Radioglaciology: Difference between revisions
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==Measurements and Applications== |
==Measurements and Applications== |
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Radioglaciology uses [[nadir]] facing [[radar]]s to probe the subsurface of [[glacier]]s, [[ice sheet]]s, [[ice cap]]s, and [[icy moon]]s and to detect [[Reflection (physics)|reflected]] and [[Scattering|scattered]] energy from within and beneath the ice.<ref name=":2" /> This geometry tends to emphasize [[Coherence (physics)|coherent]] and [[Specular reflection|specular]] reflected energy resulting in distinct forms or the radar equation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haynes|first=Mark S.|date=April 2020|title=Surface and subsurface radar equations for radar sounders|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0260305520000166/type/journal_article|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=61|issue=81|pages=135–142|doi=10.1017/aog.2020.16|issn=0260-3055}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=M.E.|last2=Blankenship|first2=D.D.|last3=Carter|first3=S.P.|last4=Kempf|first4=S.D.|last5=Young|first5=D.A.|last6=Holt|first6=J.W.|date=September 2007|title=Along-Track Focusing of Airborne Radar Sounding Data From West Antarctica for Improving Basal Reflection Analysis and Layer Detection|url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4294104/|journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing|volume=45|issue=9|pages=2725–2736|doi=10.1109/TGRS.2007.897416|issn=0196-2892}}</ref> Collected radar data typical undergoes [[signal processing]] ranging from stacking (or pre-summing) to [[Seismic migration|migration]] to [[Synthetic-aperture radar|Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)]] focusing in 1, 2, or 3 dimensions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ferro|first=A.|date=2019-06-18|title=Squinted SAR focusing for improving automatic radar sounder data analysis and enhancement|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2019.1573339|journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing|volume=40|issue=12|pages=4762–4786|doi=10.1080/01431161.2019.1573339|issn=0143-1161}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Qiuwang|last2=Kandic|first2=Ivana|last3=Barfield|first3=Jeffrey T.|last4=Kutryk|first4=Michael J.|date=2013|title=Coculture with Late, but Not Early, Human Endothelial Progenitor Cells Up Regulates IL-1βExpression in THP-1 Monocytic Cells in a Paracrine Manner|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/859643|journal=Stem Cells International|volume=2013|pages=1–7|doi=10.1155/2013/859643|issn=1687-966X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paden|first=John|last2=Akins|first2=Torry|last3=Dunson|first3=David|last4=Allen|first4=Chris|last5=Gogineni|first5=Prasad|date=2010/ed|title=Ice-sheet bed 3-D tomography|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-glaciology/article/icesheet-bed-3d-tomography/665FF385052909BD4F5540E1CD91C3DA|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=56|issue=195|pages=3–11|doi=10.3189/002214310791190811|issn=0022-1430}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> This data is collected using ice penetrating radar systems which range from commercial (or bespoke) [[Ground-penetrating radar|ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems]] <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Booth|first=Adam D.|last2=Clark|first2=Roger|last3=Murray|first3=Tavi|date=June 2010|title=Semblance response to a ground-penetrating radar wavelet and resulting errors in velocity analysis|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.3997/1873-0604.2010008|journal=Near Surface Geophysics|language=en|volume=8|issue=3|pages=235–246|doi=10.3997/1873-0604.2010008}}</ref><ref name="Tulaczyk 4495–4506">{{Cite journal|last=Tulaczyk|first=Slawek M.|last2=Foley|first2=Neil T.|date=2020-12-08|title=The role of electrical conductivity in radar wave reflection from glacier beds|url=https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/14/4495/2020/|journal=The Cryosphere|language=English|volume=14|issue=12|pages=4495–4506|doi=10.5194/tc-14-4495-2020|issn=1994-0416}}</ref> to coherent, [[chirp]]ed airborne sounders <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gogineni|first=S.|last2=Tammana|first2=D.|last3=Braaten|first3=D.|last4=Leuschen|first4=C.|last5=Akins|first5=T.|last6=Legarsky|first6=J.|last7=Kanagaratnam|first7=P.|last8=Stiles|first8=J.|last9=Allen|first9=C.|last10=Jezek|first10=K.|date=2001-12-27|title=Coherent radar ice thickness measurements over the Greenland ice sheet|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2001JD900183|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres|language=en|volume=106|issue=D24|pages=33761–33772|doi=10.1029/2001JD900183}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rodriguez-Morales|first=Fernando|last2=Byers|first2=Kyle|last3=Crowe|first3=Reid|last4=Player|first4=Kevin|last5=Hale|first5=Richard D.|last6=Arnold|first6=Emily J.|last7=Smith|first7=Logan|last8=Gifford|first8=Christopher M.|last9=Braaten|first9=David|last10=Panton|first10=Christian|last11=Gogineni|first11=Sivaprasad|date=May 2014|title=Advanced Multifrequency Radar Instrumentation for Polar Research|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6557071/|journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing|volume=52|issue=5|pages=2824–2842|doi=10.1109/TGRS.2013.2266415|issn=0196-2892}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yan|first=J.|last2=Gogineni|first2=P.|last3=O'Neill|first3=C.|date=July 2018|title=L-Band Radar Sounder for Measuing Ice Basal Conditions and Ice-Shelf Melt Rate|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8518210/|journal=IGARSS 2018 - 2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium|pages=4135–4137|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2018.8518210}}</ref> to swath-imaging,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holschuh|first=N.|last2=Christianson|first2=K.|last3=Paden|first3=J.|last4=Alley|first4=R.B.|last5=Anandakrishnan|first5=S.|date=2020-03-01|title=Linking postglacial landscapes to glacier dynamics using swath radar at Thwaites Glacier, Antarctica|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/48/3/268/579962/Linking-postglacial-landscapes-to-glacier-dynamics|journal=Geology|language=en|volume=48|issue=3|pages=268–272|doi=10.1130/G46772.1|issn=0091-7613}}</ref> multi-frequency,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carrer|first=Leonardo|last2=Bruzzone|first2=Lorenzo|date=December 2017|title=Solving for ambiguities in radar geophysical exploration of planetary bodies by mimicking bats echolocation|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-02334-1|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=2248|doi=10.1038/s41467-017-02334-1|issn=2041-1723|pmc=5740182|pmid=29269728}}</ref> or [[Polarimetry|polarimetric]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dall|first=Jorgen|last2=Corr|first2=Hugh F. J.|last3=Walker|first3=Nick|last4=Rommen|first4=Bjorn|last5=Lin|first5=Chung-Chi|date=July 2018|title=Sounding the Antarctic ice sheet from space: a feasibility study based on airborne P-band radar data|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8518826/|journal=IGARSS 2018 - 2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium|location=Valencia|publisher=IEEE|pages=4142–4145|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2018.8518826|isbn=978-1-5386-7150-4}}</ref> implementations of such systems. Additionally, stationary, phase-sensitive, and [[Continuous-wave radar#Modulated continuous-wave|Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW)]] radars <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brennan|first=Paul V.|last2=Lok|first2=Lai Bun|last3=Nicholls|first3=Keith|last4=Corr|first4=Hugh|date=2014|title=Phase-sensitive FMCW radar system for high-precision Antarctic ice shelf profile monitoring|url=https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1049/iet-rsn.2013.0053|journal=IET Radar, Sonar & Navigation|language=en|volume=8|issue=7|pages=776–786|doi=10.1049/iet-rsn.2013.0053|issn=1751-8792}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lok|first=L. B.|last2=Brennan|first2=P. V.|last3=Ash|first3=M.|last4=Nicholls|first4=K. W.|date=July 2015|title=Autonomous phase-sensitive radio echo sounder for monitoring and imaging antarctic ice shelves|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7292636/|journal=2015 8th International Workshop on Advanced Ground Penetrating Radar (IWAGPR)|pages=1–4|doi=10.1109/IWAGPR.2015.7292636}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vaňková|first=Irena|last2=Nicholls|first2=Keith W.|last3=Xie|first3=Surui|last4=Parizek|first4=Byron R.|last5=Voytenko|first5=Denis|last6=Holland|first6=David M.|date=April 2020|title=Depth-dependent artifacts resulting from ApRES signal clipping|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/depthdependent-artifacts-resulting-from-apres-signal-clipping/74C8B78B415646A16B15CF418749D9E0|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=61|issue=81|pages=108–113|doi=10.1017/aog.2020.56|issn=0260-3055}}</ref> have been used to observe snow,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marshall|first=Hans-Peter|last2=Koh|first2=Gary|date=2008-04-01|title=FMCW radars for snow research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165232X07000833|journal=Cold Regions Science and Technology|series=Research in Cryospheric Science and Engineering|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=118–131|doi=10.1016/j.coldregions.2007.04.008|issn=0165-232X}}</ref> ice shelf melt rates,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corr|first=H. F. J.|last2=Jenkins|first2=A.|last3=Nicholls|first3=K. W.|last4=Doake|first4=C. S. M.|date=April 2002|title=Precise measurement of changes in ice-shelf thickness by phase-sensitive radar to determine basal melt rates: ICE MELT RATES REVEALED BY RADAR|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2001GL014618|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=29|issue=8|pages=73–1–74-4|doi=10.1029/2001GL014618}}</ref> englacial hydrology,<ref name="Kendrick">{{Cite journal|last=Kendrick|first=A. K.|last2=Schroeder|first2=D. M.|last3=Chu|first3=W.|last4=Young|first4=T. J.|last5=Christoffersen|first5=P.|last6=Todd|first6=J.|last7=Doyle|first7=S. H.|last8=Box|first8=J. E.|last9=Hubbard|first9=A.|last10=Hubbard|first10=B.|last11=Brennan|first11=P. V.|date=2018-10-16|title=Surface Meltwater Impounded by Seasonal Englacial Storage in West Greenland|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2018GL079787|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=45|issue=19|doi=10.1029/2018GL079787|issn=0094-8276}}</ref> ice sheet structure,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Young|first=Tun Jan|last2=Schroeder|first2=Dustin M.|last3=Christoffersen|first3=Poul|last4=Lok|first4=Lai Bun|last5=Nicholls|first5=Keith W.|last6=Brennan|first6=Paul V.|last7=Doyle|first7=Samuel H.|last8=Hubbard|first8=Bryn|last9=Hubbard|first9=Alun|date=August 2018|title=Resolving the internal and basal geometry of ice masses using imaging phase-sensitive radar|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022143018000540/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=64|issue=246|pages=649–660|doi=10.1017/jog.2018.54|issn=0022-1430}}</ref> and vertical ice flow.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kingslake|first=Jonathan|last2=Hindmarsh|first2=Richard C. A.|last3=Aðalgeirsdóttir|first3=Guðfinna|last4=Conway|first4=Howard|last5=Corr|first5=Hugh F. J.|last6=Gillet‐Chaulet|first6=Fabien|last7=Martín|first7=Carlos|last8=King|first8=Edward C.|last9=Mulvaney|first9=Robert|last10=Pritchard|first10=Hamish D.|date=2014|title=Full-depth englacial vertical ice sheet velocities measured using phase-sensitive radar|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2014JF003275|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|language=en|volume=119|issue=12|pages=2604–2618|doi=10.1002/2014JF003275|issn=2169-9011}}</ref> [[Interferometric synthetic-aperture radar|Interferometric]] analysis of airborne systems have also been demonstrated to measure vertical ice flow.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Castelletti|first=D.|last2=Schroeder|first2=D. M.|last3=Jordan|first3=T. M.|last4=Young|first4=D.|date=2020|title=Permanent Scatterers in Repeat-Pass Airborne VHF Radar Sounder for Layer-Velocity Estimation|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9143148/|journal=IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters|pages=1–5|doi=10.1109/LGRS.2020.3007514|issn=1558-0571}}</ref> Additionally, radioglaciological instruments have been developed to operate on autonomous platforms,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arcone|first=Steven A.|last2=Lever|first2=James H.|last3=Ray|first3=Laura E.|last4=Walker|first4=Benjamin S.|last5=Hamilton|first5=Gordon|last6=Kaluzienski|first6=Lynn|date=2016-01-01|title=Ground-penetrating radar profiles of the McMurdo Shear Zone, Antarctica, acquired with an unmanned rover: Interpretation of crevasses, fractures, and folds within firn and marine ice|url=https://library.seg.org/doi/10.1190/geo2015-0132.1|journal=GEOPHYSICS|language=en|volume=81|issue=1|pages=WA21–WA34|doi=10.1190/geo2015-0132.1|issn=0016-8033}}</ref> on in-situ probes,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bagshaw|first=E. A.|last2=Lishman|first2=B.|last3=Wadham|first3=J. L.|last4=Bowden|first4=J. A.|last5=Burrow|first5=S. G.|last6=Clare|first6=L. R.|last7=Chandler|first7=D.|date=2014/ed|title=Novel wireless sensors for in situ measurement of sub-ice hydrologic systems|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/novel-wireless-sensors-for-in-situ-measurement-of-subice-hydrologic-systems/3DB2AA304A87519CBF9AB72579E3FDB3|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=55|issue=65|pages=41–50|doi=10.3189/2014AoG65A007|issn=0260-3055}}</ref> in low-cost deployments,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mingo|first=Laurent|last2=Flowers|first2=Gwenn E.|last3=Crawford|first3=Anna J.|last4=Mueller|first4=Derek R.|last5=Bigelow|first5=David G.|date=April 2020|title=A stationary impulse-radar system for autonomous deployment in cold and temperate environments|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/stationary-impulseradar-system-for-autonomous-deployment-in-cold-and-temperate-environments/7AA6AF76E87AA2E8AFE4317152BC1FB5|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=61|issue=81|pages=99–107|doi=10.1017/aog.2020.2|issn=0260-3055}}</ref> using [[Software-defined radio|Software Defined Radios]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liu|first=Peng|last2=Mendoza|first2=Jesus|last3=Hu|first3=Hanxiong|last4=Burkett|first4=Peter G.|last5=Urbina|first5=Julio V.|last6=Anandakrishnan|first6=Sridhar|last7=Bilen|first7=Sven G.|date=March 2019|title=Software-Defined Radar Systems for Polar Ice-Sheet Research|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8654719/|journal=IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing|volume=12|issue=3|pages=803–820|doi=10.1109/JSTARS.2019.2895616|issn=1939-1404}}</ref> and exploiting ambient radio signals for passive sounding.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=Sean T.|last2=Schroeder|first2=Dustin M.|last3=Castelletti|first3=Davide|last4=Haynes|first4=Mark|last5=Romero-Wolf|first5=Andrew|date=December 2018|title=In Situ Demonstration of a Passive Radio Sounding Approach Using the Sun for Echo Detection|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8418789/|journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing|volume=56|issue=12|pages=7338–7349|doi=10.1109/TGRS.2018.2850662|issn=0196-2892}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Romero-Wolf|first=Andrew|last2=Vance|first2=Steve|last3=Maiwald|first3=Frank|last4=Heggy|first4=Essam|last5=Ries|first5=Paul|last6=Liewer|first6=Kurt|date=2015-03-01|title=A passive probe for subsurface oceans and liquid water in Jupiter’s icy moons|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103514006009|journal=Icarus|language=en|volume=248|pages=463–477|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2014.10.043|issn=0019-1035}}</ref> |
Radioglaciology uses [[nadir]] facing [[radar]]s to probe the subsurface of [[glacier]]s, [[ice sheet]]s, [[ice cap]]s, and [[icy moon]]s and to detect [[Reflection (physics)|reflected]] and [[Scattering|scattered]] energy from within and beneath the ice.<ref name=":2" /> This geometry tends to emphasize [[Coherence (physics)|coherent]] and [[Specular reflection|specular]] reflected energy resulting in distinct forms or the radar equation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haynes|first=Mark S.|date=April 2020|title=Surface and subsurface radar equations for radar sounders|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0260305520000166/type/journal_article|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=61|issue=81|pages=135–142|doi=10.1017/aog.2020.16|issn=0260-3055}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=M.E.|last2=Blankenship|first2=D.D.|last3=Carter|first3=S.P.|last4=Kempf|first4=S.D.|last5=Young|first5=D.A.|last6=Holt|first6=J.W.|date=September 2007|title=Along-Track Focusing of Airborne Radar Sounding Data From West Antarctica for Improving Basal Reflection Analysis and Layer Detection|url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4294104/|journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing|volume=45|issue=9|pages=2725–2736|doi=10.1109/TGRS.2007.897416|issn=0196-2892}}</ref> Collected radar data typical undergoes [[signal processing]] ranging from stacking (or pre-summing) to [[Seismic migration|migration]] to [[Synthetic-aperture radar|Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)]] focusing in 1, 2, or 3 dimensions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ferro|first=A.|date=2019-06-18|title=Squinted SAR focusing for improving automatic radar sounder data analysis and enhancement|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2019.1573339|journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing|volume=40|issue=12|pages=4762–4786|doi=10.1080/01431161.2019.1573339|issn=0143-1161}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Qiuwang|last2=Kandic|first2=Ivana|last3=Barfield|first3=Jeffrey T.|last4=Kutryk|first4=Michael J.|date=2013|title=Coculture with Late, but Not Early, Human Endothelial Progenitor Cells Up Regulates IL-1βExpression in THP-1 Monocytic Cells in a Paracrine Manner|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/859643|journal=Stem Cells International|volume=2013|pages=1–7|doi=10.1155/2013/859643|issn=1687-966X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paden|first=John|last2=Akins|first2=Torry|last3=Dunson|first3=David|last4=Allen|first4=Chris|last5=Gogineni|first5=Prasad|date=2010/ed|title=Ice-sheet bed 3-D tomography|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-glaciology/article/icesheet-bed-3d-tomography/665FF385052909BD4F5540E1CD91C3DA|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=56|issue=195|pages=3–11|doi=10.3189/002214310791190811|issn=0022-1430}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> This data is collected using ice penetrating radar systems which range from commercial (or bespoke) [[Ground-penetrating radar|ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems]] <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Booth|first=Adam D.|last2=Clark|first2=Roger|last3=Murray|first3=Tavi|date=June 2010|title=Semblance response to a ground-penetrating radar wavelet and resulting errors in velocity analysis|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.3997/1873-0604.2010008|journal=Near Surface Geophysics|language=en|volume=8|issue=3|pages=235–246|doi=10.3997/1873-0604.2010008}}</ref><ref name="Tulaczyk 4495–4506">{{Cite journal|last=Tulaczyk|first=Slawek M.|last2=Foley|first2=Neil T.|date=2020-12-08|title=The role of electrical conductivity in radar wave reflection from glacier beds|url=https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/14/4495/2020/|journal=The Cryosphere|language=English|volume=14|issue=12|pages=4495–4506|doi=10.5194/tc-14-4495-2020|issn=1994-0416}}</ref> to coherent, [[chirp]]ed airborne sounders <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gogineni|first=S.|last2=Tammana|first2=D.|last3=Braaten|first3=D.|last4=Leuschen|first4=C.|last5=Akins|first5=T.|last6=Legarsky|first6=J.|last7=Kanagaratnam|first7=P.|last8=Stiles|first8=J.|last9=Allen|first9=C.|last10=Jezek|first10=K.|date=2001-12-27|title=Coherent radar ice thickness measurements over the Greenland ice sheet|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2001JD900183|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres|language=en|volume=106|issue=D24|pages=33761–33772|doi=10.1029/2001JD900183}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rodriguez-Morales|first=Fernando|last2=Byers|first2=Kyle|last3=Crowe|first3=Reid|last4=Player|first4=Kevin|last5=Hale|first5=Richard D.|last6=Arnold|first6=Emily J.|last7=Smith|first7=Logan|last8=Gifford|first8=Christopher M.|last9=Braaten|first9=David|last10=Panton|first10=Christian|last11=Gogineni|first11=Sivaprasad|date=May 2014|title=Advanced Multifrequency Radar Instrumentation for Polar Research|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6557071/|journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing|volume=52|issue=5|pages=2824–2842|doi=10.1109/TGRS.2013.2266415|issn=0196-2892}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yan|first=J.|last2=Gogineni|first2=P.|last3=O'Neill|first3=C.|date=July 2018|title=L-Band Radar Sounder for Measuing Ice Basal Conditions and Ice-Shelf Melt Rate|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8518210/|journal=IGARSS 2018 - 2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium|pages=4135–4137|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2018.8518210}}</ref> to swath-imaging,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holschuh|first=N.|last2=Christianson|first2=K.|last3=Paden|first3=J.|last4=Alley|first4=R.B.|last5=Anandakrishnan|first5=S.|date=2020-03-01|title=Linking postglacial landscapes to glacier dynamics using swath radar at Thwaites Glacier, Antarctica|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/48/3/268/579962/Linking-postglacial-landscapes-to-glacier-dynamics|journal=Geology|language=en|volume=48|issue=3|pages=268–272|doi=10.1130/G46772.1|issn=0091-7613}}</ref> multi-frequency,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carrer|first=Leonardo|last2=Bruzzone|first2=Lorenzo|date=December 2017|title=Solving for ambiguities in radar geophysical exploration of planetary bodies by mimicking bats echolocation|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-02334-1|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=2248|doi=10.1038/s41467-017-02334-1|issn=2041-1723|pmc=5740182|pmid=29269728}}</ref> or [[Polarimetry|polarimetric]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dall|first=Jorgen|last2=Corr|first2=Hugh F. J.|last3=Walker|first3=Nick|last4=Rommen|first4=Bjorn|last5=Lin|first5=Chung-Chi|date=July 2018|title=Sounding the Antarctic ice sheet from space: a feasibility study based on airborne P-band radar data|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8518826/|journal=IGARSS 2018 - 2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium|location=Valencia|publisher=IEEE|pages=4142–4145|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2018.8518826|isbn=978-1-5386-7150-4}}</ref> implementations of such systems. Additionally, stationary, phase-sensitive, and [[Continuous-wave radar#Modulated continuous-wave|Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW)]] radars <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brennan|first=Paul V.|last2=Lok|first2=Lai Bun|last3=Nicholls|first3=Keith|last4=Corr|first4=Hugh|date=2014|title=Phase-sensitive FMCW radar system for high-precision Antarctic ice shelf profile monitoring|url=https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1049/iet-rsn.2013.0053|journal=IET Radar, Sonar & Navigation|language=en|volume=8|issue=7|pages=776–786|doi=10.1049/iet-rsn.2013.0053|issn=1751-8792}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lok|first=L. B.|last2=Brennan|first2=P. V.|last3=Ash|first3=M.|last4=Nicholls|first4=K. W.|date=July 2015|title=Autonomous phase-sensitive radio echo sounder for monitoring and imaging antarctic ice shelves|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7292636/|journal=2015 8th International Workshop on Advanced Ground Penetrating Radar (IWAGPR)|pages=1–4|doi=10.1109/IWAGPR.2015.7292636}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vaňková|first=Irena|last2=Nicholls|first2=Keith W.|last3=Xie|first3=Surui|last4=Parizek|first4=Byron R.|last5=Voytenko|first5=Denis|last6=Holland|first6=David M.|date=April 2020|title=Depth-dependent artifacts resulting from ApRES signal clipping|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/depthdependent-artifacts-resulting-from-apres-signal-clipping/74C8B78B415646A16B15CF418749D9E0|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=61|issue=81|pages=108–113|doi=10.1017/aog.2020.56|issn=0260-3055}}</ref> have been used to observe snow,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marshall|first=Hans-Peter|last2=Koh|first2=Gary|date=2008-04-01|title=FMCW radars for snow research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165232X07000833|journal=Cold Regions Science and Technology|series=Research in Cryospheric Science and Engineering|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=118–131|doi=10.1016/j.coldregions.2007.04.008|issn=0165-232X}}</ref> ice shelf melt rates,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corr|first=H. F. J.|last2=Jenkins|first2=A.|last3=Nicholls|first3=K. W.|last4=Doake|first4=C. S. M.|date=April 2002|title=Precise measurement of changes in ice-shelf thickness by phase-sensitive radar to determine basal melt rates: ICE MELT RATES REVEALED BY RADAR|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2001GL014618|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=29|issue=8|pages=73–1–74-4|doi=10.1029/2001GL014618}}</ref> englacial hydrology,<ref name="Kendrick">{{Cite journal|last=Kendrick|first=A. K.|last2=Schroeder|first2=D. M.|last3=Chu|first3=W.|last4=Young|first4=T. J.|last5=Christoffersen|first5=P.|last6=Todd|first6=J.|last7=Doyle|first7=S. H.|last8=Box|first8=J. E.|last9=Hubbard|first9=A.|last10=Hubbard|first10=B.|last11=Brennan|first11=P. 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| last1 = Gillet-Chaulet| first1 = F.| last2 = Hindmarsh | first2 = R.C.A. | last3 = Corr | first3 = H.F.J. | last4 = King | first4 = E.C. | last5 = Jenkins | first5 = A. |
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| title = In-situ quantification of ice rheology and direct measurement of the Raymond Effect at Summit, Greenland using a phase-sensitive radar |
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| date = 2011 | journal = [[Geophysical Research Letters]] | volume = 38 | doi = 10.1029/2011GL049843 |
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| url = https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2011GL049843 | doi-access = free |
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}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kingslake|first=Jonathan|last2=Hindmarsh|first2=Richard C. A.|last3=Aðalgeirsdóttir|first3=Guðfinna|last4=Conway|first4=Howard|last5=Corr|first5=Hugh F. J.|last6=Gillet‐Chaulet|first6=Fabien|last7=Martín|first7=Carlos|last8=King|first8=Edward C.|last9=Mulvaney|first9=Robert|last10=Pritchard|first10=Hamish D.|date=2014|title=Full-depth englacial vertical ice sheet velocities measured using phase-sensitive radar|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2014JF003275|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|language=en|volume=119|issue=12|pages=2604–2618|doi=10.1002/2014JF003275|issn=2169-9011}}</ref> [[Interferometric synthetic-aperture radar|Interferometric]] analysis of airborne systems have also been demonstrated to measure vertical ice flow.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Castelletti|first=D.|last2=Schroeder|first2=D. M.|last3=Jordan|first3=T. M.|last4=Young|first4=D.|date=2020|title=Permanent Scatterers in Repeat-Pass Airborne VHF Radar Sounder for Layer-Velocity Estimation|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9143148/|journal=IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters|pages=1–5|doi=10.1109/LGRS.2020.3007514|issn=1558-0571}}</ref> Additionally, radioglaciological instruments have been developed to operate on autonomous platforms,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arcone|first=Steven A.|last2=Lever|first2=James H.|last3=Ray|first3=Laura E.|last4=Walker|first4=Benjamin S.|last5=Hamilton|first5=Gordon|last6=Kaluzienski|first6=Lynn|date=2016-01-01|title=Ground-penetrating radar profiles of the McMurdo Shear Zone, Antarctica, acquired with an unmanned rover: Interpretation of crevasses, fractures, and folds within firn and marine ice|url=https://library.seg.org/doi/10.1190/geo2015-0132.1|journal=GEOPHYSICS|language=en|volume=81|issue=1|pages=WA21–WA34|doi=10.1190/geo2015-0132.1|issn=0016-8033}}</ref> on in-situ probes,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bagshaw|first=E. A.|last2=Lishman|first2=B.|last3=Wadham|first3=J. L.|last4=Bowden|first4=J. A.|last5=Burrow|first5=S. G.|last6=Clare|first6=L. R.|last7=Chandler|first7=D.|date=2014/ed|title=Novel wireless sensors for in situ measurement of sub-ice hydrologic systems|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/novel-wireless-sensors-for-in-situ-measurement-of-subice-hydrologic-systems/3DB2AA304A87519CBF9AB72579E3FDB3|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=55|issue=65|pages=41–50|doi=10.3189/2014AoG65A007|issn=0260-3055}}</ref> in low-cost deployments,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mingo|first=Laurent|last2=Flowers|first2=Gwenn E.|last3=Crawford|first3=Anna J.|last4=Mueller|first4=Derek R.|last5=Bigelow|first5=David G.|date=April 2020|title=A stationary impulse-radar system for autonomous deployment in cold and temperate environments|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/stationary-impulseradar-system-for-autonomous-deployment-in-cold-and-temperate-environments/7AA6AF76E87AA2E8AFE4317152BC1FB5|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=61|issue=81|pages=99–107|doi=10.1017/aog.2020.2|issn=0260-3055}}</ref> using [[Software-defined radio|Software Defined Radios]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liu|first=Peng|last2=Mendoza|first2=Jesus|last3=Hu|first3=Hanxiong|last4=Burkett|first4=Peter G.|last5=Urbina|first5=Julio V.|last6=Anandakrishnan|first6=Sridhar|last7=Bilen|first7=Sven G.|date=March 2019|title=Software-Defined Radar Systems for Polar Ice-Sheet Research|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8654719/|journal=IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing|volume=12|issue=3|pages=803–820|doi=10.1109/JSTARS.2019.2895616|issn=1939-1404}}</ref> and exploiting ambient radio signals for passive sounding.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=Sean T.|last2=Schroeder|first2=Dustin M.|last3=Castelletti|first3=Davide|last4=Haynes|first4=Mark|last5=Romero-Wolf|first5=Andrew|date=December 2018|title=In Situ Demonstration of a Passive Radio Sounding Approach Using the Sun for Echo Detection|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8418789/|journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing|volume=56|issue=12|pages=7338–7349|doi=10.1109/TGRS.2018.2850662|issn=0196-2892}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Romero-Wolf|first=Andrew|last2=Vance|first2=Steve|last3=Maiwald|first3=Frank|last4=Heggy|first4=Essam|last5=Ries|first5=Paul|last6=Liewer|first6=Kurt|date=2015-03-01|title=A passive probe for subsurface oceans and liquid water in Jupiter’s icy moons|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103514006009|journal=Icarus|language=en|volume=248|pages=463–477|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2014.10.043|issn=0019-1035}}</ref> |
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The most common scientific application for radioglaciological observations is measuring ice thickness and bed topography. This includes [[Interpolation|interpolated]] “bed maps”,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bamber|first=J. L.|last2=Griggs|first2=J. A.|last3=Hurkmans|first3=R. T. W. L.|last4=Dowdeswell|first4=J. A.|last5=Gogineni|first5=S. P.|last6=Howat|first6=I.|last7=Mouginot|first7=J.|last8=Paden|first8=J.|last9=Palmer|first9=S.|last10=Rignot|first10=E.|last11=Steinhage|first11=D.|date=2013-03-22|title=A new bed elevation dataset for Greenland|url=https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/7/499/2013/|journal=The Cryosphere|language=English|volume=7|issue=2|pages=499–510|doi=10.5194/tc-7-499-2013|issn=1994-0416}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=MacKie|first=E. J.|last2=Schroeder|first2=D. M.|last3=Caers|first3=J.|last4=Siegfried|first4=M. R.|last5=Scheidt|first5=C.|date=2020|title=Antarctic Topographic Realizations and Geostatistical Modeling Used to Map Subglacial Lakes|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2019JF005420|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|language=en|volume=125|issue=3|pages=e2019JF005420|doi=10.1029/2019JF005420|issn=2169-9011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morlighem|first=M.|last2=Rignot|first2=E.|last3=Seroussi|first3=H.|last4=Larour|first4=E.|last5=Dhia|first5=H. Ben|last6=Aubry|first6=D.|date=2011|title=A mass conservation approach for mapping glacier ice thickness|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2011GL048659|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=38|issue=19|doi=10.1029/2011GL048659|issn=1944-8007}}</ref> widely used in [[Ice-sheet model|ice sheet modeling]] and [[Sea level rise|sea level rise projections]], studies exploring specific ice-sheet regions,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bo|first=Sun|last2=Siegert|first2=Martin J.|last3=Mudd|first3=Simon M.|last4=Sugden|first4=David|last5=Fujita|first5=Shuji|last6=Xiangbin|first6=Cui|last7=Yunyun|first7=Jiang|last8=Xueyuan|first8=Tang|last9=Yuansheng|first9=Li|date=June 2009|title=The Gamburtsev mountains and the origin and early evolution of the Antarctic Ice Sheet|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature08024|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=459|issue=7247|pages=690–693|doi=10.1038/nature08024|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=King|first=Edward C.|date=April 2020|title=The precision of radar-derived subglacial bed topography: a case study from Pine Island Glacier, Antarctica|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0260305520000336/type/journal_article|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=61|issue=81|pages=154–161|doi=10.1017/aog.2020.33|issn=0260-3055}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Neil|last2=Bingham|first2=Robert G.|last3=Corr|first3=Hugh F. 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K. C.|last2=Cross|first2=G. M.|last3=Benson|first3=C. S.|date=1987/ed|title=Airborne UHF Radar Measurements of Caldera Geometry and Volcanic History, Mount Wrangell, Alaska, U.S.A.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/airborne-uhf-radar-measurements-of-caldera-geometry-and-volcanic-history-mount-wrangell-alaska-usa/E80FE9E4D2A73F6DF539883139685E9F|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=9|pages=236–237|doi=10.3189/S0260305500000707|issn=0260-3055}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flowers|first=Gwenn E.|last2=Clarke|first2=Garry K. 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J.-M. C. Leysinger|last2=Hindmarsh|first2=R. C. A.|last3=Siegert|first3=M. J.|date=2007/ed|title=Three-dimensional flow influences on radar layer stratigraphy|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/threedimensional-flow-influences-on-radar-layer-stratigraphy/94F7AA070907CD0A93D932218BB35D54|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=46|pages=22–28|doi=10.3189/172756407782871729|issn=0260-3055}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pettit|first=Erin C.|last2=Waddington|first2=Edwin D.|last3=Harrison|first3=William D.|last4=Thorsteinsson|first4=Throstur|last5=Elsberg|first5=Daniel|last6=Morack|first6=John|last7=Zumberge|first7=Mark A.|date=2011|title=The crossover stress, anisotropy and the ice flow law at Siple Dome, West Antarctica|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022143000204620/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=57|issue=201|pages=39–52|doi=10.3189/002214311795306619|issn=0022-1430}}</ref> and [[Fabric (geology)|fabric]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jordan|first=Thomas M.|last2=Schroeder|first2=Dustin M.|last3=Castelletti|first3=Davide|last4=Li|first4=Jilu|last5=Dall|first5=Jorgen|date=November 2019|title=A Polarimetric Coherence Method to Determine Ice Crystal Orientation Fabric From Radar Sounding: Application to the NEEM Ice Core Region|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8755860/|journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing|volume=57|issue=11|pages=8641–8657|doi=10.1109/TGRS.2019.2921980|issn=0196-2892}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martín|first=Carlos|last2=Gudmundsson|first2=G. Hilmar|last3=Pritchard|first3=Hamish D.|last4=Gagliardini|first4=Olivier|date=2009-10-14|title=On the effects of anisotropic rheology on ice flow, internal structure, and the age-depth relationship at ice divides|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2008JF001204|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|language=en|volume=114|issue=F4|pages=F04001|doi=10.1029/2008JF001204|issn=0148-0227}}</ref> as well as absence or disturbances of that stratigraphy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bell|first=R. E.|last2=Ferraccioli|first2=F.|last3=Creyts|first3=T. T.|last4=Braaten|first4=D.|last5=Corr|first5=H.|last6=Das|first6=I.|last7=Damaske|first7=D.|last8=Frearson|first8=N.|last9=Jordan|first9=T.|last10=Rose|first10=K.|last11=Studinger|first11=M.|date=2011-03-25|title=Widespread Persistent Thickening of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet by Freezing from the Base|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1200109|journal=Science|language=en|volume=331|issue=6024|pages=1592–1595|doi=10.1126/science.1200109|issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drews|first=R.|last2=Eisen|first2=O.|last3=Weikusat|first3=I.|last4=Kipfstuhl|first4=S.|last5=Lambrecht|first5=A.|last6=Steinhage|first6=D.|last7=Wilhelms|first7=F.|last8=Miller|first8=H.|date=2009-08-25|title=Layer disturbances and the radio-echo free zone in ice sheets|url=https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/3/195/2009/|journal=The Cryosphere|language=English|volume=3|issue=2|pages=195–203|doi=10.5194/tc-3-195-2009|issn=1994-0416}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Winter|first=Kate|last2=Woodward|first2=John|last3=Ross|first3=Neil|last4=Dunning|first4=Stuart A.|last5=Hein|first5=Andrew S.|last6=Westoby|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Culberg|first7=Riley|last8=Marrero|first8=Shasta M.|last9=Schroeder|first9=Dustin M.|last10=Sugden|first10=David E.|last11=Siegert|first11=Martin J.|date=2019|title=Radar-Detected Englacial Debris in the West Antarctic Ice Sheet|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2019GL084012|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=46|issue=17-18|pages=10454–10462|doi=10.1029/2019GL084012|issn=1944-8007}}</ref> Radioglaciology data has also been used extensively to study [[subglacial lake]]s<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter|first=Sasha P.|last2=Blankenship|first2=Donald D.|last3=Peters|first3=Matthew E.|last4=Young|first4=Duncan A.|last5=Holt|first5=John W.|last6=Morse|first6=David L.|date=March 2007|title=Radar-based subglacial lake classification in Antarctica: ANTARCTIC SUBGLACIAL LAKES|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2006GC001408|journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|language=en|volume=8|issue=3|pages=n/a–n/a|doi=10.1029/2006GC001408}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ilisei|first=Ana-Maria|last2=Khodadadzadeh|first2=Mahdi|last3=Ferro|first3=Adamo|last4=Bruzzone|first4=Lorenzo|date=June 2019|title=An Automatic Method for Subglacial Lake Detection in Ice Sheet Radar Sounder Data|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8590794/|journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing|volume=57|issue=6|pages=3252–3270|doi=10.1109/TGRS.2018.2882911|issn=0196-2892}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oswald|first=G. K. A.|last2=Robin|first2=G. De Q.|date=October 1973|title=Lakes Beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/245251a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=245|issue=5423|pages=251–254|doi=10.1038/245251a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Palmer|first=Steven J.|last2=Dowdeswell|first2=Julian A.|last3=Christoffersen|first3=Poul|last4=Young|first4=Duncan A.|last5=Blankenship|first5=Donald D.|last6=Greenbaum|first6=Jamin S.|last7=Benham|first7=Toby|last8=Bamber|first8=Jonathan|last9=Siegert|first9=Martin J.|date=2013|title=Greenland subglacial lakes detected by radar|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2013GL058383|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=40|issue=23|pages=6154–6159|doi=10.1002/2013GL058383|issn=1944-8007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rutishauser|first=Anja|last2=Blankenship|first2=Donald D.|last3=Sharp|first3=Martin|last4=Skidmore|first4=Mark L.|last5=Greenbaum|first5=Jamin S.|last6=Grima|first6=Cyril|last7=Schroeder|first7=Dustin M.|last8=Dowdeswell|first8=Julian A.|last9=Young|first9=Duncan A.|date=2018-04-01|title=Discovery of a hypersaline subglacial lake complex beneath Devon Ice Cap, Canadian Arctic|url=https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/4/eaar4353|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=eaar4353|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aar4353|issn=2375-2548|pmc=5895444|pmid=29651462}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegert|first=Martin J.|date=2018|title=A 60-year international history of Antarctic subglacial lake exploration|url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/lookup/doi/10.1144/SP461.5|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications|language=en|volume=461|issue=1|pages=7–21|doi=10.1144/SP461.5|issn=0305-8719}}</ref> and glacial [[hydrology]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wolovick|first=Michael J.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin E.|last3=Creyts|first3=Timothy T.|last4=Frearson|first4=Nicholas|date=2013|title=Identification and control of subglacial water networks under Dome A, Antarctica|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2012JF002555|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|language=en|volume=118|issue=1|pages=140–154|doi=10.1029/2012JF002555|issn=2169-9011}}</ref> including englacial water,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Björnsson|first=Helgi|last2=Gjessing|first2=Yngvar|last3=Hamran|first3=Svein-Erik|last4=Hagen|first4=Jon Ove|last5=LiestøL|first5=Olav|last6=Pálsson|first6=Finnur|last7=Erlingsson|first7=Björn|date=1996|title=The thermal regime of sub-polar glaciers mapped by multi-frequency radio-echo sounding|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022143000030495/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=42|issue=140|pages=23–32|doi=10.3189/S0022143000030495|issn=0022-1430}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bradford|first=John H.|last2=Harper|first2=Joel T.|date=2005|title=Wave field migration as a tool for estimating spatially continuous radar velocity and water content in glaciers|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2004GL021770|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=32|issue=8|doi=10.1029/2004GL021770|issn=1944-8007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Murray|first=Tavi|last2=Stuart|first2=Graham W.|last3=Fry|first3=Matt|last4=Gamble|first4=Nicola H.|last5=Crabtree|first5=Mike D.|date=2000/ed|title=Englacial water distribution in a temperate glacier from surface and borehole radar velocity analysis|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-glaciology/article/englacial-water-distribution-in-a-temperate-glacier-from-surface-and-borehole-radar-velocity-analysis/49C1E579B840B9CAFD23296F30FBC805|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=46|issue=154|pages=389–398|doi=10.3189/172756500781833188|issn=0022-1430}}</ref> firn aquifers,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Forster|first=Richard R.|last2=Box|first2=Jason E.|last3=van den Broeke|first3=Michiel R.|last4=Miège|first4=Clément|last5=Burgess|first5=Evan W.|last6=van Angelen|first6=Jan H.|last7=Lenaerts|first7=Jan T. M.|last8=Koenig|first8=Lora S.|last9=Paden|first9=John|last10=Lewis|first10=Cameron|last11=Gogineni|first11=S. Prasad|date=February 2014|title=Extensive liquid meltwater storage in firn within the Greenland ice sheet|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2043|journal=Nature Geoscience|language=en|volume=7|issue=2|pages=95–98|doi=10.1038/ngeo2043|issn=1752-0908}}</ref> and their temporal evolution.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chu|first=W.|last2=Schroeder|first2=D. M.|last3=Siegfried|first3=M. R.|date=2018-11-16|title=Retrieval of Englacial Firn Aquifer Thickness From Ice-Penetrating Radar Sounding in Southeastern Greenland|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2018GL079751|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=45|issue=21|pages=11,770–11,778|doi=10.1029/2018GL079751}}</ref><ref name="Kendrick"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kulessa|first=B.|last2=Booth|first2=A. D.|last3=Hobbs|first3=A.|last4=Hubbard|first4=A. L.|date=2008|title=Automated monitoring of subglacial hydrological processes with ground-penetrating radar (GPR) at high temporal resolution: scope and potential pitfalls|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2008GL035855|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=35|issue=24|doi=10.1029/2008GL035855|issn=1944-8007}}</ref> Ice penetrating radar data has also been used to investigate the subsurface of [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]] including their grounding zones,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Catania|first=G. A.|last2=Conway|first2=H.|last3=Raymond|first3=C. F.|last4=Scambos|first4=T. A.|date=2006|title=Evidence for floatation or near floatation in the mouth of Kamb Ice Stream, West Antarctica, prior to stagnation|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2005JF000355|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|language=en|volume=111|issue=F1|doi=10.1029/2005JF000355|issn=2156-2202}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Greenbaum|first=J. S.|last2=Blankenship|first2=D. D.|last3=Young|first3=D. A.|last4=Richter|first4=T. G.|last5=Roberts|first5=J. L.|last6=Aitken|first6=A. R. A.|last7=Legresy|first7=B.|last8=Schroeder|first8=D. M.|last9=Warner|first9=R. C.|last10=van Ommen|first10=T. D.|last11=Siegert|first11=M. J.|date=April 2015|title=Ocean access to a cavity beneath Totten Glacier in East Antarctica|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2388|journal=Nature Geoscience|language=en|volume=8|issue=4|pages=294–298|doi=10.1038/ngeo2388|issn=1752-0894}}</ref> melt rates,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khazendar|first=Ala|last2=Rignot|first2=Eric|last3=Schroeder|first3=Dustin M.|last4=Seroussi|first4=Helene|last5=Schodlok|first5=Michael P.|last6=Scheuchl|first6=Bernd|last7=Mouginot|first7=Jeremie|last8=Sutterley|first8=Tyler C.|last9=Velicogna|first9=Isabella|date=December 2016|title=Rapid submarine ice melting in the grounding zones of ice shelves in West Antarctica|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms13243|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=13243|doi=10.1038/ncomms13243|issn=2041-1723|pmc=5093338|pmid=27780191}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pattyn|first=F.|last2=Matsuoka|first2=K.|last3=Callens|first3=D.|last4=Conway|first4=H.|last5=Depoorter|first5=M.|last6=Docquier|first6=D.|last7=Hubbard|first7=B.|last8=Samyn|first8=D.|last9=Tison|first9=J. L.|date=2012|title=Melting and refreezing beneath Roi Baudouin Ice Shelf (East Antarctica) inferred from radar, GPS, and ice core data|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2011JF002154|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|language=en|volume=117|issue=F4|doi=10.1029/2011JF002154|issn=2156-2202}}</ref> brine distribution,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Grima|first=Cyril|last2=Greenbaum|first2=Jamin S.|last3=Lopez Garcia|first3=Erika J.|last4=Soderlund|first4=Krista M.|last5=Rosales|first5=Arami|last6=Blankenship|first6=Donald D.|last7=Young|first7=Duncan A.|date=2016-07-16|title=Radar detection of the brine extent at McMurdo Ice Shelf, Antarctica, and its control by snow accumulation: BRINE EXTENT AT MCMURDO ICE SHELF|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2016GL069524|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=43|issue=13|pages=7011–7018|doi=10.1002/2016GL069524}}</ref> and basal channels.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Le Brocq|first=Anne M.|last2=Ross|first2=Neil|last3=Griggs|first3=Jennifer A.|last4=Bingham|first4=Robert G.|last5=Corr|first5=Hugh F. J.|last6=Ferraccioli|first6=Fausto|last7=Jenkins|first7=Adrian|last8=Jordan|first8=Tom A.|last9=Payne|first9=Antony J.|last10=Rippin|first10=David M.|last11=Siegert|first11=Martin J.|date=November 2013|title=Evidence from ice shelves for channelized meltwater flow beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo1977|journal=Nature Geoscience|language=en|volume=6|issue=11|pages=945–948|doi=10.1038/ngeo1977|issn=1752-0894}}</ref> |
The most common scientific application for radioglaciological observations is measuring ice thickness and bed topography. This includes [[Interpolation|interpolated]] “bed maps”,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bamber|first=J. L.|last2=Griggs|first2=J. A.|last3=Hurkmans|first3=R. T. W. L.|last4=Dowdeswell|first4=J. A.|last5=Gogineni|first5=S. P.|last6=Howat|first6=I.|last7=Mouginot|first7=J.|last8=Paden|first8=J.|last9=Palmer|first9=S.|last10=Rignot|first10=E.|last11=Steinhage|first11=D.|date=2013-03-22|title=A new bed elevation dataset for Greenland|url=https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/7/499/2013/|journal=The Cryosphere|language=English|volume=7|issue=2|pages=499–510|doi=10.5194/tc-7-499-2013|issn=1994-0416}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=MacKie|first=E. J.|last2=Schroeder|first2=D. M.|last3=Caers|first3=J.|last4=Siegfried|first4=M. R.|last5=Scheidt|first5=C.|date=2020|title=Antarctic Topographic Realizations and Geostatistical Modeling Used to Map Subglacial Lakes|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2019JF005420|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|language=en|volume=125|issue=3|pages=e2019JF005420|doi=10.1029/2019JF005420|issn=2169-9011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morlighem|first=M.|last2=Rignot|first2=E.|last3=Seroussi|first3=H.|last4=Larour|first4=E.|last5=Dhia|first5=H. Ben|last6=Aubry|first6=D.|date=2011|title=A mass conservation approach for mapping glacier ice thickness|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2011GL048659|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=38|issue=19|doi=10.1029/2011GL048659|issn=1944-8007}}</ref> widely used in [[Ice-sheet model|ice sheet modeling]] and [[Sea level rise|sea level rise projections]], studies exploring specific ice-sheet regions,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bo|first=Sun|last2=Siegert|first2=Martin J.|last3=Mudd|first3=Simon M.|last4=Sugden|first4=David|last5=Fujita|first5=Shuji|last6=Xiangbin|first6=Cui|last7=Yunyun|first7=Jiang|last8=Xueyuan|first8=Tang|last9=Yuansheng|first9=Li|date=June 2009|title=The Gamburtsev mountains and the origin and early evolution of the Antarctic Ice Sheet|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature08024|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=459|issue=7247|pages=690–693|doi=10.1038/nature08024|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=King|first=Edward C.|date=April 2020|title=The precision of radar-derived subglacial bed topography: a case study from Pine Island Glacier, Antarctica|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0260305520000336/type/journal_article|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=61|issue=81|pages=154–161|doi=10.1017/aog.2020.33|issn=0260-3055}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=Neil|last2=Bingham|first2=Robert G.|last3=Corr|first3=Hugh F. J.|last4=Ferraccioli|first4=Fausto|last5=Jordan|first5=Tom A.|last6=Le Brocq|first6=Anne|last7=Rippin|first7=David M.|last8=Young|first8=Duncan|last9=Blankenship|first9=Donald D.|last10=Siegert|first10=Martin J.|date=June 2012|title=Steep reverse bed slope at the grounding line of the Weddell Sea sector in West Antarctica|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo1468|journal=Nature Geoscience|language=en|volume=5|issue=6|pages=393–396|doi=10.1038/ngeo1468|issn=1752-0894}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vaughan|first=David G.|last2=Corr|first2=Hugh F. J.|last3=Ferraccioli|first3=Fausto|last4=Frearson|first4=Nicholas|last5=O'Hare|first5=Aidan|last6=Mach|first6=Dieter|last7=Holt|first7=John W.|last8=Blankenship|first8=Donald D.|last9=Morse|first9=David L.|last10=Young|first10=Duncan A.|date=2006|title=New boundary conditions for the West Antarctic ice sheet: Subglacial topography beneath Pine Island Glacier|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2005GL025588|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=33|issue=9|doi=10.1029/2005GL025588|issn=1944-8007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Young|first=Duncan A.|last2=Wright|first2=Andrew P.|last3=Roberts|first3=Jason L.|last4=Warner|first4=Roland C.|last5=Young|first5=Neal W.|last6=Greenbaum|first6=Jamin S.|last7=Schroeder|first7=Dustin M.|last8=Holt|first8=John W.|last9=Sugden|first9=David E.|last10=Blankenship|first10=Donald D.|last11=van Ommen|first11=Tas D.|date=June 2011|title=A dynamic early East Antarctic Ice Sheet suggested by ice-covered fjord landscapes|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10114|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=474|issue=7349|pages=72–75|doi=10.1038/nature10114|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> and observations of glacier beds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clarke|first=G. K. C.|last2=Cross|first2=G. M.|last3=Benson|first3=C. S.|date=1987/ed|title=Airborne UHF Radar Measurements of Caldera Geometry and Volcanic History, Mount Wrangell, Alaska, U.S.A.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/airborne-uhf-radar-measurements-of-caldera-geometry-and-volcanic-history-mount-wrangell-alaska-usa/E80FE9E4D2A73F6DF539883139685E9F|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=9|pages=236–237|doi=10.3189/S0260305500000707|issn=0260-3055}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flowers|first=Gwenn E.|last2=Clarke|first2=Garry K. C.|date=1999/ed|title=Surface and bed topography of Trapridge Glacier, Yukon Territory, Canada: digital elevation models and derived hydraulic geometry|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-glaciology/article/surface-and-bed-topography-of-trapridge-glacier-yukon-territory-canada-digital-elevation-models-and-derived-hydraulic-geometry/E95EF31F8D8635A63C07C936145B1634|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=45|issue=149|pages=165–174|doi=10.3189/S0022143000003142|issn=0022-1430}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maurer|first=Hansruedi|last2=Hauck|first2=Christian|date=2007/ed|title=Geophysical imaging of alpine rock glaciers|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-glaciology/article/geophysical-imaging-of-alpine-rock-glaciers/64CF58E6AF87C5487EFF6879D1D250F0|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=53|issue=180|pages=110–120|doi=10.3189/172756507781833893|issn=0022-1430}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zamora|first=Rodrigo|last2=Ulloa|first2=David|last3=Garcia|first3=Gonzalo|last4=Mella|first4=Ronald|last5=Uribe|first5=José|last6=Wendt|first6=Jens|last7=Rivera|first7=Andrés|last8=Gacitúa|first8=Guisella|last9=Casassa|first9=Gino|date=2009/ed|title=Airborne radar sounder for temperate ice: initial results from Patagonia|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-glaciology/article/airborne-radar-sounder-for-temperate-ice-initial-results-from-patagonia/DEF151B10D206AD0D0B48A7A9BB31B91|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=55|issue=191|pages=507–512|doi=10.3189/002214309788816641|issn=0022-1430}}</ref> The strength and character of radar echoes from the bed of the ice sheet are also used to investigate the [[Reflectance#Reflectivity|reflectivity]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jacobel|first=Robert W.|last2=Welch|first2=Brian C.|last3=Osterhouse|first3=David|last4=Pettersson|first4=Rickard|last5=MacGregor|first5=Joseph A.|date=2009|title=Spatial variation of radar-derived basal conditions on Kamb Ice Stream, West Antarctica|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0260305500250507/type/journal_article|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=50|issue=51|pages=10–16|doi=10.3189/172756409789097504|issn=0260-3055}}</ref><ref name="Tulaczyk 4495–4506"/> of the bed, the [[attenuation]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Matsuoka|first=Kenichi|date=2011-03-16|title=Pitfalls in radar diagnosis of ice-sheet bed conditions: Lessons from englacial attenuation models: RADAR DIAGNOSIS OF ICE-SHEET BEDS|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2010GL046205|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=38|issue=5|pages=n/a–n/a|doi=10.1029/2010GL046205}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pettinelli|first=Elena|last2=Cosciotti|first2=Barbara|last3=Di Paolo|first3=Federico|last4=Lauro|first4=Sebastian Emanuel|last5=Mattei|first5=Elisabetta|last6=Orosei|first6=Roberto|last7=Vannaroni|first7=Giuliano|date=September 2015|title=Dielectric properties of Jovian satellite ice analogs for subsurface radar exploration: A review: JOVIAN ICY MOONS DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2014RG000463|journal=Reviews of Geophysics|language=en|volume=53|issue=3|pages=593–641|doi=10.1002/2014RG000463}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stillman|first=David E.|last2=MacGregor|first2=Joseph A.|last3=Grimm|first3=Robert E.|date=March 2013|title=The role of acids in electrical conduction through ice: CONDUCTION OF ACIDS IN ICE|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2012JF002603|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|language=en|volume=118|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.1029/2012JF002603}}</ref> of radar in the ice, and the [[Geomorphology|morphology]] of the bed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Muto|first=Atsuhiro|last2=Alley|first2=Richard B.|last3=Parizek|first3=Byron R.|last4=Anandakrishnan|first4=Sridhar|date=December 2019|title=Bed-type variability and till (dis)continuity beneath Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0260305519000326/type/journal_article|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=60|issue=80|pages=82–90|doi=10.1017/aog.2019.32|issn=0260-3055}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rippin|first=D.M.|last2=Bingham|first2=R.G.|last3=Jordan|first3=T.A.|last4=Wright|first4=A.P.|last5=Ross|first5=N.|last6=Corr|first6=H.F.J.|last7=Ferraccioli|first7=F.|last8=Le Brocq|first8=A.M.|last9=Rose|first9=K.C.|last10=Siegert|first10=M.J.|date=June 2014|title=Basal roughness of the Institute and Möller Ice Streams, West Antarctica: Process determination and landscape interpretation|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169555X14000671|journal=Geomorphology|language=en|volume=214|pages=139–147|doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.01.021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Попов|first=С. 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J.-M. C. Leysinger|last2=Hindmarsh|first2=R. C. A.|last3=Siegert|first3=M. J.|date=2007/ed|title=Three-dimensional flow influences on radar layer stratigraphy|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annals-of-glaciology/article/threedimensional-flow-influences-on-radar-layer-stratigraphy/94F7AA070907CD0A93D932218BB35D54|journal=Annals of Glaciology|language=en|volume=46|pages=22–28|doi=10.3189/172756407782871729|issn=0260-3055}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pettit|first=Erin C.|last2=Waddington|first2=Edwin D.|last3=Harrison|first3=William D.|last4=Thorsteinsson|first4=Throstur|last5=Elsberg|first5=Daniel|last6=Morack|first6=John|last7=Zumberge|first7=Mark A.|date=2011|title=The crossover stress, anisotropy and the ice flow law at Siple Dome, West Antarctica|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022143000204620/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=57|issue=201|pages=39–52|doi=10.3189/002214311795306619|issn=0022-1430}}</ref> and [[Fabric (geology)|fabric]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jordan|first=Thomas M.|last2=Schroeder|first2=Dustin M.|last3=Castelletti|first3=Davide|last4=Li|first4=Jilu|last5=Dall|first5=Jorgen|date=November 2019|title=A Polarimetric Coherence Method to Determine Ice Crystal Orientation Fabric From Radar Sounding: Application to the NEEM Ice Core Region|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8755860/|journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing|volume=57|issue=11|pages=8641–8657|doi=10.1109/TGRS.2019.2921980|issn=0196-2892}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martín|first=Carlos|last2=Gudmundsson|first2=G. Hilmar|last3=Pritchard|first3=Hamish D.|last4=Gagliardini|first4=Olivier|date=2009-10-14|title=On the effects of anisotropic rheology on ice flow, internal structure, and the age-depth relationship at ice divides|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2008JF001204|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|language=en|volume=114|issue=F4|pages=F04001|doi=10.1029/2008JF001204|issn=0148-0227}}</ref> as well as absence or disturbances of that stratigraphy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bell|first=R. E.|last2=Ferraccioli|first2=F.|last3=Creyts|first3=T. T.|last4=Braaten|first4=D.|last5=Corr|first5=H.|last6=Das|first6=I.|last7=Damaske|first7=D.|last8=Frearson|first8=N.|last9=Jordan|first9=T.|last10=Rose|first10=K.|last11=Studinger|first11=M.|date=2011-03-25|title=Widespread Persistent Thickening of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet by Freezing from the Base|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1200109|journal=Science|language=en|volume=331|issue=6024|pages=1592–1595|doi=10.1126/science.1200109|issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drews|first=R.|last2=Eisen|first2=O.|last3=Weikusat|first3=I.|last4=Kipfstuhl|first4=S.|last5=Lambrecht|first5=A.|last6=Steinhage|first6=D.|last7=Wilhelms|first7=F.|last8=Miller|first8=H.|date=2009-08-25|title=Layer disturbances and the radio-echo free zone in ice sheets|url=https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/3/195/2009/|journal=The Cryosphere|language=English|volume=3|issue=2|pages=195–203|doi=10.5194/tc-3-195-2009|issn=1994-0416}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Winter|first=Kate|last2=Woodward|first2=John|last3=Ross|first3=Neil|last4=Dunning|first4=Stuart A.|last5=Hein|first5=Andrew S.|last6=Westoby|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Culberg|first7=Riley|last8=Marrero|first8=Shasta M.|last9=Schroeder|first9=Dustin M.|last10=Sugden|first10=David E.|last11=Siegert|first11=Martin J.|date=2019|title=Radar-Detected Englacial Debris in the West Antarctic Ice Sheet|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2019GL084012|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=46|issue=17-18|pages=10454–10462|doi=10.1029/2019GL084012|issn=1944-8007}}</ref> Radioglaciology data has also been used extensively to study [[subglacial lake]]s<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter|first=Sasha P.|last2=Blankenship|first2=Donald D.|last3=Peters|first3=Matthew E.|last4=Young|first4=Duncan A.|last5=Holt|first5=John W.|last6=Morse|first6=David L.|date=March 2007|title=Radar-based subglacial lake classification in Antarctica: ANTARCTIC SUBGLACIAL LAKES|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2006GC001408|journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|language=en|volume=8|issue=3|pages=n/a–n/a|doi=10.1029/2006GC001408}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ilisei|first=Ana-Maria|last2=Khodadadzadeh|first2=Mahdi|last3=Ferro|first3=Adamo|last4=Bruzzone|first4=Lorenzo|date=June 2019|title=An Automatic Method for Subglacial Lake Detection in Ice Sheet Radar Sounder Data|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8590794/|journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing|volume=57|issue=6|pages=3252–3270|doi=10.1109/TGRS.2018.2882911|issn=0196-2892}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oswald|first=G. K. A.|last2=Robin|first2=G. De Q.|date=October 1973|title=Lakes Beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/245251a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=245|issue=5423|pages=251–254|doi=10.1038/245251a0|issn=0028-0836}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Palmer|first=Steven J.|last2=Dowdeswell|first2=Julian A.|last3=Christoffersen|first3=Poul|last4=Young|first4=Duncan A.|last5=Blankenship|first5=Donald D.|last6=Greenbaum|first6=Jamin S.|last7=Benham|first7=Toby|last8=Bamber|first8=Jonathan|last9=Siegert|first9=Martin J.|date=2013|title=Greenland subglacial lakes detected by radar|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2013GL058383|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=40|issue=23|pages=6154–6159|doi=10.1002/2013GL058383|issn=1944-8007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rutishauser|first=Anja|last2=Blankenship|first2=Donald D.|last3=Sharp|first3=Martin|last4=Skidmore|first4=Mark L.|last5=Greenbaum|first5=Jamin S.|last6=Grima|first6=Cyril|last7=Schroeder|first7=Dustin M.|last8=Dowdeswell|first8=Julian A.|last9=Young|first9=Duncan A.|date=2018-04-01|title=Discovery of a hypersaline subglacial lake complex beneath Devon Ice Cap, Canadian Arctic|url=https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/4/eaar4353|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=eaar4353|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aar4353|issn=2375-2548|pmc=5895444|pmid=29651462}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegert|first=Martin J.|date=2018|title=A 60-year international history of Antarctic subglacial lake exploration|url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/lookup/doi/10.1144/SP461.5|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications|language=en|volume=461|issue=1|pages=7–21|doi=10.1144/SP461.5|issn=0305-8719}}</ref> and glacial [[hydrology]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wolovick|first=Michael J.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin E.|last3=Creyts|first3=Timothy T.|last4=Frearson|first4=Nicholas|date=2013|title=Identification and control of subglacial water networks under Dome A, Antarctica|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2012JF002555|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|language=en|volume=118|issue=1|pages=140–154|doi=10.1029/2012JF002555|issn=2169-9011}}</ref> including englacial water,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Björnsson|first=Helgi|last2=Gjessing|first2=Yngvar|last3=Hamran|first3=Svein-Erik|last4=Hagen|first4=Jon Ove|last5=LiestøL|first5=Olav|last6=Pálsson|first6=Finnur|last7=Erlingsson|first7=Björn|date=1996|title=The thermal regime of sub-polar glaciers mapped by multi-frequency radio-echo sounding|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022143000030495/type/journal_article|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=42|issue=140|pages=23–32|doi=10.3189/S0022143000030495|issn=0022-1430}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bradford|first=John H.|last2=Harper|first2=Joel T.|date=2005|title=Wave field migration as a tool for estimating spatially continuous radar velocity and water content in glaciers|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2004GL021770|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=32|issue=8|doi=10.1029/2004GL021770|issn=1944-8007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Murray|first=Tavi|last2=Stuart|first2=Graham W.|last3=Fry|first3=Matt|last4=Gamble|first4=Nicola H.|last5=Crabtree|first5=Mike D.|date=2000/ed|title=Englacial water distribution in a temperate glacier from surface and borehole radar velocity analysis|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-glaciology/article/englacial-water-distribution-in-a-temperate-glacier-from-surface-and-borehole-radar-velocity-analysis/49C1E579B840B9CAFD23296F30FBC805|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=46|issue=154|pages=389–398|doi=10.3189/172756500781833188|issn=0022-1430}}</ref> firn aquifers,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Forster|first=Richard R.|last2=Box|first2=Jason E.|last3=van den Broeke|first3=Michiel R.|last4=Miège|first4=Clément|last5=Burgess|first5=Evan W.|last6=van Angelen|first6=Jan H.|last7=Lenaerts|first7=Jan T. M.|last8=Koenig|first8=Lora S.|last9=Paden|first9=John|last10=Lewis|first10=Cameron|last11=Gogineni|first11=S. Prasad|date=February 2014|title=Extensive liquid meltwater storage in firn within the Greenland ice sheet|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2043|journal=Nature Geoscience|language=en|volume=7|issue=2|pages=95–98|doi=10.1038/ngeo2043|issn=1752-0908}}</ref> and their temporal evolution.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chu|first=W.|last2=Schroeder|first2=D. M.|last3=Siegfried|first3=M. R.|date=2018-11-16|title=Retrieval of Englacial Firn Aquifer Thickness From Ice-Penetrating Radar Sounding in Southeastern Greenland|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2018GL079751|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=45|issue=21|pages=11,770–11,778|doi=10.1029/2018GL079751}}</ref><ref name="Kendrick"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kulessa|first=B.|last2=Booth|first2=A. D.|last3=Hobbs|first3=A.|last4=Hubbard|first4=A. L.|date=2008|title=Automated monitoring of subglacial hydrological processes with ground-penetrating radar (GPR) at high temporal resolution: scope and potential pitfalls|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2008GL035855|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=35|issue=24|doi=10.1029/2008GL035855|issn=1944-8007}}</ref> Ice penetrating radar data has also been used to investigate the subsurface of [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]] including their grounding zones,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Catania|first=G. A.|last2=Conway|first2=H.|last3=Raymond|first3=C. F.|last4=Scambos|first4=T. A.|date=2006|title=Evidence for floatation or near floatation in the mouth of Kamb Ice Stream, West Antarctica, prior to stagnation|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2005JF000355|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|language=en|volume=111|issue=F1|doi=10.1029/2005JF000355|issn=2156-2202}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Greenbaum|first=J. S.|last2=Blankenship|first2=D. D.|last3=Young|first3=D. A.|last4=Richter|first4=T. G.|last5=Roberts|first5=J. L.|last6=Aitken|first6=A. R. A.|last7=Legresy|first7=B.|last8=Schroeder|first8=D. M.|last9=Warner|first9=R. C.|last10=van Ommen|first10=T. D.|last11=Siegert|first11=M. J.|date=April 2015|title=Ocean access to a cavity beneath Totten Glacier in East Antarctica|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2388|journal=Nature Geoscience|language=en|volume=8|issue=4|pages=294–298|doi=10.1038/ngeo2388|issn=1752-0894}}</ref> melt rates,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khazendar|first=Ala|last2=Rignot|first2=Eric|last3=Schroeder|first3=Dustin M.|last4=Seroussi|first4=Helene|last5=Schodlok|first5=Michael P.|last6=Scheuchl|first6=Bernd|last7=Mouginot|first7=Jeremie|last8=Sutterley|first8=Tyler C.|last9=Velicogna|first9=Isabella|date=December 2016|title=Rapid submarine ice melting in the grounding zones of ice shelves in West Antarctica|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms13243|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=13243|doi=10.1038/ncomms13243|issn=2041-1723|pmc=5093338|pmid=27780191}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pattyn|first=F.|last2=Matsuoka|first2=K.|last3=Callens|first3=D.|last4=Conway|first4=H.|last5=Depoorter|first5=M.|last6=Docquier|first6=D.|last7=Hubbard|first7=B.|last8=Samyn|first8=D.|last9=Tison|first9=J. L.|date=2012|title=Melting and refreezing beneath Roi Baudouin Ice Shelf (East Antarctica) inferred from radar, GPS, and ice core data|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2011JF002154|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface|language=en|volume=117|issue=F4|doi=10.1029/2011JF002154|issn=2156-2202}}</ref> brine distribution,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Grima|first=Cyril|last2=Greenbaum|first2=Jamin S.|last3=Lopez Garcia|first3=Erika J.|last4=Soderlund|first4=Krista M.|last5=Rosales|first5=Arami|last6=Blankenship|first6=Donald D.|last7=Young|first7=Duncan A.|date=2016-07-16|title=Radar detection of the brine extent at McMurdo Ice Shelf, Antarctica, and its control by snow accumulation: BRINE EXTENT AT MCMURDO ICE SHELF|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2016GL069524|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=43|issue=13|pages=7011–7018|doi=10.1002/2016GL069524}}</ref> and basal channels.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Le Brocq|first=Anne M.|last2=Ross|first2=Neil|last3=Griggs|first3=Jennifer A.|last4=Bingham|first4=Robert G.|last5=Corr|first5=Hugh F. J.|last6=Ferraccioli|first6=Fausto|last7=Jenkins|first7=Adrian|last8=Jordan|first8=Tom A.|last9=Payne|first9=Antony J.|last10=Rippin|first10=David M.|last11=Siegert|first11=Martin J.|date=November 2013|title=Evidence from ice shelves for channelized meltwater flow beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo1977|journal=Nature Geoscience|language=en|volume=6|issue=11|pages=945–948|doi=10.1038/ngeo1977|issn=1752-0894}}</ref> |
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Revision as of 00:17, 7 March 2021
Radioglaciology is the study of glaciers, ice sheets, ice caps and icy moons using ice penetrating radar. It employs a geophysical method similar to ground-penetrating radar and typically operates at frequencies in the MF, HF, VHF and UHF portions of the radio spectrum.[1][2][3][4] This technique is also commonly referred to as “Ice Penetrating Radar (IPR)” or “Radio Echo Sounding (RES)”.
Glaciers are particularly well suited to investigation by radar because the conductivity, imaginary part of the permittivity, and the dielectric absorption of ice are small at radio frequencies resulting in low loss tangent, skin depth, and attenuation values. This allows echoes from the base of the ice sheet to be detected through ice thicknesses greater than 4 km.[5][6] The subsurface observation of ice masses using radio waves has been an integral and evolving geophysical technique in glaciology for over half a century.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14] Its most widespread uses have been the measurement of ice thickness, subglacial topography, and ice sheet stratigraphy.[15][8][5] It has also been used to observe the subglacial and conditions of ice sheets and glaciers, including hydrology, thermal state, accumulation, flow history, ice fabric, and bed geology.[1] In planetary science, ice penetrating radar has also been used to explore the subsurface of the Polar Ice Caps on Mars and comets.[16][17][18] Missions are planned to explore the icy moons of Jupiter.[19][20]
Measurements and Applications
Radioglaciology uses nadir facing radars to probe the subsurface of glaciers, ice sheets, ice caps, and icy moons and to detect reflected and scattered energy from within and beneath the ice.[8] This geometry tends to emphasize coherent and specular reflected energy resulting in distinct forms or the radar equation.[21][22] Collected radar data typical undergoes signal processing ranging from stacking (or pre-summing) to migration to Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) focusing in 1, 2, or 3 dimensions.[23][24][25][22] This data is collected using ice penetrating radar systems which range from commercial (or bespoke) ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems [26][27] to coherent, chirped airborne sounders [28][29][30] to swath-imaging,[31] multi-frequency,[32] or polarimetric[33] implementations of such systems. Additionally, stationary, phase-sensitive, and Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) radars [34][35][36] have been used to observe snow,[37] ice shelf melt rates,[38] englacial hydrology,[39] ice sheet structure,[40] and vertical ice flow.[41] [42] Interferometric analysis of airborne systems have also been demonstrated to measure vertical ice flow.[43] Additionally, radioglaciological instruments have been developed to operate on autonomous platforms,[44] on in-situ probes,[45] in low-cost deployments,[46] using Software Defined Radios,[47] and exploiting ambient radio signals for passive sounding.[48][49]
The most common scientific application for radioglaciological observations is measuring ice thickness and bed topography. This includes interpolated “bed maps”,[50][51][52] widely used in ice sheet modeling and sea level rise projections, studies exploring specific ice-sheet regions,[53][54][55][56][57] and observations of glacier beds.[58][59][60][61] The strength and character of radar echoes from the bed of the ice sheet are also used to investigate the reflectivity[62][27] of the bed, the attenuation[63][64][65] of radar in the ice, and the morphology of the bed.[66][67][68] In addition bed echoes, radar returns from englacial layers[69] are used in studies of the radio stratigraphy of ice sheets[70][71][72][73][74] including investigations of ice accumulation,[75][76][77][78][79] flow,[80][81][82][83] and fabric[84][85] as well as absence or disturbances of that stratigraphy.[86][87][88] Radioglaciology data has also been used extensively to study subglacial lakes[89][90][91][92][93][94] and glacial hydrology[95] including englacial water,[96][97][98] firn aquifers,[99] and their temporal evolution.[100][39][101] Ice penetrating radar data has also been used to investigate the subsurface of ice shelves including their grounding zones,[102][103] melt rates,[104][105] brine distribution,[106] and basal channels.[107]
Planetary exploration
There are currently two ice-penetrating radars orbiting Mars: MARSIS and SHARAD.[108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117] An ice penetrating radar was also part of the ROSETTA mission to comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko.[17] Ice penetrating radars are also included in the payloads of two planned missions to the icy moons of Jupiter: JUICE and Europa Clipper.[19][118][119][120][121][122][123]
IGS Symposia on Radioglaciology
The International Glaciological Society (IGS) holds a periodic series of symposia focused on radioglaciology. In 2008, the “Symposium on Radioglaciology and its Applications” was hosted at the Technical University of Madrid. In 2013, the “Symposium on Radioglaciology” was hosted at the University of Kansas. In 2019, the “Symposium of Five Decades of Radioglaciolgy” was hosted at Stanford University.
Further reading
The following books and papers cover important topics in radioglaciology
- Allen C (2008) A brief history of radio-echo sounding of ice. Earthzine.
- Bingham RG and Siegert MJ (2007) Radio-echo sounding over polar ice masses. Journal of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics 12(1), 47–62.
- Bogorodsky, VV, Bentley CR, and Gudmandsen PE (1985) Radioglaciology. D. Reidel Publishing
- Dowdeswell JA and Evans S (2004) Investigations of the form and flow of ice sheets and glaciers using radio-echo sounding. Reports on Progress in Physics 67(10), 1821–1861.
- Haynes M (2020) Surface and subsurface radar equations for radar sounders. Annals of Glaciology 61(81), 135–142.
- Hubbard B and Glasser NF (2005). Field Techniques in Glaciology and Glacial Geomorphology. John Wiley & Sons.
- Navarro F and Eisen O (2009). 11. Ground-penetrating radar in glaciological in Remote Sensing of Glaciers, Pellikka P and Rees GW (editors).
- Pettinelli E and 6 others (2015) Dielectric properties of Jovian satellite ice analogs for subsurface radar exploration: a review. Reviews of Geophysics 53(3), 593–641.
- Schroeder DM, Bingham RG, Blankenship, DD, Christianson, K, Eisen, O, Flowers, GE, Karlsson, NB, Koutnik MR, Paden JD, Siegert, MJ (2020) Five decades of radioglaciology. Annals of Glaciology 61(81), 1-13.
- Turchetti S, Dean K, Naylor S and Siegert M (2008) Accidents and opportunities: a history of the radio echo-sounding of Antarctica, 1958–79. The British Journal for the History of Science 41(3), 417–444.
Centers for Radioglaciology Research
Research and education in radioglaciology is undertaken at universities and research institutes around the world. These groups found in institutions and departments that span physical geography, geophysics, earth science, planetary science, electrical engineering, and related disciplines. Some research groups that are particularly active in this area of research include:
- Aberystwyth University
- Amherst College
- The Alfred Wegener Institute
- The Australian Antarctic Division
- The British Antarctic Survey
- Boise State University
- Cardiff University
- The Center for the Remote Sensing of Ice Sheets (CReSIS) at the University of Kansas
- The Center for Scientific Studies (Valdivia, Chile)
- The Colorado School of Mines
- Cornell University
- Dartmouth College
- The Geologic Survey of Denmark and Greenland
- The Georgia Institute of Technology
- The Goddard Space Flight Center
- The Institute for Planetary Science and Astrophysics, Grenoble
- Imperial College London
- The Jet Propulsion Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology
- The Korean Polar Research Institute
- Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University
- Lancaster University
- Montana State University
- The National Institute of Polar Research, Tokyo
- Newcastle University
- Northumbria University
- The Norwegian Polar Institute
- Pennsylvania State University
- The Planetary Science Institute
- The Polar Research Institute of China
- The University Center in Svalbard
- The University of Alabama
- The University of Alaska
- The University of Arizona
- The University of Bristol
- The University of California, Santa Cruz
- The University of Canterbury
- University College, London
- The University of Colorado
- The University of Copenhagen
- The University of Edinburgh
- The University of Exeter
- The University of Grenoble
- The University of Iceland
- The University of Leeds
- The University of Maine
- The University of Oregon
- The University of Texas Institute for Geophysics (UTIG)
- The University of Trento
- The University of Tübigen
- The University of York
- The University of Washington
- The University of Zurich
- Roma Tre University
- Sapienza University of Rome
- The Scott Polar Research Institute at the University of Cambridge
- The Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego
- Simon Fraser University
- The Southwest Research Institute
- The Smithsonian Institution
- Stanford University
- St. Petersburg State University
- Swansea University
- The Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich
- The Technical University of Denmark
- The Technical University of Madrid
- Université Libre de Bruxelles
- Washington University in St. Louis
References
- ^ a b Schroeder, Dustin M.; Bingham, Robert G.; Blankenship, Donald D.; Christianson, Knut; Eisen, Olaf; Flowers, Gwenn E.; Karlsson, Nanna B.; Koutnik, Michelle R.; Paden, John D.; Siegert, Martin J. (April 2020). "Five decades of radioglaciology". Annals of Glaciology. 61 (81): 1–13. doi:10.1017/aog.2020.11. ISSN 0260-3055.
- ^ Kulessa, B.; Booth, A. D.; Hobbs, A.; Hubbard, A. L. (2008-12-18). "Automated monitoring of subglacial hydrological processes with ground-penetrating radar (GPR) at high temporal resolution: scope and potential pitfalls". Geophysical Research Letters. 35 (24): L24502. doi:10.1029/2008GL035855. ISSN 0094-8276.
- ^ Bogorodsky, VV; Bentley, CR; Gudmandsen, PE (1985). Radioglaciology. D. Reidel Publishing.
- ^ Pellikka, Petri; Rees, W. Gareth, eds. (2009-12-16). Remote Sensing of Glaciers: Techniques for Topographic, Spatial and Thematic Mapping of Glaciers (0 ed.). CRC Press. doi:10.1201/b10155. ISBN 978-0-429-20642-9.
- ^ a b Bamber, J. L.; Griggs, J. A.; Hurkmans, R. T. W. L.; Dowdeswell, J. A.; Gogineni, S. P.; Howat, I.; Mouginot, J.; Paden, J.; Palmer, S.; Rignot, E.; Steinhage, D. (2013-03-22). "A new bed elevation dataset for Greenland". The Cryosphere. 7 (2): 499–510. doi:10.5194/tc-7-499-2013. ISSN 1994-0424.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Fretwell, P.; Pritchard, H. D.; Vaughan, D. G.; Bamber, J. L.; Barrand, N. E.; et al. (28 February 2013). "Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica" (PDF). The Cryosphere. 7 (1): 390. Bibcode:2013TCry....7..375F. doi:10.5194/tc-7-375-2013. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Allen, Christopher (September 26, 2008). "A Brief History Of Radio – Echo Sounding Of Ice".
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ a b c Dowdeswell, J A; Evans, S (2004-10-01). "Investigations of the form and flow of ice sheets and glaciers using radio-echo sounding". Reports on Progress in Physics. 67 (10): 1821–1861. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/67/10/R03. ISSN 0034-4885.
- ^ Drewry, DJ (1983). Antarctica: Glaciological and Geophysical Folio, Vol. 2. University of Cambridge, Scott Polar Research Institute Cambridge.
- ^ Gudmandsen, P. (December 1969). "Airborne Radio Echo Sounding of the Greenland Ice Sheet". The Geographical Journal. 135 (4): 548. doi:10.2307/1795099.
- ^ Robin, G. de Q. (1975). "Radio-Echo Sounding: Glaciological Interpretations and Applications". Journal of Glaciology. 15 (73): 49–64. doi:10.3189/S0022143000034262. ISSN 0022-1430.
- ^ Steenson, BO (1951). Radar Methods for the Exploration of Glaciers (PhD). California Institute of Technology.
- ^ Stern, W (1930). Principles, methods and results of electrodynamic thickness measurement of glacier ice. Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde 18, 24.
- ^ Turchetti, Simone; Dean, Katrina; Naylor, Simon; Siegert, Martin (September 2008). "Accidents and opportunities: a history of the radio echo-sounding of Antarctica, 1958–79". The British Journal for the History of Science. 41 (3): 417–444. doi:10.1017/S0007087408000903. ISSN 0007-0874.
- ^ Bingham, R. G.; Siegert, M. J. (2007-03-01). "Radio-Echo Sounding Over Polar Ice Masses". Journal of Environmental & Engineering Geophysics. 12 (1): 47–62. doi:10.2113/JEEG12.1.47. ISSN 1083-1363.
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