; Portuguese: Rio Xingu, Portuguese pronunciation: [ʃĩˈɡu]) is a long north-flowing river in the eastern Amazon basin of Brazil. It is the easternmost major tributary of the Amazon. To the east is the Tocantins River, a small part of which may enter the Amazon. To the west is the Tapajos River.

It is about 2100km long, about as long as the Ohio River and its Allegheny tributary. Its basin is about 504,000 km2, roughly the size of France, and makes up about 7.3 percent of the Amazon basin.[1] Its average discharge is about 9,700 m3 /s, which contributes about 4-5% of the Amazon’s waters. Since it is a clearwater river flowing off the Brazilian Highlands it contributes relatively little sediment to the main river.

The river can rise as much as five meters. High water is in Mar-Apr and low water is in Sep-Oct, although this varies with location. At Altamira in the period 1971-1995 the highest flow was 32,298 and lowest flow 808 m3/s. [2].

Description

Big Bend (Volta Grande), Belo Monte reservoir inside. Altamira town at top of loop at left.

Its mouth is about 420 km from the Atlantic. Ocean tides are felt about 100km up the Xingu. The lower river north of the Big Bend is very broad, at least at high water.

About 180km south of the mouth (in a straight line) is the Volta Grande or Big Bend where the river makes an S-curve. The Trans-Amazonian Highway crosses here. Near the highway is the Belo Monte Dam. The river drops a few hundred feet to the Amazon lowland and the numerous cataracts are a major divide for aquatic life. The rapids tended to block European expansion upriver.

About 270km south of the Amazon the Xingu's major tributary, the Iriri River, joins from the west. It flows north perhaps 500km before turning east to join the Xingu. To the west is the low Serra do Cachimbo which separates the basins of the Xingu and Tapajos.

South of the Big Bend it flows northward about 900km through undeveloped rainforest. The exception is a significant area of deforestation and development near São Félix do Xingu where the Fresco River comes in from the east. This is about 550km south of the mouth. About 900km south of its mouth in enters Pará from Mato Grosso. The headwaters of the Xingu in Mato Grosso was one of the last parts of Brazil to be reached by Europeans. For this see Xingu Indigenous Park.

Rapids at Vitoria, north of Big Bend, probably at low water
Middle Xingu. São Felix deforestation at top right

It flows through the Amazonian rainforest except for some scrub-savanna at its headwaters. Around half of its basin is in conservation units. The areas of deforestation are along the Trans-Amazon highway, a projection from the east near São Felix do Xingu and on three sides of the headwaters area.

The only developed crossings appear to be the Trans-Amazon Highway and a dirt road with ferry in Mato Grosso west of São José do Xingu. The only notable towns are Porto de Moz near the mouth, Vitória do Xingu, Altamira, Para on the Big Bend and São Felix.

Historical tribes were, from north to south, the Apenqu at the mouth, the Taconyape, Juruna along most of the river, then the Kayapo and the tribes of the Xingu Indigenous Park.

Fish

The numerous rapids prevent most migratory fish from using the river. More than 450 fish species have been documented in the Xingu River Basin and it is estimated that the total is around 600 fish species, including many endemics.[3] At least 193 fish species living in rapids are known from the lower Xingu,[4] and at least 26 of these are endemic.[5] From 2008 to 2018 alone, 24 new fish species have been described from the river.[4][5][6] Many species are seriously threatened by the dam, which will significantly alter the flow in the Volta Grande rapids.[4][7][8]

Sources and footnotes

  • Smithsoniam Atals of the Amazon, 2003, Chapters 1,2,3 and 8.
  • footnotes
  1. ^ per Smithonian Atlas. Other sources have different figures and it is not clear why they differ. It is also not clear which branch is the official headwaters.
  2. ^ GRDC - Amazon Basin - Station: Altamira
  3. ^ Camargo, M., T. Giarrizzo and V. Isaac (2004). Review of the geographic distribution of fish fauna in the Xingu River Basin, Brazil. Ecotropica 10: 123–147
  4. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference Fitzgerald2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ a b Hyland, T: Race against time. Retrieved 4 June 2014.
  6. ^ Sousa, L.M.; M.S. Chaves; A. Akama; J. Zuanon; M.H. Sabaj (2018). "Platydoras birindellii, new species of striped raphael catfish (Siluriformes: Doradidae) from the Xingu Basin, Brazil". Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 166 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1635/053.166.0106.
  7. ^ Ekström, J. (23 December 2007) Hydroelectric dam constructions in Amazonas. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
  8. ^ Survival International (2009). Experts Panel Assesses Belo Monte Dam Viability. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
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