User:Quellatizia/sandbox: Difference between revisions
Content deleted Content added
Quellatizia (talk | contribs) links. |
Quellatizia (talk | contribs) ←Replaced content with '{{User sandbox}} <!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE -->' Tags: Replaced Visual edit |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{User sandbox}} |
{{User sandbox}} |
||
<!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE --> |
|||
<!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE -->The '''waste management in Australia''' is regulated at both federal and state level.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://wastenot.org.au/history-of-waste/|title=History of Waste|last=|first=|date=|website=Total Environment Centre - Waste Not|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=27 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":54">{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery/publications|title=Waste and resource recovery publications and resources|last=|first=|date=|website=Australian Government - Department of Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":56">{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery|title=Waste and resource recovery|last=|first=|date=|website=Australian Government - Department of the Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=1 June 2019}}</ref> |
|||
The Commonwealth's [[Department of the Environment and Energy]] is responsible for the legislative framework on which the states adapt their own regulations.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":54" /> International agreements also have a role and are managed by the federal government.<ref name=":54" /> Other functions of the organ comprise the coordination of reports and statistical analysis collection, and co-operating with the industrial sector in [[product stewardship]] projects.<ref name=":54" /> The main policies produced by the Department are the "National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development" (1992), which supported a long-term gains approach framework,<ref name=":54" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/about-us/esd/publications/national-esd-strategy|title=National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development|last=|first=|date=December 1992|website=Australian Government - Department of the Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref> and the current "National Waste Policy: Less Waste, More Resources" (2018), in use until 2030.<ref name=":54" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/d523f4e9-d958-466b-9fd1-3b7d6283f006/files/national-waste-policy-2018.pdf|title=National Waste Policy: Less waste, more resources 2018|last=|first=|date=2018|website=Australian Government - Department of Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
Australia used to heavily rely on Asian markets, especially on China, for waste treatment and disposal.<ref name=":21">{{Cite web|url=https://blueenvironment.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Exports-of-recyclables-from-Aust-to-China-v2.pdf|title=Data on exports of recyclables from Australia to China. Version 2|last=|first=|date=11 May 2018|website=Blue Environment|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=27 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":48">{{Cite book|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/WasteandRecycling/~/media/Committees/ec_ctte/WasteandRecycling/Report/report.pdf|title=Never waste a crisis: the waste and recycling industry in Australia|last=|first=|publisher=Senate Printing Unit|others=Environment and Communications References Committee|year=2018|isbn=978-1-76010-776-5|location=Canberra, Australia|pages=}}</ref><ref name=":43">{{Cite web|url=https://www.soe.epa.nsw.gov.au/all-themes/human-settlement/waste-and-recycling|title=Waste and Recycling|last=|first=|date=|website=New South Wales - Environment Protection Authority|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> Since the Chinese "National Sword" policy came into effect in 2018, the waste management industry entered a crisis:<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":60">{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.sa.gov.au/environmental_info/waste_management/china-sword-and-recyclables|title=China's new waste import policy (China National Sword) and recyclables|last=|first=|date=|website=EPA South Australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":61">{{Cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/chinas-recycling-ban-throws-australia-into-a-very-messy-waste-crisis-95522|title=China’s recycling ‘ban’ throws Australia into a very messy waste crisis|last=Downes|first=Jenni|date=27 April 2018|website=The Conversation|others=Contributor: Dominish, Elsa|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mraconsulting.com.au/PDFs/MRA_China_National_Sword.pdf|title=China National Sword: The role of Federal Government|last=Ritchie|first=Mike|date=16 April 2018|website=MRA Consulting|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2 June 2019}}</ref> of the 1,248,000 tonnes (30% of the entire amount produced) of recyclable materials sent to China only in 2016-2017, 99% had been affected.<ref name=":60" /><ref name=":65">{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/d075c9bc-45b3-4ac0-a8f2-6494c7d1fa0d/files/national-waste-report-2016.pdf|title=Australian National Waste Report 2016|last=|first=|date=20 June 2017|website=Department of the Environment and Energy|others=Blue Environment Pty Ltd in association with Randell Environmental Consulting|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":21" /> As an interim solution, exports have since shifted to, and enlarged, alternative markets, such as those in Vietnam and Indonesia.<ref name=":66">{{Cite web|url=https://www.greenindustries.sa.gov.au/chinas-new-policy-on-waste-and-recycling|title=China's New Waste and Recycling Policy|last=|first=|date=|website=Government of South Australia - Green Industries SA|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":46">{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery/national-waste-reports/national-waste-report-2018|title=National Waste Report 2018|last=|first=|date=2018|website=Australian Government- Department of Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":63">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/-/media/SV/Publications/Business/Investment-facilitation/Resource-Recovery-Market-Bulletins/Resources-Recovery-Market-Bulletin-March-2019.pdf|title=Recovered Resources Market Bulletin - Victorian Market Intelligence Pilot Project|last=|first=|date=March 2019|website=Sustainability Victoria|others=Envisage Works, IndustryEdge & Sustainable Resource Use (SRU)|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2 June 2019|edition=1}}</ref> An increasing number of Asian Countries is also planning to limit import rates.<ref name=":67">{{Cite web|url=http://wastemanagementreview.com.au/battling-sovereign-risk/|title=Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam waste imports crackdown|last=|first=|date=19 December 2018|website=Waste Management Review|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":68">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/28/treated-like-trash-south-east-asia-vows-to-return-mountains-of-rubbish-from-west|title=Treated like trash: south-east Asia vows to return mountains of rubbish from west|last=Ellis-Petersen|first=Hannah|date=28 May 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=2 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://recyclingnearyou.com.au/nationalrecyclingweek/research/2018/#WOW-Section|title=War on waste. National recycling week Research Report|last=Collins|first=Ryan|date=|website=Recycling Near You|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=27 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":69">{{Cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/asia/malaysia-bans-waste-imports-as-australia-battles-recycling-crisis-20181019-p50atm.html|title=Malaysia bans waste imports as Australia battles recycling crisis|last=Massola|first=James|date=21 October 2018|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=2 June 2019|last2=Rosa|first2=Amilia}}</ref> The inadequacy of the management structure prior to 2018, mainly due by the limited role of the federal government (with consequent effects on the cooperation between the states),<ref name=":48" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=bb9cc61f-d3aa-47ad-9e98-5da5233f3e1c&subId=561339|title=Submission to the Senate inquiry into waste and recycling in Australia.|last=Lamb|first=Garth|last2=Sloan|first2=Gayle|date=30 October 2017|website=Waste Management Association of Australia (WMAA)|series=Submission 52|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2 June 2019}}</ref> by the general lack of reliable data,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/3B0DD93AB123A68BCA257234007B6A2F?OpenDocument|title=Solid waste in Australia|last=|first=|date=10 November 2006|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=20 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/22582/sub085.pdf|title=Waste generation and resource efficiency in Australia|last=|first=|date=February 2006|website=Australian Government - Productivity Commission|others=Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=2 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":72" /> and by the little domestic demand for the recycling industry inputs,<ref name=":48" /><ref name=":63" /> has hampered the Australian response to the issue.<ref name=":63" /> |
|||
Since 2018 new strategies have been implemented by all governmental levels<ref name=":48" />, and new principles related to [[circular economy]] had been introduced.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":62" /><ref name=":48" /><ref name=":2" /> The current framework nationally adopted is that of "the 3 R's plus 1: reduce, reuse, recycle and recover energy"<ref name=":2" />, in accordance to the conventions of the [[waste hierarchy]]<ref name=":2" /> (introduced on a national basis in 1992),<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":48" /> with the objective of reducing the reliance on overseas markets and generate a solid domestic industry.<ref name=":48" /> It represents a crucial conversion from the strong reliance that Australia used to have towards landfill disposal,<ref name=":43" /><ref name=":48" /> even though it focuses more on the processing of waste than on its reduction ''a priori''.<ref name=":48" /><ref name=":53">{{Cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/the-planned-national-waste-policy-wont-deliver-a-truly-circular-economy-103908|title=The planned national waste policy won’t deliver a truly circular economy|last=Downes|first=Jenni|date=1 October 2018|website=The Conversation|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
Every year 67 million tonnes of waste are generated in Australia.<ref name=":22" /> |
|||
Human and consumer behavior and has been identified as an important factor in waste management activities<ref name=":43" /><ref name=":73">{{Cite web|url=https://www.soe.epa.nsw.gov.au/all-themes/human-settlement/waste-and-recycling|title=Litter Costs to the NSW Economy: A Preliminary Report|last=|first=|date=2016|website=New South Wales - Environment Protection Authority|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref>, and a number of surveys, as well as campaigns, have involved either governmental or private organizations.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":37">{{Cite book|title=Love Food Hate Waste Tracking Survey 2017|last=|first=|publisher=NSW Environment Protection Authority|year=2018|isbn=978 1 925790 22 1|location=|pages=}}</ref><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":74">{{Cite web|url=https://planetark.org/campaigns/nrw.cfm|title=National Recycling Week|last=|first=|date=|website=Planet Ark|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
== Historical development == |
|||
=== Pre-European settlement === |
|||
Aboriginal [[Midden|middens]] are arrangements of bones, shells, ashes and other waste materials which in some cases are defined as relics<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|url=https://www.aboriginalheritage.tas.gov.au/Documents/AHT%20Fact%20Sheet%20-%20Middens.pdf|title=Aboriginal Middens|last=|first=|date=|website=Government of Tasmania|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=27 May 2019}}</ref> of cultural significance.<ref name=":16" /> Size can vary and they can even occupy entire coastlines for hundreds of metres.<ref name=":15" /> Middens may be considered, perhaps in a simplistic way, as the first forms of dumping sites in Australia.<ref name=":16" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/midden-an-archaeological-garbage-dump-171806|title=Midden: An Archaeological Garbage Dump. What Our Trash Tells Us About Our Societies|last=Hirst|first=K. Kris|date=9 May 2018|website=Thought Co.|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=27 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
Aborigines conducted a nomadic way of life: they were those who moved, not their "refuses",<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|url=https://www.amazon.com/Man-environment-John-Harvey-Holmes/dp/0582682274|title=Man and the environment: Regional perspectives|last=Holmes|first=John Harvey|publisher=Longman|year=1976|isbn=978-0582682276|location=|pages=}}</ref> and some of this sites may had originated from continuous human presence over hundreds or thousands of years.<ref name=":15" /> Presumably, Middens were used to organize resources, not to damage the landscape.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
The low density population, its [[ecological footprint]] and the traits of the [[Environment of Australia|Australian environment]] led to an harmonized system in which waste was not contemplated as, and did not represent, an issue.<ref name=":17" /> |
|||
=== 1788-1900 === |
|||
[[Sydney Cove]] became the place of the first permanent, European settlement in Australia on [[Australia Day|26 January 1788]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Founding of Australia: the argument about Australia's origins|last=Martin|first=Ged|publisher=Hale & Iremonger|year=1978|isbn=9780908094004|location=|pages=}}</ref> As admitted by a study, that is also considered the date in which the Country's waste disposal started to represent a problem[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":18">{{Cite book|url=https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/21771/2/02whole.pdf|title=A review of issue relating to the disposal of urban waste in Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide. An environmental history|last=Nicholls|first=Philip H.|publisher=Faculty of Arts - University of Adelaide|year=2002|isbn=|location=Adelaide|pages=}}</ref> |
|||
According to the study, the period spanning from 1788 to 1850 was likely characterized by an ''out-of-sight, out-of-mind'' mentality towards garbage and waste.<ref name=":18" /> The concept had been supported by the idea that the [[geography of Australia]], and in particularly its vastness, would had allowed for an infinite time the exploitation of its areas as dumping sites.<ref name=":18" /> In most of the cases, residents were asked to independently dispose of their own waste (which was mostly organic) and the general lack of regulations resulted in very low hygienic conditions.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":18" /> These ultimately led to soil and water contamination, conditions that had consequences during the urban expansion in later years.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":18" /> |
|||
The absence of an industry that could had provided enough resources and materials for the colonies forced high rates of recycling.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":16" /> Household and other early forms of waste that could not be recycled or otherwise reused were simply left in the streets, dumped in rivers, or collected in the backyard, where acid was used to accelerate decomposition and diminish the smell.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
Diaries and journals from travelers and residents in the first decades of Sydney’s life reported a "shameful situation", which saw what at that time was a town of 50,000 people covered by various types of waste, flies and mosquitoes, along with the [[Port Jackson|Sydney Harbour]] being the major dumping site.<ref name=":18" /> Getting rid of waste in the sea (''sea waste burial'') was also a common practice,<ref name=":18" /> and beaches were often covered by residuals brought by tides.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
The [[Gadigal|Gadigal clan]], one of the original Sydney local communities, once used a river to collect freshwater.<ref name=":16" /> At the time of [[Arthur Phillip|Captain Arthur Phillip]] looking for the ideal settlement site, in 1788, a crucial requirement was that of a sufficient freshwater supply,<ref name=":59">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sydneywater.com.au/SW/water-the-environment/what-we-re-doing/Heritage-search/heritage-detail/index.htm?heritageid=4573709&FromPage=searchresults|title=Tank Stream Stormwater Channel No.29E|last=|first=|date=1 December 2000|website=Sydney Water|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=1 June 2019}}</ref> and that river constituted a crucial discriminant in the choice of Sydney.<ref name=":59" /> Yet after the arrival of the colonists the stream became so polluted that in about a hundred of years it was ordered to being covered with sandstone.<ref name=":16" /> The "[[Tank Stream]]", as it is now known, still flows beneath Sydney.<ref name=":16" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-11-07/inside-the-sydney-tank-stream/7998412|title=The Tank Stream: A historical walk along Sydney's first water supply|last=Hoh|first=Amanda|date=7 November 2016|work=ABC News|access-date=1 June 2019}}</ref> |
|||
By the end of the XIX century recycling rates had already reduced, with just some sectors of the population inclined in pursuing these practices -namely, the low-income classes-<ref name=":16" />, and [[Melbourne]] was considered the world's dirtiest city.<ref name=":18" /> |
|||
=== 1900-1960 === |
|||
[[Edwin Chadwick|Dr Erwin Chadwick]], with his publication “Treatise on Fever” (1830), was capable of impressive changes in the British health system.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Epidemic Disease in London: from the Black Death to Cholera|last=Champion|first=|work=Working Paper Series No. 1|publisher=Centre for Metropolitan History|year=1993|isbn=1 871348 18 8|location=|pages=}}</ref> In Australia, proper hygienic practices, including waste management, only started in the late years of the XIX century.<ref name=":18" /> This shift was presumably due to a change in the administration nature of the colonies, which eventually resulted in a more democratic and representative system.<ref name=":18" /> However, the major inputs are considered to have been caused by the widespread of the [[Bubonic plague|Bubonic Plague]], which affected Sydney at the beginning of the [[20th century|XX century]].<ref name=":16" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/plague-in-sydney-the-anatomy-of-an-epidemic|title=Plague in Sydney: the anatomy of an epidemic|last=Curson|first=Peter|last2=McCracken|first2=Kevin|publisher=University of New South Wales Press|year=1989|isbn=9780868402192|location=Kensington, NSW|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/bubonic-plague|title=Bubonic plague. 1900: Bubonic plague arrives in Australia|last=|first=|date=|website=National Museum of Australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=27 May 2019}}</ref> The newly gained awareness towards public health allowed urban reorganization and improvements in waste managing.<ref name=":18" /> There were still ''[[Rat-catcher|rat catchers]]'' and ''[[Waste picker|scavengers]]'', sanitary professions established during the previous century[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":18" /> |
|||
In 1901 Australia gained the independence from the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.australia.gov.au/about-government/how-government-works/federation|title=Federation|last=|first=|date=|website=Australian Government|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=1 June 2019}}</ref>The [[Federation of Australia|federation]] has not been considered to had had an immediate impact on how waste was managed, for its powers were strongly limited due to the lack of a centralized power, that instead was executed locally, by councils.<ref name=":18" /> |
|||
[[Landfill|Landfills]] were the primary disposal sites, but the technological advances in the incinerator systems allowed an additional commercial value to be attributed to them.<ref name=":18" /> In 1889, the incinerators expensive nature led the Sydney council to decline the installation of such a plant, but the plague which later spread in the area had the effect to reform priorities and justify the expenses[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":18" /> |
|||
The first decade of the century had seen a rising demand of incinerators.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":18" /> A second wave of demand had place in the second decade<ref name=":16" /> and it was largely due to the production of an Australian model,<ref name=":18" /> the Reverberatory Incinerator[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.visitsydneyaustralia.com.au/lost-incinerators.html|title=Lost Sydney Incinerators|last=|first=|date=|website=Pocket Oz - Travel and information guide. Sydney|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=27 May 2019}}</ref> In the same decade, paper recycling started in Melbourne.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
[[World War II|WWII]], technological advances and the clean air debate from overseas eventually imposed back landfill disposal over waste burning[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":47">{{Cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/explainer-how-much-landfill-does-australia-have-78404|title=Explainer: how much landfill does Australia have?|last=McCabe|first=Bernadette|last2=Clarke|first2=William|date=2 June 2017|website=The Conversation|publisher=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref> During the Second World War the resources demand necessitated a strong recycling strategy, but by the end of the conflict priorities changed and it was discarded in favor of landfill disposal.<ref name=":16" /> Landfills also benefited from the technological advances acquired from the United States, and more sophisticated plants were build.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
[[Hazardous waste|Hazardous]] and industrial waste were not known, or either ignored threats, and all wastes formed a general, unique [[Waste stream|stream]] that would have eventually ended up in landfill[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":18" /> Since the [[1950s|Fifties]] the industrial refuses received a slightly different attention and their disposal requirements improved.<ref name=":16" /> However [[leachate]], the contaminated liquid which percolates through landfill material, was not prevented and resulted in environmental damages.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
=== 1960-1990 === |
|||
The waste chemical and hazardous traits started to be determinant in the way in which it was disposed of since the [[1960s|Sixties]],<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":18" /> with the Commonwealth taking a role influencing and regulating disposal practices.<ref name=":18" /> Standard landfills did not accept anymore certain types of waste, but in many cases these measures did not take into account the escalation of illegal practices (such as clandestine dumping), which arose as a response.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":18" /> |
|||
The [[Population of Australia|increase in population]] boosted land reclamation, and landfill siting begun to be more challenging.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
The [[Paper recycling|paper and newspaper recycling sector]] reached a 30% recycling rate[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":16" /> Drink containers recycling started a decade later, but [[Deposit-refund system|deposit refunds]] were shut down.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
Public interest towards recycling and environmental protection arose greatly,<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book|url=https://recyclingnearyou.com.au/documents/05nrw_gbugly_report-1.pdf|title=Ten Years of Recycling- The Good, The Bad & The Ugly|last=|first=|publisher=Planet Ark|year=2005|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> yet the process of collecting recyclables was finite to specific geographic areas[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":12" /> The Canterbury Council was the first in differentiating the waste sorting into recyclables and household waste, in 1975.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
Efforts were made especially for reducing [[visual pollution]] and, with it, litter.<ref name=":16" /> More people started to recognize the issue and the government proposed the deposit refund back and the taxation of non recyclable products, unsuccessfully.<ref name=":16" /> [[South Australia]] represented the only exception.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
=== 1990-2000 === |
|||
The inappropriateness of the waste management strategies started to be evident in the last decade of the XX century, with the cities undergoing a process of rapid population growth and the states being unable of contrasting unregulated landfills.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
Landfills were still the preferred alternative, although incinerators and recycling proposal begun to be pondered again.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
Paper and glass were separately collected by various councils, and waste levies, recyclables sales and agreements with various industry sectors allowed the creation of new means of introit.<ref name=":16" /> The main constraints were represented by the residents, which were usually non sensitize enough in the matter.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
In 1992 Australia agreed to United Nations' "[[Agenda 21]]",<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf|title=United Nations Conference on Environment & development - Agenda 21|last=|first=|date=June 1992|website=United Nations - Sustainable Development|publication-place=Rio de Janerio, Brazil|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=1 June 2019}}</ref> and ameliorated recycling strategies were implemented by the end of the decade (reaching a 60/50% rate task by 2000).<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
=== 2000-present === |
|||
Federal government is still limited in the legislative matter about waste management, giving ample autonomy to the single states; however, an increasing amount of frameworks and policies has been issued by the Commonwealth.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":54" /> The result is a miscellanea of laws, independent projects and objectives produced by each state still characterizing the current waste management system.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
The augmented consumer demand, the strategies adopted by lower chain links in the production industry (ie. retailers), as well as a general disbelief towards the actual positive effects of reusing and recycling, have increased the amount of waste generated.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":24" /> Recycling has become a commonplace almost everywhere in Australia, but researches show that households are still confused on the matter.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":1" /> |
|||
Australia is now considered to be one of the greatest consumers of carbon and resources within the Countries that relate to the [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]].<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|url=https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/oecd-environmental-performance-reviews-australia-2019_9789264310452-en#page1|title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Australia 2019|last=Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development|first=|publisher=OECD Publishing|year=2019|isbn=978-92-64-31045-2|location=Paris|pages=}}</ref> According to various sources, more advances, including in waste management, are needed in order to comply with the [[Paris Agreement|Paris emissions goals]][[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":24" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/environment/australia-needs-to-intensify-efforts-to-meet-its-2030-emissions-goal.htm|title=Australia needs to intensify efforts to meet its 2030 emissions goal|last=Cox|first=Anthony|date=30 January 2019|website=Organization for the Economic Cooperation and Development|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2018-11-28/climate-un-environment-report-australia-not-on-track-paris/10554058|title=Australia not on track to hit Paris emissions goals, as UN warns global efforts must increase|last=Kilvert|first=Nick|date=28 November 2018|work=ABC News|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
== Classification of waste == |
|||
The final objective of classifying waste is that of preserving the healthiness of both humans and environment by appropriately characterizing its properties.<ref name=":70" /> Different classifications had been produced by multiple sources over the years, leading ultimately to a range of systems and definitions which had sensibly differentiated from each other.<ref name=":55" /><ref name=":70" /><ref name=":71" /> For example, each state had implemented its own systems with specific terminologies.<ref name=":55">{{Cite book|url=https://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/21614/waste.pdf|title=Waste Management|last=|first=|publisher=|others=Productivity Commission|year=2006|isbn=1 74037 208 5|series=No. 38|location=Canberra|pages=}}</ref><ref name=":70">{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/d05aa2d3-be01-44f3-904b-04dd09e9b0a1/files/waste-classification-gaps-part1.pdf|title=Waste definitions and classifications. Report on Issues, Opportunities and Information Gaps|last=Lamb|first=Garth|last2=Pogson|first2=Sara-Rose|date=12 February 2012|website=|series=AA005528_R01_02|others=Hyder Consulting Pty Ltd|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=3 June 2019|last3=Schliebs|first3=Dominic}}</ref><ref name=":71">{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/85bf2e54-86dc-43ff-a561-41fde420ced7/files/waste-classifications-comparisons.pdf|title=Waste Classifications in Australia. A comparison of waste classifications in the Australian Waste Database with current jurisdictional classifications|last=Rajaratnam|first=Tanya|last2=Lamb|first2=Garth|date=22 December 2011|website=Department of the Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=3 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> In the case of surveys and reports been provided by industries and businesses, additional classifications could had applied.<ref name=":55" /> The same materials might had been treated differently, in respect of whether they were defined as "[[waste]]" or "[[resource]]", and the regulatory structures from the different jurisdictions differed accordingly to these categorizations.<ref name=":70" /><ref name=":71" /> |
|||
The National Waste Classification System was developed as a sub-project of the Australian Waste Database (AWD, 1990), but it was not widely implemented.<ref name=":70" /><ref name=":46" /><ref name=":71" /> Its benefits -for policymakers, local manufacturers and communities-, had been highlighted by the [[CSIRO|Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation]] (CSIRO),<ref name=":72">{{Cite web|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/Completed_inquiries/2008-10/austwastestreams/report/c04|title=Chapter 4 - Potential new waste management strategies|last=|first=|date=|website=Parliament of Australia|others=Senate Committees|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=3 June 2019}}</ref> and yet a 2011 study disclosed that only [[Tasmania]] and the [[Northern Territory]] were fully aligned with it, and only two states, namely [[New South Wales|NSW]] and [[Western Australia|WA]], partly did so.<ref name=":71" /> In that occasion the Department of the Environment and Energy also expressed its commitment to submitting a definitive, harmonized system.<ref name=":71" /> Advances towards a system standardization are recent and correlated to legislative modifications occurred in the last fifteen years.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/fed/catalog/search/resource/details.page?uuid=d9fee34c-c97c-4e5f-bc7d-95f81a1bd658|title=National Waste Management Database|last=|first=|date=1 July 2010|website=Australian Government - Department of the Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
One of the definitions provided for "waste" has been that of the Victorian “Environment Protection Act 1970”, which described it as “any matter, whether solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive, which is discharged, emitted or deposited in the environment in such volume, constituency or manner as to cause an alteration of the environment”[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Environment Protection Act 1970 No. 8056 of 1970 Version No. 172|last=|first=|publisher=Victorian Environment Protection Authority|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> The 2018 National Waste Report defined waste as "materials or products that are unwanted or have been discarded, rejected or abandoned."<ref name=":46" /> That classification included recyclables and [[waste-to-energy]] materials within the waste category, and excluded those that were not subjected to reprocessing prior to being reused.<ref name=":46" /> |
|||
In general, three waste streams are identified in Australia[[Sydney Cove|:]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs/nightlife/waste-a-deep-dive-into-australias-waste-management/10831378|title=Waste away: a deep dive into Australia’s waste management|last=|first=|date=20 February 2019|website=ABC News|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=20 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":70" /><ref name=":71" /> |
|||
#[[Municipal solid waste|Municipal Solid Waste]] (MSW) |
|||
# Commercial and Industrial (C&I) |
|||
#[[Construction waste|Construction and Demolition]] (C&D) |
|||
[[Kerbside collection|Kerbside]] and hard waste collection are usually considered within the first category. Soft plastics, paper and organics are key components.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> |
|||
Timber, plastic and metals characterize the second category. They are considered to represent an optimal and valuable source of recycling materials.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> |
|||
C&D waste products are usually inert, such as concrete, steel and earth that has been excavated[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> |
|||
=== Databases === |
|||
Australian waste management had to comply over the years with a general scarcity of data from both businesses and institutions.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":72" /> Statistical analyses, when provided, had been of varying usefulness to the governmental organs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":20" /> Main issues have been attributed to the lack of consistency, methodology, field-related expertise and legislation effectiveness.<ref name=":51">{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/7d663c54-ea94-4219-a067-afdd88b8d77f/files/nwds.doc|title=Final Report - National Waste Data System Requirements Study|last=Haines|first=Megan|last2=Edgar|first2=Guy|date=1 October 2019|website=Australian Government - Department of Environment and Energy|series=MMPJ09DWH0158|others=Netbalance|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":52" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/de91c360-1995-475c-bc9f-f0c4c85b7692/files/improving-national-waste-data-and-reporting.pdf|title=Improving national waste data and reporting|last=Pickin|first=Joe|last2=Latimer|first2=Geoff|date=30 March 2018|website=Australian Government - Department of Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019|last3=Randell|first3=Paul}}</ref> In particular, the different systems, classifications and even technical language adopted by each jurisdiction -required by the diverse stakeholders range and nature-<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/0ab6ee68-2c88-4974-8aa3-26fb7fcd6ff6/files/data-systems-review.docx|title=National Waste Data System|last=Cain|first=Rebecca|date=December 2012|website=Australian Government - Department of Environment and Energy|series=MMPJ10DWH150|others=Netbalance|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref>, increased complexity in both the data collection and wrangling processes.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":71" /><ref name=":46" /> Even where similarities were present, data could had overlapped.<ref name=":70" /> An inquiry made by a governmental office in 2006 reported the data to be inconsistent, incomplete and subjected to biases.<ref name=":55" /> The data level of confidence had underpinned the ability of producing resonant policies, and in particular those regarding a sustainable management of resources.<ref name=":70" /><ref name=":72" /><ref name=":51" /> |
|||
There had been attempts to create an harmonized system, however the success of such projects had been hampered by the management costs associated with reforming the legislation already in use.<ref name=":46" /><ref name=":55" /> The absence of a clear, unique documentation which could have assisted statistical analyses was reported in 2018 by Blue Environment Pty Ltd in the National Waste Report.<ref name=":46" /> |
|||
Currently, Validation and Testing methodology are implemented by some researches in analysis in order to reduce biases and minimize errors occurrence[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":50" /> |
|||
== Current management system == |
|||
=== Principles === |
|||
The framework onto which the legislation is currently working is what has been named "the 3 R's plus 1: reduce, reuse, recycle and recover energy", in a way that approaches towards circular economy principles.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":48" /> The system has received critics from researchers (who are not convinced of the actual circularity of the proposed economy)<ref name=":61" /><ref name=":53" />, as well as from institutions that urge the concrete application of the principles thereof[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":48" /> |
|||
Apparently, the main reason for criticizing the current system is that that a true circular economy should prefer the avoidance of waste over its reuse and recycle (in alignment with the waste hierarchy principles), while not clear actions have been made towards the former goal.<ref name=":61" /><ref name=":53" /> |
|||
==== Waste hierarchy ==== |
|||
The waste hierarchy describes the priorities linked to the waste management via a preferential order, on the basis of the efficiency of each of its strategies towards the production, use and disposal of a product.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/recycling-and-reuse/warr-strategy/the-waste-hierarchy|title=The waste hierarchy|last=|first=|date=21 September 2017|website=NSW Environment Protection Authority|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=20 May 2019}}</ref> It is often represented as an inverse pyramid, grading from the top “most preferable” to the bottom “least preferable” solutions.<ref name=":9" /> The waste hierarchy sets efficiency as an aim and over-consumption as an avoidable, unnecessary occurrence that can be diverted by appropriate changes in the [[Consumer behaviour|consumer behavior]][[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":9" /> |
|||
Its implementation in Australia as a guide for national policies has been widely spread since the last decade of the XX century, and it is often central to the "National Waste Minimization and Recycling Strategy"[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":2" /> |
|||
Each state manages waste in a different way. Because of this, the various waste hierarchies, although almost identical in functions and structures, have been enshrined in different, official acts, and at different times. [[Queensland]] describes it in the “Waste Reduction and Recycling Act 2011”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/pdf/asmade/act-2011-031|title=Waste Reduction and Recycling Act 2011 - Act No. 1 of 2011|last=|first=|date=28 October 2011|website=|publisher=Government of Queensland|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref>; in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] is part of the foundations of the “Environment Protection Act 1970”;<ref name=":0" /> in NSW is mirrored by the “Waste Avoidance and Recovery Act 2001”[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/act/2001/58|title=Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act 2001 No 58|last=|first=|date=1 August 2018|website=New South Wales Government - NSW legislation|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
The disposal of waste serves, theoretically, as the worst case scenario; in practice, the usage of landfills is widely adopted.<ref name=":2" /> This happens because this hierarchy is not suitable in every circumstances and the evaluation of costs-benefits needs to be implemented in its consultation[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wasteauthority.wa.gov.au/media/files/documents/W2E_Position_Statement.pdf|title=Waste Authority - Waste to Energy Position Statement (Thermal Treatment)|last=|first=|date=May 2013|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
=== Policies and regulations === |
|||
Federal waste-related legislation is under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Environment and Energy.<ref name=":54" /><ref name=":56" /> |
|||
* (1992) National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development |
|||
The strategy was endorsed in 1992 and represented an action towards the Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD).<ref name=":3" /> ESD was defined in 1990 by the Commonwealth Government as "using, conserving and enhancing the community's resources so that ecological processes, on which life depends, are maintained, and the total quality of life, now and in the future, can be increased"<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/about-us/esd|title=Ecologically sustainable development|last=|first=|date=|website=Australian Government - Department of the Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref> and the same definition had been used in the strategy[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":3" /> |
|||
The National Waste Minimization and Management Strategy developed as a corollary.<ref name=":3" /> |
|||
* National Waste Minimization and Management Strategy |
|||
The strategy was developed under the “National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development” in order to serve as a framework with which improvements and effective measures could be coordinated.<ref name=":3" /> In particular, it focused on hazardous waste and waste disposal[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":3" /> |
|||
* (2017) National Food Waste Strategy. Halving Australia's Food Waste by 2030 |
|||
The document represents a guidance for Australian institutions, outlining the actions needed to be pursued in order to reduce food waste by 2030.<ref name=":34">{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/4683826b-5d9f-4e65-9344-a900060915b1/files/national-food-waste-strategy.pdf|title=National Food Waste Strategy - Halving Australia's Food Waste by 2030|last=|first=|date=November 2017|website=Australian Government - Department of Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> It is inspired by the [[United Nations]]' Sustainable Development Goal 12: "Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns",<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-consumption-production/|title=Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns|last=|first=|date=2015|website=United Nations|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E.%20Accessed%2016%20September%202017|title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015|last=|first=|date=21 October 2015|website=United Nations|series=A/RES/70/1|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> and by the Country's commitment towards the reduction of [[Greenhouse gas|gas emissions]] (heavily produced by organic compounds in landfills)<ref name=":35">{{Cite web|url=http://sydney.edu.au/environment-institute/blog/feeding-people-not-landfills/|title=Feeding people, not landfills|last=Nasta Bittar|first=Maria|date=15 March 2018|website=The University of Sydney - Sydney Environment Institute|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref>.<ref name=":34" /> The latter aligns with the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]][[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":34" /> |
|||
* (2018) National Waste Policy: Less Waste, More Resources |
|||
The text succeed the National Waste Policy of 2009,<ref name=":22" /> and it represents the foundations on which governments can relate in their legislative activities, while also stating their responsibilities.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Waste Strategy 2015-2020|last=|first=|publisher=Office of Green Industries SA|year=2015|isbn=978-1-921114-19-9|location=Adelaide SA 5001|pages=}}</ref> A total of sixteen waste strategies are exposed.<ref name=":4" /> It will be in use until 2030 and, while setting the guidelines for governments, local and regional circumstances considerations for businesses and communities across the Country can still be pondered and implemented <ref name=":22" /> |
|||
The document presents itself as with a circular economy footprint, as it has been drawn up with 5 principles which include waste avoidance and recycling implementation[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":22" /> |
|||
*Product Stewardship Act 2011 |
|||
The act states the voluntary, co-regulatory and mandatory [[product stewardship]] and it implements the guidelines with which products must be thought of in terms of environment, health and safety[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2011A00076|title=Product Stewardship Act 2011 - No. 76, 2011|last=|first=|date=2011|website=Australian Government|publisher=Government of Australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery/product-stewardship/legislation|title=Product stewardship legislation|last=|first=|date=|website=Australian Government - Department of the Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
The first scheme developed under the act was "The National Television and Computer Recycling Scheme", in which both governments and industries were considered responsible of the [[Electronic waste|management of electronic media products]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery/television-and-computer-recycling-scheme|title=National Television and Computer Recycling Scheme|last=|first=|date=2011|website=Australian Government|publisher=Department of the Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> The last products introduced in its regulations include batteries, plastic [[Microbead|microbeads]] and [[Photovoltaic system|photovoltaic]] systems[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery/product-stewardship/legislation/product-list-2017-18|title=2017-18 Product List|last=|first=|date=|website=Australian Government - Department of the Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
*(2018) Threat Abatement Plan for the impacts of marine debris on the vertebrate wildlife of Australia’s coasts and oceans |
|||
[[Marine debris]] were considered and listed as a major threat to wildlife in "[[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999|Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act]]" (EPBC) in 2003.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/about/history|title=History of the EPBC Act|last=|first=|date=|website=Australian Government - Department of the Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref> Plastic is a prominent source of such debris and it was on this basis that the plan was established.<ref name=":31" /> In particular, it focuses on the actions needed in the research and in the understanding of the impacts of plastic and micro-plastic on marine environments, and on the actions needed to minimize their effects[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":31">{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/e3318495-2389-4ffc-b734-164cdd67fe19/files/tap-marine-debris-2018.pdf|title=Threat Abatement Plan for the impacts of marine debris on the vertebrate wildlife of Australia’s coasts and oceans, Commonwealth of Australia 2018|last=|first=|date=2018|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
=== Product Stewardship=== |
|||
Product stewardship refers to the regulations that set a product management strategy which ensure that each sector involved in the lifecycle of a product (including production and disposal), shares a responsibility towards its environmental and human impacts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://productstewardship.net/about/what-product-stewardship|title=What is Product Stewardship?|last=|first=|date=|website=Northwest Product Stewardship Council|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref> In Australia its regulation on a national basis has started in 2011 with the "Product Stewardship Act"[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":5" /> |
|||
=== Production === |
|||
Diverse factors are involved in the production of waste, namely economy, demography and geography[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":45">{{Cite web|url=https://blog.mraconsulting.com.au/2016/04/20/state-of-waste-2016-current-and-future-australian-trends/|title=State of Waste 2016 – current and future Australian trends|last=Ritchie|first=Mike|date=20 April 2016|website=MRA Consulting Group|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
Australia produces lots of waste;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greenpeace.org.au/blog/trash-selfie/|title=How much trash do you produce in a week?|last=|first=|date=20 August 2014|website=Greenpeace|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref> according to various studies, this is due to an economy based on an intensive use of materials,<ref name=":2" /> to population growth (as of September 2018, Australia has more than 25 millions people)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/mf/3101.0|title=3101.0 - Australian Demographic Statistics, Sep 2018|last=|first=|date=21 March 2019|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref>,<ref name=":45" /> population demographic and [[urban sprawl]], and [[Gross domestic product|Gross Domestic Product]] GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.mraconsulting.com.au/2016/04/20/state-of-waste-2016-current-and-future-australian-trends/|title=State of Waste 2016 – current and future Australian trends|last=Ritchie|first=Mike|date=20 April 2016|website=MRA Consulting Group|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> In 2018, Australian GDP grew by 2.3% , and every year in Australia about 67 million tonnes of wasted are generated (~2.7tn per person)[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":22" /> |
|||
==== Littering ==== |
|||
{{Further|Litter in Australia}}[[File:Cigarette butts in a smoke-free area.jpg|thumb|FIG 1. An example of cigarette butts littering in a smoke-free area. Image captured in an university campus. |alt=]] |
|||
Littering is a major issue in Australia, with $180 millions per year spent in NSW only;<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/litter-and-illegal-dumping/epa-work-prevent-litter/tosser-blitz|title=EPA statewide Tosser Blitz|last=|first=|date=20 October 2017|website=NSW EPA|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> however, a decrease in its occurrence has been registered, although Victoria and West Australia have recorded an inverse trend.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|url=http://kab.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/2019_NLI17_18_EPORT.pdf|title=National report 2017 ‐ 2018 National Litter Index|last=|first=|date=October 2018|website=Keep Australia Beautiful|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
The former records 14,560 tonnes of litter generated per year, ¾ of which it’s constituted by cigarette butts (Fig 1) and packaging;<ref name=":42" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/get-involved/report-litter|title=Did you know Victorians generate 14.560 tonnes of litter per year?|last=|first=|date=3 Apr 2019|website=EPA Victoria|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> in NSW the number increases up to 25,000.<ref name=":6" /> The state spent over $180 million (AUD) in 2016 on littering management.<ref name=":43" /> |
|||
In Australia members of the public can report littering practices to the local [[EPA (disambiguation)|Environment Protection Authority]] (EPA) agencies, as declared by documents such as the Local Nuisance and Litter Control Act 2016 (SA).<ref name=":7" /> In Victoria, 20,000 reports are generated annually.<ref name=":7" /> |
|||
==== Single use plastics ==== |
|||
According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF), 95% of the plastic packaging is discarded after a single use.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wwf.org.au/get-involved/plastics|title=Stop plastic pollution|last=|first=|date=|website=WWF|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> In March 2019 the organisation published “Solving Plastic pollution through accountability”, a report issued on an international basis and which urged governments to stop accepting projects contemplating the use of [[Raw material|virgin materials]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/publications/solving-plastic-pollution-through-accountability|title=Solving Plastic Pollution Through Accountability|last=|first=|date=5 March 2019|website=WWF|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> Additionally, it supported a global ban to single use plastics and requested the producers to be considered responsible for how their products are ultimately disposed of, and recycled[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/solving_plastic_pollution_through_accountability_eng_singles.pdf|title=Solving Plastic pollution through accountability|last=|first=|publisher=World Wildlife Fund|year=2019|isbn=978-2-940529-93-3|location=|pages=}}</ref> |
|||
The single use plastics have been already banned in Europe,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/eu-parliament-bans-single-use-plastics-in-overwhelming-vote|title=EU Parliament bans single-use plastics in overwhelming vote|last=|first=|date=29 March 2019|work=SBS News|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/mar/27/the-last-straw-european-parliament-votes-to-ban-single-use-plastics|title=European parliament votes to ban single-use plastics|last=|first=|date=28 March 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> and, in the same month of the WWF publication, [[Hobart]] became the first capital in Australia to do so,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/btn/classroom/single-use-plastic-ban/10876650|title=Single-use Plastic Ban|last=|first=|date=12 March 2019|work=ABC News|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> although not without criticisms by the local businesses.<ref name=":75" /> The Tasmanian Small Business Council demanded a coordinate action between government and local businesses -businesses which, in his opinion, would have been damaged by a sudden and costly ban[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":75">{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-05/hobart-to-ban-single-use-plastic/10869790|title=Hobart's single-use plastic ban an Australian first, but business council says small businesses unfairly hit|last=|first=|date=5 March 2019|work=ABC News|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
Other states are pondering the ban, such as SA<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-13/sa-to-consider-banning-single-use-plastics/10711906|title=South Australia to consider banning single-use plastics such as straws|last=|first=|date=14 January 2019|work=ABC News|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> and [[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-02-19/canberra-ponders-ditching-all-single-use-plastics/10823170|title=Single-use plastics could be banned under ACT Government proposal|last=|first=|date=19 February 2019|work=ABC News|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> while in the meantime there are several cases of bans on plastic bags, like those in Queensland,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/pollution/management/waste/recovery/reduction/plastic-bags|title=Plastic bag ban|last=|first=|date=|website=Queensland Government|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> Western Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.der.wa.gov.au/your-environment/wa-plastic-bag-ban|title=WA's ban on lightweight plastic bags|last=|first=|date=|website=Government of West Australia - Department of Water and Environmental Regulation|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> Victoria<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/PlasticBags|title=Plastic bags|last=|first=|date=|website=Sustainability Victoria|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> and [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.darwin.nt.gov.au/council/news-media/news/plastic-wise-council-expands-the-program-to-ban-single-use-plastics|title=Plastic Wise Council Expands the Program to Ban Single Use Plastics|last=|first=|date=12 December 2018|work=City of Darwin - media release|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref>. Yet, SA banned them in 2009 already[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.sa.gov.au/data_and_publications/all_publications/for_councils/plastic_bag_ban|title=Plastic bag ban|last=|first=|date=14 June 2018|website=EPA South Australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
In July 2018, [[Coles Supermarkets|Coles]] banned plastic bags from its retail shops.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.news.com.au/finance/business/retail/furious-shoppers-attack-supermarket-giant-as-plastic-bag-ban-comes-into-effect-today/news-story/d0effa1cf6cea481493aa6266a217303|title=New plastic bag ban sparks backlash and praise from Aussie shoppers|last=|first=|date=1 July 2018|work=News.com.au|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> The decision was followed by a consistent flux of critics from its shoppers and indecision by the company.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-08-30/coles-deadline-for-free-reusable-plastic-bags-expires/10181800|title=Coles deadline for free plastic bag giveaways expires, customers again charged 15c|last=|first=|date=30 August 2018|work=ABC News|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> In NSW the decision of Coles and [[Woolworths Supermarkets|Woolworths]] to ban single-use plastic bags set off many controversies.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/nsw-govt-stands-firm-on-plastic-bag-ban|title=NSW govt stands firm on plastic bag ban|last=|first=|date=16 August 2018|work=SBS News|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> NSW is also the only state that has not yet formally took action against the use of single-use plastics, in what has been named the “ban on bans”[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://thenewdaily.com.au/news/state/nsw/2018/07/02/plastic-bag-ban-nsw/|title=Plastic bag ban: NSW opposes ‘heavy hand of legislation’|last=Eddie|first=Rachel|date=2 July 2018|work=The New Daily|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/plastic-bag-ban-are-you-across-the-1-july-changes|title=Plastic bag ban: Are you across the 1 July changes?|last=|first=|date=28 June 2018|work=SBS News|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
Advances in the reduction of single-use plastics are progressing on a nationwide view: companies and institutions as [[McDonald's|McDonald’s]], [[Starbucks]] and the [[Sydney Opera House]] are banning the use of straws; the number of reusable cups sold and responsible cafes registered have fluctuated in 2018; and councils are repeatedly been asked questions by residents regarding the disposal of recycling, showing an increased interest in the subject matter[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=https://recyclingnearyou.com.au/nationalrecyclingweek/research/2018/#WOW-Section|title=From waste war to recycling reboot - National Recycling Week - Research Report|last=|first=|date=2018|website=Planet Ark|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
=== Collection === |
|||
==== Labeling ==== |
|||
Uncoordinated label systems have impacted the sorting, and thus the household [[waste collection]] dynamics[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cleanaway.com.au/about-us/sustainable-future/australasian-recycling-label/|title=The new recycling label and its impact on the commingled bin|last=|first=|date=16 October 2018|website=Cleanway|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
A harmonized action has been taken by [[Planet Ark]], PREP Design and the Australian Packaging Covenant Organisation, producing the Australasian Recycling Label (ARL) as a result[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":8" /> |
|||
The system has been already implemented in the major market streams and some of its supporters include [[Nestlé]], [[Unilever]] and Woolworths[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":8" /> |
|||
==== Waste bins ==== |
|||
[[File:City of Wagga Wagga - 240L FOGO, 240L Recycling and 140L general waste bins.jpg|thumb|Fig 2.Standard color-labeled waste bins in [[Wagga Wagga]], New South Wales. The yellow bin represents the recycling, the green bin the garden waste and the red one the household garbage<ref name=":33">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/You-and-your-home/Waste-and-recycling/Recycling/Recycling-bins|title=Recycling bins|last=|first=|date=|website=Sustainability Victoria|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref>.|alt=|left]]<br /> |
|||
In most of the councils, bins are labelled in the following manner (Fig 2): |
|||
* Household residual: red lid. Waste that is usually accepted includes: broken ceramics and glass; wrapped nappies and pads; [[polystyrene]], where council do not collect it[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":33" /> |
|||
* Recycling bin: yellow lid. Waste that is usually accepted includes: paper and cardboard, and clean pizza boxes; aerosol cans; plastic; aluminium items; glass; metals.<ref name=":33" /> |
|||
*[[Green waste|Garden waste]]: green lid. Waste that is usually accepted includes: grass and weeds; leaves; small branches[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":33" /> |
|||
The adoption of the yellow lid bin for a wide range of recyclables may cause contamination problems,<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":1" /> but it has the advantageous effect of diminishing the number of trucks (and consequently [[air pollution]]), required for the collection process.<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
=== Transport === |
|||
The collection of solid and recyclables materials from households, industries and other places usually leads to the transport towards [[Materials recovery facility|Materials Recovery Facility (]]MRF), [[Transfer station (waste management)|transfer stations]] or landfill sites[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":2" /> |
|||
====Materials Recovery Facility (MRF)==== |
|||
Materials Recovery Facilities, or Materials Reclamation Facilities, or multi re-use facilities, receive the commingled materials from the scollection truck with the function of sorting and aggregate recyclables[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thebalancesmb.com/what-is-material-recovery-center-2877733|title=What Is a Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) and How Does It Work?|last=Leblanc|first=Rick|date=26 April 2019|website=The Balance small businesses|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
MRF are generally similar in structure and require both manual and automatic procedures. The former are especially useful when the materials received are particularly contaminated and/or do not respect the requirements for being sorted[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":11" /> |
|||
[[File:Recycling Video.webm|thumb|Recycling Video]] |
|||
<br /> |
|||
=== Recovery and Waste diversion === |
|||
[[File:Comparison of resource recovery targets in several Australian jurisdictions.jpg|thumb|578x578px|Fig 3. Resource recovery targets in Australia until the year 2025. Overall Queensland has the lowest targets, while ACT plans the most ambitious recovery rate for MSW.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0021/69060/transforming-qlds-recycling-waste-industry-directions-paper.pdf|title=Queensland Waste Avoidance and Resource Productivity Strategy 2014–2024 - Draft review report|last=|first=|date=January 2018|website=Queensland Government|others=Waste Policy and Legislation, Department of Environment and Science|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=1 June 2019}}</ref>]] |
|||
Of all the Australian jurisdictions, Queensland is one of those with the worst recovery rates.<ref name=":57">{{Cite web|url=https://www.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0021/69060/transforming-qlds-recycling-waste-industry-directions-paper.pdf|title=Transforming Queensland’s Recycling and Waste Industry- Directions Paper|last=|first=|date=1 November 2018|website=Queensland Government|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=1 June 2019}}</ref> It also appears to have low standards on an international basis.<ref name=":57" /> |
|||
In the years spanning from 2007 to 2016, the state performances in the sector did almost not change at all.<ref name=":57" /> The estimates made by the Queensland's Department of Environment and Science revealed a recovery rate of less than 45% in the financial year 2016-2017.<ref name=":57" /> They represents a huge gap from those of the current leader, South Australia,<ref name=":57" /> which in the same year diverted from landfill more than 80% of its generated waste.<ref name=":57" /><ref name=":58">{{Cite book|url=https://www.greenindustries.sa.gov.au/SArecycling|title=South Australia's waste and resource recovery infrastructure plan|last=|first=|publisher=Green Industries SA|year=2018|isbn=978-1-921114-24-3|location=Adelaide SA 5001|pages=}}</ref> |
|||
The figures for SA show that the geographical origin of waste, as well as its typology, strongly affect the diversion percentages.<ref name=":58" /> For example, C&D recorded a 89% recovery rate in the metropolitan area, and of 65% in the regional.<ref name=":58" /> However the commercial and industrial category performed better in regional SA (93%), rather than in the surroundings of [[Adelaide]] (82%). Municipal solid waste diversion scored the lower percentages, reaching only 39% in the regional area.<ref name=":58" /> |
|||
The national recovered waste average floats around 61%.<ref name=":57" /> Queensland would need to divert almost 40% more than its current performance in order to reach it.<ref name=":57" /> <br /> |
|||
===== Recycling ===== |
|||
{{Further|Recycling in Australia}} |
|||
Recycling aim is that of re-producing new or raw materials.<ref name=":2" /> The industry involves multiple sectors of waste management, and requires specific collection and sorting practices which precede the sale of recyclables.<ref name=":2" /> Contamination of the materials collected is a major issue and can divert conspicuous amounts of recyclables to landfills.<ref name=":2" /> Another major problem is that of the little domestic demand for the industry inputs, especially in rural areas where population density is limited.<ref name=":48" /><ref name=":63" /> |
|||
The recycling industry in Australia is crucial in the realizations of the ''National Waste Policy: Less waste, more resources'' objectives[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery/publications/australian-recycling-sector-reports|title=Australian Recycling Sector reports|last=|first=|date=2012|website=Australian Government - Department of the Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
Technological advances in the sector either meant additional waste streams entering the recycling chain, or more sophisticated sorting procedures that ameliorated the rate of products actually recycled[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":12" /> |
|||
In the decade from 1995 to 2005, about ~22% more newspapers have been recycled each year. In the same years, more than half a billion cans have been added to the recycling chain[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":12" /> |
|||
A research conducted by Pollinate and Planet Ark in 2018 revealed that the most requested recycling services regard, in order of prominence: organics; soft plastics; and e-waste[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":10" /> |
|||
Victoria is currently recycling 67%<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/campaigns/war-on-waste|title=The war on waste|last=|first=|date=2019|website=Sustainability Victoria|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> of its gross waste and has invested several millions dollars in grants for new infrastructures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/Grants-and-funding/Resource-recovery-infrastructure-fund|title=Resource Recovery Infrastructure Fund|last=|first=|date=|website=Sustainability Victoria|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
It has been estimated that in the financial year 2009-10, the recycling sector was worth $4.5 billion (AUD), with an additional $5 billion if the entire waste management industry is considered.<ref>{{Cite book|title=NSW Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Strategy 2014–21|last=|first=|publisher=Environment Protection Authority|year=2014|isbn=978 1 74359 598 5|location=Sydney, NSW|pages=}}</ref> In South Australia, which is currently the leader in the sector,<ref name=":57" /><ref name=":58" /> resource recovery activities employ almost 5000 people and contribute more than half a billion Australian dollars to the SA Gross State Product (GSP).<ref name=":66" /> |
|||
===== Plastics ===== |
|||
Plastic materials can be reprocessed in a number of ways, with the result of being reconverted in a various range of new products, such as bottles and bins.<ref name=":48" /><ref name=":19" /> Almost half of the plastics sorted in Australia is processed locally, while the rest is exported to Asian markets[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":21" /> |
|||
Soft plastics are only processed by RED Group in Melbourne and may be reused for flooring, roads and more.<ref name=":48" /><ref name=":19" /> |
|||
===== Paper and cardboard ===== |
|||
Paper and cardboard materials can also be reprocessed in diverse ways and examples of end products might be recycled office paper and card boxes.<ref name=":48" /><ref name=":19" /> These processes are 55% done locally and China represents the primary importer[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":21" /> |
|||
===== Glass ===== |
|||
Roads, sands and glass bottles are all possible end products of glass recycling.<ref name=":19" /> As for the previous categories, glass can be processed in different ways, yet differently from them, plant facilities are all on Australian soil. O-I Asia is the major company involved[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":48" /> |
|||
===== Metal ===== |
|||
Metals can be converted in a number of ways dependently on their characteristics[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":19" /> |
|||
Aluminium can be reused for cans as well as for airplanes, and the processing phase can occur in diverse ways.<ref name=":48" /><ref name=":19" /> Aluminium processing facilities are mostly on Australian soil, but they are also exported. Vietnam represents the major importer (8% of the total collected).<ref name=":21" /> |
|||
Cans receive similar treatments, but can be either reconverted in cans ex-novo, or being adapted into construction materials[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":48" /><ref name=":19" /> |
|||
===== C&D ===== |
|||
C&D materials are mostly exported in South-Eastern Asia, but some are processed locally.<ref name=":21" /> Sorting practices involve manual labor, magnets and [[Trommel screen|trommels]][[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":19" /> |
|||
===== E-waste ===== |
|||
Applications of e-waste treated recyclables include the production of coins, screens and jewelry. E-waste such as mobile phones are source of glass, plastic, gold, copper and other valuable materials,<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":19" /> while computers and TVs necessitate two processing stages and can be reused as construction materials or as batteries.<ref name=":19" /> Other wasted components of this garbage category can be elements with deleterious effects on the environment[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":32" /> |
|||
In Victoria, all the e-waste will be diverted from landfills and recycled from the 1 July 2019.<ref name=":32" /> The state is investing millions of dollars for new infrastructures and facilities.<ref name=":48" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/Grants-and-funding/Ewaste-Infrastructure-Support-Program#About%20the%20program|title=E-waste Infrastructure Support Program|last=|first=|date=|website=Sustainability Victoria|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
===== Printer cartridges ===== |
|||
End products from printer cartridges may be applied in recycled inks and in road surfaces. Some manufactures receive used cartridges for reuse[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":19" /> |
|||
===== Coffee pods ===== |
|||
Coffee pods can be recycled and some companies have organised collection points and campaigns to help reduce their disposal issues.<ref name=":19" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/science/earth/article/2016/02/02/should-you-recycle-your-coffee-pods|title=Should you recycle your coffee pods?|last=|first=|date=7 September 2016|website=SBS|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> Coffee residuals are used as compost and aluminium can be used in diverse ways[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":19" /> |
|||
===== Food waste ===== |
|||
In the world, as in Australia, one-third of the groceries are wasted every year.<ref name=":36">{{Cite web|url=https://www.foodbank.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/FBA-2017-18-Financial-Statement.pdf|title=Financial Report|last=|first=|date=2018|website=Foodbank Australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.fao.org/3/i3347e/i3347e.pdf|title=Food wastage footprint - Impacts on natural resources|last=|first=|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)|year=2013|isbn=978-92-5-107752-8|location=|pages=}}</ref> Food waste impacts the community on various sectors and its implications have started to be considered more often in the last ten years.<ref name=":37" /> It is considered a waste of resources and opportunities, but it also is a major source of atmospheric emissions[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":35" /> |
|||
In Victoria, almost half of the typical MSW composition is represented by food waste,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.darebin.vic.gov.au/Your-Council/Talk-to-us/Media-Centre?a=65EFAF5B23904EC881EC7A2CB2EDBE3D#Council-calls-for-urgent-Landfill-Levy-spending|title=Council calls for urgent Landfill Levy spending|last=|first=|date=16 August 2018|website=City of Darebin - Media Centre|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> 65% of which is considered as "avoidable waste".<ref name=":32" /> More than one million tonnes of organics are gathered and treated by the kerbside organic collection, which has been introduced in most of the state's councils[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":32" /> |
|||
===== Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) ===== |
|||
Any fuel sourced from residual waste can be defined as [[refuse-derived fuel]], although the denomination usually refers to low-quality types.<ref name=":64">{{Cite book|url=https://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/-/media/resources/documents/publications-and-research/research/market-analysis/market-analysis-refuse-derived-fuel-sept-2014.pdf?la=en|title=Market summary – refuse-derived fuel|last=|first=|publisher=Sustainability Victoria|year=2014|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> RDFs can either be integrated into treatment processes (ie, incinerators), or used for other industrial practices.<ref name=":64" /> Their production and usage have been standardized in various levels by EPAs[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.sa.gov.au/environmental_info/waste_management/solid_waste/refuse_derived_fuel|title=Refuse derived fuel|last=|first=|date=10 July 2018|website=EPA South Australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
RDFs can be provided by all the tree waste streams.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url=https://theconversation.com/explainer-why-we-should-be-turning-waste-into-fuel-77463|title=Explainer: why we should be turning waste into fuel|last=|first=|date=19 May 2017|website=The Conversation|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> If the fuel is sourced from biological waste (such as fibres and paper), it can be adopted in the renewable energy industry.<ref name=":14" /> However, organics need an additional processing before being used as fuel[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":13" /> |
|||
In 2018, the second, largest facility that converts waste into fuel opened in [[Wetherill Park, New South Wales|Wetherill Park]], Sydney[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cleanaway.com.au/media-centre/media-releases/australias-largest-waste-fuel-plant-opens-nsw/|title=Australia’s Largest Waste to Fuel Plant opens in NSW|last=|first=|date=31 July 2018|website=Cleanaway|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://resourceco.com.au/what-we-do/alternative-fuels/processed-engineered-fuel/|title=Cleanaway ResourceCo Resource Recovery Facility – Wetherill Park|last=|first=|date=|website=ResourceCo|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
=== Treatment === |
|||
[[Incineration|Incinerators]], [[pyrolysis]] and [[gasification]] are some of the thermal treatments into which waste can be diverted.<ref name=":2" /> They might be accompanied by energy recover[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":2" /> |
|||
==== Incinerator ==== |
|||
In Australia, the waste-to-energy approach is becoming by the time more favored by both councils and industries[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.envirojustice.org.au/our-work/community/air-pollution/resources/waste-to-energy/|title=Waste to energy: what does it mean for communities and the environment?|last=|first=|date=|website=Environmental Justice Australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
The major environmental pros of these practices consist of the decreasing adoption of [[Fossil fuel|fossil fuels]], whose use may potentially produce more carbon.<ref name=":14" /> Incinerators plants had sensibly developed over the years and now advanced pollution control devices enhance their environmental standards.<ref name=":2" /> The most advanced waste-to-use plants ameliorate their ecological performances by capturing CO<sub>2</sub> emissions produced by the combustion of the fuel;<ref name=":14" /> carbon dioxide could then be diverted and used into other processes[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":14" /> |
|||
In general, emission can broadly be managed, but australians are skeptic and concerned about them.<ref name=":14" /> Other critics relate to the idea that waste used as fuel could weaken the recycling industry[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":14" /> |
|||
There are studies which oppose the adoption of incinerators, showing that living in the proximity of a energy-from-waste facility can lead to [[epigenetic modifications]] associated to [[heavy metals]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Xu|first=P|last2=Chen|first2=Z|last3=Chen|first3=Y|last4=Feng|first4=L|last5=Wu|first5=L|last6=Xu|first6=D|last7=Wang|first7=X|last8=Lou|first8=X|last9=Lou|first9=J|date=3 May 2019|title=Body burdens of heavy metals associated with epigenetic damage in children living in the vicinity of a municipal waste incinerator.|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31078030|journal=Chemosphere|publisher=Elsevier|volume=229|pages=160-168|via=US National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Heavy metals have been reported to occur within a certain radius from the incinerators.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Li|first=Y|last2=Zhang|first2=H|last3=Shao|first3=L|last4=Zhou|first4=X|last5=He|first5=P|date=1 March 2019|title=Impact of municipal solid waste incineration on heavy metals in the surrounding soils by multivariate analysis and lead isotope analysis.|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31133269|journal=Journal of Environmental Science (China)|volume=82|pages=47-56|via=US National Library of Medicine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abanades|first=S|last2=Flamant|first2=G|last3=Gagnepain|first3=B|last4=Gauthier|first4=D|date=2002|title=Fate of heavy metals during municipal solid waste incineration.|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12020096|journal=Waste Management Resources|volume=20 (1)|pages=55-68|via=US National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Other toxic pollutants, including [[Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds|dioxins]], have been documented to be produced by the combustion processes.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|url=https://www.envirojustice.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Sevenreasons.pdf|title=Seven reasons to reject the Eastern Creek waste to energy facility|last=Whelan|first=James|date=14 May 2018|website=Environmental Justice Australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> Instead, the fact that landfills generate [[methane]], a greenhouse gas naturally produced, has been considered by some as an advantage for them,<ref name=":1" /> while others considered the absence of methane emissions as a point in favor of incinerators[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":14" /> |
|||
Some sources described the preference of incinerators over landfill as socially and politically advantageous.<ref name=":1" /> They observed that, while the latter have an end-of-life (filling) and require the administrations to find new sites, the former, although sharing the characteristic of not being wanted by the nearby households,<ref name=":23" /> do not need to move over time and will mainly affect only a relatively small area[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
Queensland and Victoria tends to incinerate more than other states.<ref name=":1" /> Western Australia started a project in 2018,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://reneweconomy.com.au/australian-first-big-waste-to-energy-plant-reaches-financial-close-in-w-a-59064/|title=“Australian-first” big waste-to-energy plant reaches financial close in W.A.|last=Vorrath|first=Sophie|date=18 October 2018|work=Renew Economy|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> while in NSW, in the same year, the construction of a waste-to-energy plant in West Sydney had been refused.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://reneweconomy.com.au/energy-waste-facility-refused-due-uncertain-health-environment-impacts-12703/|title=Energy-from-waste facility refused due to ‘uncertain’ health, environment impacts|last=|first=|date=19 July 2018|work=Renew Economy|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcn.nsw.gov.au/projects/2018/04/eastern-creek-energy-from-waste-facility-ssd-6236|title=Eastern Creek Energy from Waste Facility SSD 6236|last=|first=|date=13 August 2018|website=NSW Government - Independent Planning Commission|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=25 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
=== Disposal === |
|||
==== Landfill ==== |
|||
[[File:Landfills distribution in Australia 2017.jpg|thumb|331x331px|Fig 4. Waste management facilities in Australia as of 2017|alt=|left]] |
|||
Australia heavily depends on landfill disposal.<ref name=":1" /> It represents a cheaper solution than others and, for this reason, it has been considered to have slowed down the advances in the recycling industry[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
Currently, most of the landfill sites are found in the metropolitan area of the states' capitals, with a major concentration in the South-West and South-East of Australia (Fig 4).<ref name=":49">{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/webgis-framework/apps/nwr-wide/nwr-wide.jsf|title=National Waste Reporting Mapping Tool|last=|first=|date=2014|website=Australian Government - Department of Environment and Energy|others=PSMA Australia Limited, Geoscience Australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":50">{{Cite web|url=https://d28rz98at9flks.cloudfront.net/72592/WasteManagementFacilitiesMetadata_v1.1.pdf|title=Waste Management Facilities Database - Metadata Statement|last=|first=|date=2017|website=Australian Government - Geoscience Australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref> It results in a highly clustered overview,<ref name=":49" /><ref name=":50" /> with three-quarters of the total amount of waste produced collected in only 38 sites.<ref name=":47" /> The number of landfills has decreased in the last 30 years, but they have became bigger and more sophisticated.<ref name=":47" /> NSW has the largest disposal plant in Australia[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":47" /> |
|||
Landfills are planned in order to manage the flow of leachate and gas produced by the waste. Products such as [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]], which contains [[Phthalate|phthalates]], and timber, that can contain [[chromated copper arsenate]] (CCA) if it has been treated, can potentially release these components into leachate. Methane, a gas with a greenhouse effect potential at least 25 times more stronger than that of [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>),<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jain|first=Atul K|date=1 August 2000|title=Radiative forcings and global warming potentials of 39 greenhouse gases|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2000JD900241|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres|volume=105 (D16)|pages=20773-20790|via=}}</ref> is emitted by biodegradable carbon sources materials within the landfill.<ref name=":2" /> Most advanced plants reuse methane emissions by combusting it in a waste-to-energy approach.<ref name=":47" /> A more preferable solution -if considering waste hierarchy and climate change-, is that of adopting composting and special bacteria for limiting the amount of emissions produced[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":47" /> |
|||
Landfill siting must consider multiple factors such as [[topography]], local natural habitats and distances from the urban centers.<ref name=":2" /> |
|||
== National relations == |
|||
=== States and territories === |
|||
Queensland used to have a [[Landfill tax|waste levy]], but in 2013 the [[Newman Ministry|Newman government]] repealed it.<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|url=http://statements.qld.gov.au/Statement/2013/3/5/newman-government-removes-waste-levy|title=Newman Government removes waste levy|last=Hargraves|first=Brooke|date=5 March 2013|website=The Queensland Cabinet and Ministerial Directory|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> The levy was considered at that time not effective both economically and environmentally, as it would have unnecessarily increased managing costs to businesses and promoted [[illegal dumping]][[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":25" /> |
|||
Other states, in the meantime, taxed landfill usage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wasteauthority.wa.gov.au/about/levy/|title=Levy|last=|first=|date=1 December 2016|website=Government of West Australia - Waste Authority|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.sa.gov.au/business_and_industry/waste-levy|title=Waste levy|last=|first=|date=17 July 2017|website=Government of South Australia - Environment Protection Authority|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> In NSW in particular, the levy was introduced in the “Protection of the Environment Operations (Waste) Regulation 2014” and in 2018-2019 the standard levy in the metropolitan area reached $141.20 per tonne ($81.30 per tonne in the regional area)[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://legislation.nsw.gov.au/~/view/regulation/2014/666/historical2017-03-31/history|title=Protection of the Environment Operations (Waste) Regulation 2014|last=|first=|date=31 March 2017|website=NSW Legislation|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://arp.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/nsw-government-resource-efficiency-policy-180458.pdf|title=NSW Government Resource Efficiency Policy - For a resource productive public sector with less impact on the environment|last=|first=|publisher=Office of Environment and Heritage|year=2019|isbn=978-1-925754-49-0|location=Sydney, NSW, AU|pages=}}</ref> |
|||
The discrepancy between the two legislation of the two states supported the introduction of waste from interstate within the QLD borders,<ref name=":26">{{Cite web|url=https://www.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0021/69060/transforming-qlds-recycling-waste-industry-directions-paper.pdf|title=Transforming Queensland’s Recycling and Waste Industry - Directions Paper|last=|first=|date=1 November 2018|website=Government of Queensland|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> with the additional effects of pollution originated by transports[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
These dynamics and the dominant role of the levy were confirmed in 2017 by the Supreme Court Judge who was in charge of an investigation commissioned by the QLD offices.<ref name=":27">{{Cite web|url=https://www.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0029/68915/transport-of-waste-into-qld-final-report.pdf|title=Investigation into the transport of waste into Queensland - Final report|last=Lyons|first=Peter|date=17 November 2017|website=Government of Queensland|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> According to the report, the policy framework adopted by Queensland would had unlikely allowed a decrease in the quantity of “foreign” waste.<ref name=":27" /> The prospect led to the recommendation of the re-introduction of the waste levy, and it was backed up by a positive response by the government.<ref name=":26" /> The levy is now expected to begin on the 1 July 2019, and it will concern 39 out of 77 local government areas.<ref name=":28">{{Cite web|url=https://www.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/94060/qld-draft-waste-mgment-resource-recovery-strategy.pdf|title=Draft Waste Management and Resource Recovery Strategy|last=|first=|date=2019|website=Government of Queensland|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> It is projected that by the end of the first four years from the commencement of the levy, 70% of the incomes perceived will be redirected to councils, startups and other projects[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":28" /> |
|||
=== Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities === |
|||
Within indigenous communities it can be more difficult to manage waste.<ref name=":29">{{Cite web|url=https://healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/learn/determinants-of-health/environmental-health/waste-management/|title=Waste management|last=|first=|date=|website=Australian Indigenous HealtInfoNet|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> This is particularly true where these communities live in remote areas,<ref name=":29" /> in which even machinery may be scarce.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://centraldesert.nt.gov.au/news/central-australian-regonal-waste-management-project|title=Central Australian Regonal Waste Management Project|last=Taylor|first=Geof|date=28 August 2014|website=Central Desert Regional Council|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> Transports, collection, associated costs and the indigenous way of thinking towards garbage are some of the main aspects that have been pondered[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":29" /> |
|||
The NSW “Aboriginal Communities Waste Management Program” and “Aboriginal Land Clean Up and Prevention Program” are some of the programs developed by the government of NSW addressed to the Aboriginal communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/working-together/grants/illegal-dumping/illegal-dumping-alcup-program|title=Aboriginal Land Clean Up and Prevention Program|last=Waste and Resource Recovery Branch|first=|date=2018|website=Government of New South Wales - EPA|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/working-together/grants/illegal-dumping/aboriginal-communities-waste-management-program|title=Aboriginal Communities Waste Management Program|last=Morton|first=Tash|date=|website=Government of New South Wales - EPA|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> Cases of illegal dumping issues have also received attention[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/-/media/epa/corporate-site/resources/wastegrants/alcup/18p1359-illegal-dumping-case-study-ulladulla-lalc.pdf?la=en&hash=116E3E626ECC8B25EE14D07E5C7185580269F9D6|title=Prevention of illegal dumping on ULALC land|last=Barford|first=Leanne|date=December 2018|website=Government of Australia - EPA|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
== International relations == |
|||
=== United Nations === |
|||
==== (1972) Environment Programme (UNEP) ==== |
|||
The [[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP]] program was established in 1972 and it is widely recognized on an international basis[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":76">{{Cite web|url=http://www.basel.int/Partners/UNEP/Overview/tabid/1350/Default.aspx|title=United Nations Environment Programme|last=|first=|date=|website=Basel Convention|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unenvironment.org/about-un-environment/why-does-un-environment-matter|title=Why does UN Environment matter?|last=|first=|date=|website=UN Environment|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> It coordinates the UN's environmental projects and supports environmental-focused strategies in developing countries.<ref name=":76" /> |
|||
===== Basel Convention ===== |
|||
The [[Basel Convention]] under the UNEP was ratified by Australia in 1992.<ref name=":2" /> Mainly focusing on international markets, in particular the international exports from richer to poorer countries, it had as main objective the control and regulation of hazardous waste disposal.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.basel.int/Portals/4/Basel%20Convention/docs/text/BaselConventionText-e.pdf|title=Protocol on liability and compensation for damage resulting from transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal|last=|first=|date=1989|website=Basel Convention|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> As a legally binding agreement, it was supported in Australia by the Hazardous Waste Act, for which is considered as an offence the unregulated export of hazardous waste[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/hazardous-waste|title=Hazardous waste|last=|first=|date=|website=Australian Government - Department of the Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
==== Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) ==== |
|||
Under the OECD<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/about/|title=Who we are|last=|first=|date=|website=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development - OECD|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> Australia has recently submitted its 3<sup>rd</sup> Environmental Performance Review related to the years 2017-2019.<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":30">{{Cite web|url=https://www.environment.gov.au/about-us/international/oecd|title=Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)|last=|first=|date=|website=Australian Government - Department of the Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> Strategies specifically linked to the Australian case on a national perspective are to be discussed between the organization Environment Policy Committee members[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":30" /> |
|||
=== China and Asian markets === |
|||
Australia used to heavily rely on Asian markets, especially on China, for waste treatment and disposal.<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":48" /><ref name=":43" /> |
|||
Since the Chinese "National Sword" policy came into effect in 2018, the waste management industry entered a crisis:<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":60" /><ref name=":61" /><ref name=":62" /> of the 1,248,000 tonnes (30%) of recyclable materials sent to China only in 2016-2017, 99% had been affected.<ref name=":60" /><ref name=":65" /><ref name=":21" /> As an interim solution, exports have since shifted to, and enlarged, alternative markets, such as those in Vietnam and Indonesia.<ref name=":66" /><ref name=":46" /><ref name=":63" /> An increasing number of Asian Countries is also planning to limit import rates,<ref name=":67" /><ref name=":68" /><ref name=":19" /><ref name=":69" /> increasing the urgency of a shift towards the circular economy and a reliable domestic industry.<ref name=":62" /><ref name=":46" /> |
|||
== Human behavior == |
|||
Waste management practices, especially avoidance and recovery related to household materials, are strongly linked to consumer comportment.<ref name=":43" /><ref name=":73" /> Illegal practices as littering and dumping are also strongly linked to human behavior.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|title=Changing Behaviour Together -NSW Waste Less, Recycle More - education strategy 2016–21|last=|first=|publisher=Environment Protection Authority|year=2017|isbn=978 1 76039 373 1|location=Sydney|pages=}}</ref> Targeted education and awareness campaigns are likely to affect these practices and, consequently, the effectiveness of the management outcomes.<ref name=":39">{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-04-15/australia-tossing-up-circular-approach-to-its-waste/9657342|title=Australia needs to start recycling and reusing its own waste, says industry struggling under China's ban|last=Lasker|first=Phillip|date=15 April 2018|work=ABC News|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":38" /> Media coverage and government campaigns have positively affected the public eye towards the recycling issues.<ref name=":77" /> Topics as single use plastics and packaging have received particular attention in the last decade[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":77">{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/-/media/epa/corporate-site/resources/waste/ipsos-waste-and-recycling.pdf|title=Household waste and recycling research report|last=|first=|authorlink=|date=April 2016|website=New South Wales - Environment Protection Authority|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
Recycling practices and recyclables production particularly depend on consumer awareness for future implementations.<ref name=":39" /> Industries, as well as communities, will be subjected to campaigns and their effectiveness is considered a challenge for local and state organizations[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":40">{{Cite book|title=South Australia Waste Strategy 2015-2020|last=|first=|publisher=Office of Green Industries SA|year=2015|isbn=978-1-921114-19-9|location=Adelaide SA 5001|pages=}}</ref> |
|||
Many cases of product-consumer dynamics are actually perceived as unsustainable by both residents and organizations,<ref name=":37" /> but Australians are seen expecting government and industry inputs to firstly react to them.<ref name=":37" /><ref name=":1" /> Where these non-spontaneous initiatives are offered for free, as some developed in South Australia, the feedback has been recorded as particularly positive[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":40" /> |
|||
Items such as photovoltaic cells and e-waste, however, are not feasible to dispose and usually require private expenses by the owners.<ref name=":40" /> In this case, the eco-prompt inspiring their discard is less apparent[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":40" /> |
|||
== Campaigns and actions == |
|||
=== Litter and illegal dumping === |
|||
Litter report is a strategic mean used nation-widely as a supplement to EPA in its investigations[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/pollution/management/waste/litter-illegal-dumping/report|title=Report it|last=|first=|date=5 October 2018|website=Government of Queensland|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/get-involved/report-litter|title=Get involved|last=|first=|date=|website=Environment Protection Authority Victoria|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://epa.tas.gov.au/regulation/compliance-incident-response/report-littering|title=Report Littering|last=|first=|date=|website=EPA Tasmania|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kabc.wa.gov.au/report-littering|title=Report littering|last=|first=|date=|website=Government of Western Australia - Keep Australia Beautiful|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/articles/2017/04/19/online_tools_developed_to_report_littering_from_vehicles|title=Online tools developed to report littering from vehicles|last=|first=|date=|website=EPA South Australia|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
In 2015, NSW launched RIDonline, an online platform (as of 2019, still accessible), where the public can report illegal dumping practices.<ref name=":41">{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/litter-and-illegal-dumping/report-illegal-dumping|title=Report illegal dumping - RIDonline|last=|first=|date=|website=NSW EPA|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ridonline.epa.nsw.gov.au/#/home|title=Help us reduce illegal dumping|last=|first=|date=|website=Report Illegal Dumping|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> One of its objectives is to help the state picturing an evidence base from which construct future management strategies[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":41" /> |
|||
==== (2017) EPA statewide Tosser Blitz ==== |
|||
Researches have shown that only about a quarter of the NSW residents actually think they can be caught for littering, and that those who realize measures can be taken against them for littering are not that numerous.<ref name=":6" /> |
|||
During the Easter time in 2017, EPA worked with other agencies, councils and companies -such as McDonald's-, on a statewide campaign against driver tossers.<ref name=":6" /> The aim of the project was to remind people that fines and measures can be directed for littering in any place and time[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":6" /> |
|||
=== Sensitization Campaigns === |
|||
==== (1980s) Do the right thing ==== |
|||
The campaign aimed to sensitize and educate households about themes such as littering.<ref name=":16" /> The main media utilized was television, and it has been considered a successful campaign.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
==== (1996-present) National Recycling Week ==== |
|||
Started in November 1996 by PlanetArk, the National Recycling Week consists of an annual media campaign, still in action, with educative roles as objective.<ref name=":12" /> It aims to sensitize the public eye on themes such as recycling and responsible resource managing[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":12" /> |
|||
The next event National Recycling Week will take place in November 2019[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":74" /> |
|||
=== Projects for people in need === |
|||
Researches show that currently, in the world, there is enough to feed everyone, with about 3 billions people suffer from hunger or malnutrition.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://foodfoolishbook.naturalleader.com/?_ga=2.244031233.585301443.1518475957-754716601.1518085764|title=Food Foolish: The Hidden Connection Between Food Waste, Hunger and Climate|last=Schultz|first=Eric B|last2=Mandyck|first2=John M.|publisher=Carrier Corporation|year=2015|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holt-Giménez|first=Eric|last2=Shattuck|first2=Annie|last3=Altieri|first3=Miguel|last4=Herren|first4=Hans|last5=Gliessman|first5=Steve|date=July 2012|title=We Already Grow Enough Food for 10 Billion People … and Still Can't End Hunger|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241746569_We_Already_Grow_Enough_Food_for_10_Billion_People_and_Still_Can't_End_Hunger|journal=Journal of Sustainable Agriculture|volume=36(6)|pages=595-598|via=ResearchGate}}</ref> In Australia only, figures reach 3.6 millions[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":36" /> |
|||
Projects against [[Food waste|food wasting]] had developed throughout the Country, with the aim to feed people in need via edible products that would have been otherwise discarded[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":32" /> |
|||
== Reports and surveys == |
|||
=== Waste away: a deep dive into Australia’s waste management === |
|||
“Waste away: a deep dive into Australia’s waste management” was a podcast episode launched on 20 February 2019.<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
According to its participants, in NSW 72% of the people who have been surveyed would recycle more if a more reliable recycling system was offered.<ref name=":1" /> It revealed that in Victoria the knowledge about household waste collection was generally good, but such a result was not evident on landfill and recycling topics.<ref name=":1" /> It also showed that waste was generally accepted as an essential service, although the household responsibility was lower in the public eye compared to those of businesses, companies and government[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
=== Love Food Hate Waste === |
|||
The NSW government started the [[Love Food, Hate Waste|Love Food Hate Waste]] program in 2009 and conducted a series of tracking surveys until 2017, having food waste as the key interest.<ref name=":37" /> Covered topics ranged from meal planning and waste value to government role expectations and media influences[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":37" /> |
|||
In 2017 the survey was conducted online and 1389 residents participated to it.<ref name=":1" /> The outcomes suggested that Love Food Hate Waste campaigns and the media contents had positively impacted certain population sectors[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
It also showed how environmental concerns are seldom related to food waste.<ref name=":1" /> More people had started to realize that they could throw away much less organics, but advances in this direction recorded in the previous study in 2015 had declined and in NSW more food was being wasted.<ref name=":1" /> Only 61% of the residents practiced five or more waste avoidance behaviors, and packaging was still considered as the primary source of waste[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
The 2017 study differed from the others since it added another question to the survey, related to the perception of avoidability pertinent to food wasting.<ref name=":1" /> Up to 27% of NSW residents were shown to not consider peels and bones as waste,<ref name=":1" /> while younger respondents considered items such as unfinished drinks as “unavoidable”.<ref name=":37" /> Expired products and unfinished meals were the most popular reasons for wasting food, and meal planning recorded a decrease since the previous survey.<ref name=":37" /> Older segments of the sample reported to consider portion size more often than the younger.<ref name=":37" /> |
|||
$1645.64 (AUD) was the weighted average answer when people were asked to estimate the annual waste produced. However, EPA had estimated at least $1260(AUD) more.<ref name=":37" /> 68% of the respondents, and 82% of those from an Asian background, supported the idea that the government should implement the reduction strategies in this waste category[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":37" /> |
|||
=== National report 2017-2018: National Litter Index === |
|||
The National Litter Index of 2017-2018 was the 12<sup>th</sup> survey conducted by [[Keep Australia Beautiful]].<ref name=":42" /> Rather than answer to “why”, its descriptive objectives regarded the "where" and the "hows" of littering nationwide[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":42" /> |
|||
The index revealed that the counted amount of litter decreased of 10.3% in comparison to the previous year data, although in VIC and WA it had actually increased.<ref name=":42" /> The takeaway packaging was the category which differentiated the most, with a decrease of almost 17%. The major reductions were observed in NT (34%), and less of half that figure was recorded in NSW and SA.<ref name=":42" /> |
|||
In terms of sites, beach littering and shopping areas registered the biggest and smaller decrease respectively (22.5%, 12.9%), and 38 litter items per 1km<sup>2</sup> was the average estimate on a national basis, with retail strip malls as hotspots[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":42" /> |
|||
=== National Recycling Week: Planet Ark research report. From Waste War to Recycling Reboot === |
|||
The survey was conducted in parallel by Pollinate and Planet Ark.<ref name=":19" /> It illustrated the recycling activities and perceptions of Australians, as well as undercover anecdotes and propose potential alternatives such as the circular economy[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":19" /> |
|||
=== National Waste Report === |
|||
The National Waste Report is a series of documents endorsed by the Australian Government. It started in 2010 and as of 2019 four reports have been produced (2010, 2013, 2016 and 2018<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/7381c1de-31d0-429b-912c-91a6dbc83af7/files/national-waste-report-2018.pdf|title=National Waste Report 2018|last=Pickin|first=Joe|last2=Randell|first2=Paul|date=19 November 2018|website=Australian Government - Department of Environment and Energy|others=Blue Environment|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019|last3=Trinh|first3=Jenny|last4=Grant|first4=Bill}}</ref>[[Sydney Cove|)]][[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery/national-waste-reports|title=National Waste Reports|last=|first=|date=|website=Australian Government - Department of Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref> Their studies span one financial year each and provide statistics and commentary on several aspects of waste management by using different key focuses (for example, on a [[Per capita income|per capita]] basis)[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":46" /> The reports are also supported by the National Waste Data System (NWDS) and the National Waste Database[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":46" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery/publications/national-waste-data-system-review-and-summaries|title=National Waste Data System - Systems Review and System Summaries|last=|first=|date=2012|website=Australian Government - Department of Environment and Energy|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
== Issues == |
|||
==== (1974-1998) Castlereagh Regional Liquid Waste Disposal Depot ==== |
|||
In 1974, in Londonderry, [[Castlereagh, New South Wales|Castlereagh]], Western Sydney, what was supposed to be a temporary plant was build.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":18" /> It was the response from the local government to an issue relating the disposal of liquid waste in the metropolitan area of Sydney,<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":18" /> which was worsening as a result of the clandestine activities and the shut down of the previous plant in [[Alexandria, New South Wales|Alexandria]], Sydney.<ref name=":18" /> |
|||
The disposal depot was originally supposed to operate for maximum 2 years, exclusively disposing of non-toxic waste.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":18" /> De facto, operations protracted for more than 20 years under a series of legislative variations and approved extensions.<ref name=":18" /> It was only when the local residents organized themselves under the name of "Londonderry Residents Action Group for the Environment", aka R.A.G.E., in 1989, that an effective and definitive action was requested by the administrators.<ref name=":18" /> Inspections, that were funded by the Waste Service NSW, supported by RAGE and investigated by "[[Total Environment Centre|Total Environment Center]]" (TEC), concluded that within the materials being treated a dangerously non predictable miscellany of compounds -including hazardous ones-, were introduced in the normal flow of waste in the plant.<ref name=":18" /> In addition, defaults in the system allowed liquids to escape as leacheate, contaminating what had became in the meantime a residential area.<ref name=":18" /> RAGE alleged that numerous, misleading documents and reports were given by the Metropolitan Waste Disposal Authority, NSW (MDWA) and by the Waste Management Authority (WMA), which in turn reported to the police that no dispersion had ever occurred.<ref name=":18" /> |
|||
The plant was eventually closed in 1998,<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":18" /> probably because of political rather than environmental concerns.<ref name=":18" /> |
|||
==== (2000) Sydney Olympic Games preventive clean-up ==== |
|||
The [[2000 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] held in Sydney in 2000<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://olympics.com.au/games/sydney-2000|title=Sydney 2000|last=|first=|date=|website=Australian Olympic Committee|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=1 June 2019}}</ref> succeeded a massive cleaning of the city, where unrecorded disposal sites containing hazardous waste were discovered.<ref name=":16" /> |
|||
=== Incidents === |
|||
==== (2017, 2018) SKM Recycling Plants ==== |
|||
On July 2017 and again in 2018, a recycling plant in Queensland, owned by SKM Recycling, took fire for several days, causing severe health, environmental and financial issues[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/victoria/skm-recyclings-coolaroo-plant-catches-fire-again/news-story/65b6555aea980a39c84b874b009e882d|title=SKM Recycling’s Coolaroo plant catches fire again|last=O’Shea Carre|first=Nell|date=8 July 2018|work=Herald Sun|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/coolaroo-recycling-plant-on-fire-again-20180707-p4zq5s.html|title=Another fire at Coolaroo recycling plant brought under control|last=Hinchliffe|first=Joe|date=7 July 2018|work=The Age|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=":44">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/kerbside-recycling-to-be-sent-to-landfill-as-waste-crisis-unfolds-20190217-p50ycx.html|title=Kerbside recycling to be sent to landfill as waste crisis unfolds|last=Preiss|first=Benjamin|date=17 February 2019|work=The Age|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
The [[Coolaroo, Victoria|Coolaroo]] plant had been receiving household recyclables from the Melbourne area, which it stockpiled as one of the consequences of China’s National Sword -ultimately increasing the risks for fire hazard.<ref name=":44" /> As a consequence, EPA blocked further waste flows in the facility on February 2019, causing the kerbside collections to be directed to landfills[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref name=":44" /> |
|||
SKM Recycling have been legally prosecuted and charged with environmental offence on March 2019[[Sydney Cove|.]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-08/skm-charged-with-environmental-offences-over-coolaroo-fire/10883016|title=SKM charged with environmental offences over Coolaroo recycling plant fire|last=|first=|date=8 March 2019|work=ABC News|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> |
|||
== See also == |
|||
*[[Australia–China relations]] |
|||
*[[Container deposit legislation in Australia]] |
|||
*[[Environmental economics]] |
|||
*[[Environmental issues in Australia]] |
|||
*[[Environmental remediation]] |
|||
*[[First Fleet]] - First official European colonists of Australia |
|||
*[[Food bank|Foodbank]], a food relief organization in Australia |
|||
*[[Global waste trade]] |
|||
*[[Greenhouse gas emissions by Australia]] |
|||
*[[List of waste types]] |
|||
*[[Phase-out of lightweight plastic bags]] |
|||
== References == |
|||
<references /> |
|||
== External links == |
|||
*[https://www.packagingcovenant.org.au/ Australian Packaging Covenant Organisation] |
|||
*[https://www.environment.gov.au/ Department of the Environment and Energy] of the Australian government |
|||
*[http://www.environment.gov.au/webgis-framework/apps/nwr-wide/nwr-wide.jsf National Waste Reporting Mapping Tool], interactive online platform with an Australian focus |
|||
*[http://www.o-i.com/contacts-and-locations/asia-pacific/ OI Asia] Glass processing waste group |
|||
*[https://prep.org.au/main/content/home Packaging Recyclability Evaluation Portal] |
|||
*[https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery/national-waste-reports/national-waste-report-2013/policies-and-governance Policies and governance for waste] by the Department of the Environment and Energy |
|||
*[https://www.redcycle.net.au/ RED Group website] Soft plastics processing waste group |
|||
*[https://responsiblecafes.org/ Responsible Cafes], a group of volunteers engaged in the reduction of waste and litter |
|||
* [https://www.secondbite.org/about-us SecondBite] "Food for people in need", currently active on a national basis supporting the diversion of edible food from landfill to least advantaged people |
|||
*[https://www.tsbc.org.au/ Tasmanian Small Business Council] |
|||
*[http://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery/publications Waste and resource recovery publications and resources], a complete list of reports endorsed by the Australian Department of Environment and Energy |
|||
*[https://www.wmrr.asn.au/ Waste Management and Resource Recovery association Australia] (WMRR) |
|||
* |
|||
{{Australia topics}} |
|||
{{Waste}} |
|||
