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Regardless of origin, the Chinese one-syllable name "Li" had been used at least since the time of his great-grandfather, who was Governor of [[Tianshui]] and "General of Pacifying the West" (laws had been passed forbidding Xianbei clothing at court, and demanding the [[Change of Xianbei names to Han names|adoption of Chinese one-syllable names]] during the 5th century CE).<ref name="WS"/> His tomb contained several Central Asian objects too, such as [[:File:Northern Zhou Gilded Silver Ewer (9833405755).jpg|a ewer with Greco-Roman scenes]].<ref name="MW"/><ref name="AC71"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Setaioli |first1=Aldo |title=Harbingers of the Trojan War on a Gilt Silver Ewer from Guyuan |journal=Giornale Italiano di Filologia |date=2020 |volume=72 |pages=9 |url=https://www.academia.edu/44734215/_Harbingers_of_the_Trojan_War_on_a_Gilt_Silver_Ewer_from_Guyuan_To_appear_in_Giornale_Italiano_di_Filologia_72_2020_ |issn=0017-0461}}</ref> The grave also contained a sword with round pommel and scabbard-type attachement.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Csiky |first1=Gergely |title=Avar-Age Polearms and Edged Weapons: Classification, Typology, Chronology and Technology |date=17 September 2015 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-30454-3 |page=316 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r6KXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA316 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Guyuan Museum notice |url=https://tplafightingwords.com/2021/08/26/the-mystery-of-the-hidden-hilt-dao/#jp-carousel-4229 |language=en |date=26 August 2021}}</ref> According to the epitaph, he received a posthumous title: "Pillar of the State Great General" (柱国大将军)".<ref name="JMW109">{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Jui-Man |title=MORTUARY ART IN THE NORTHERN ZHOU CHINA (557-581 CE): VISUALIZATION OF CLASS, ROLE, AND CULTURAL IDENTITY |journal=University of Pittsburgh |date=2010 |page=109- |url=http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/7381/1/WUJuiman_etdPitt2010.pdf}}</ref>
Regardless of origin, the Chinese one-syllable name "Li" had been used at least since the time of his great-grandfather, who was Governor of [[Tianshui]] and "General of Pacifying the West" (laws had been passed forbidding Xianbei clothing at court, and demanding the [[Change of Xianbei names to Han names|adoption of Chinese one-syllable names]] during the 5th century CE).<ref name="WS"/> His tomb contained several Central Asian objects too, such as [[:File:Northern Zhou Gilded Silver Ewer (9833405755).jpg|a ewer with Greco-Roman scenes]].<ref name="MW"/><ref name="AC71"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Setaioli |first1=Aldo |title=Harbingers of the Trojan War on a Gilt Silver Ewer from Guyuan |journal=Giornale Italiano di Filologia |date=2020 |volume=72 |pages=9 |url=https://www.academia.edu/44734215/_Harbingers_of_the_Trojan_War_on_a_Gilt_Silver_Ewer_from_Guyuan_To_appear_in_Giornale_Italiano_di_Filologia_72_2020_ |issn=0017-0461}}</ref> The grave also contained a sword with round pommel and scabbard-type attachement.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Csiky |first1=Gergely |title=Avar-Age Polearms and Edged Weapons: Classification, Typology, Chronology and Technology |date=17 September 2015 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-30454-3 |page=316 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r6KXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA316 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Guyuan Museum notice |url=https://tplafightingwords.com/2021/08/26/the-mystery-of-the-hidden-hilt-dao/#jp-carousel-4229 |language=en |date=26 August 2021}}</ref> According to the epitaph, he received a posthumous title: "Pillar of the State Great General" (柱国大将军)".<ref name="JMW109">{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Jui-Man |title=MORTUARY ART IN THE NORTHERN ZHOU CHINA (557-581 CE): VISUALIZATION OF CLASS, ROLE, AND CULTURAL IDENTITY |journal=University of Pittsburgh |date=2010 |page=109- |url=http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/7381/1/WUJuiman_etdPitt2010.pdf}}</ref>


Li Xian claimed descent from the [[House of Li|Longxi Li clan]] through the line of Li Ling. The Longxi Li were also claimed as ancestors by the imperial house of the [[Tang dynasty]] (618-907 CE), though through a different line. The probable Tuoba-Xianbei identity of Li Xian as revealed by his epitaph has led to some scholars suggesting that the rulers of the Tang dynasty had "barbarian" background, rather than being purely Han as suggested by some records.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Sanping |title=Succession Struggle and the Ethnic Identity of the Tang Imperial House |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=1996 |volume=6 |issue=3 |page=381 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25183243 |issn=1356-1863|quote="The official histories compiled during the Tang had been subjected to much political doctoring in order to mask and conceal the imperial house's "barbarian" background. The newest proof is the recent archaeological discovery showing that another contemporary prominent Li clan, namely that of Li Xian, the Northern Zhou Grand General with the same Longxi ancestry claim, was in fact of unmistakable Tuoba Xianbei descent."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chen |first1=Sanping |title=Multicultural China in the Early Middle Ages |date=17 April 2012 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-0628-9 |pages=5-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ugbWH-5OjegC&pg=PA6 |language=en}}</ref>
Li Xian claimed descent from the [[House of Li|Longxi Li clan]] through the line of Li Ling. The Longxi Li were also claimed as ancestors by the imperial house of the [[Tang dynasty]] (618-907 CE), though through a different line. The probable Tuoba-Xianbei identity of Li Xian as revealed by his epitaph has led to some scholars suggesting that the rulers of the Tang dynasty had "barbarian" background, rather than being purely Han as suggested by official records.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Sanping |title=Succession Struggle and the Ethnic Identity of the Tang Imperial House |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=1996 |volume=6 |issue=3 |page=381 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25183243 |issn=1356-1863|quote="The official histories compiled during the Tang had been subjected to much political doctoring in order to mask and conceal the imperial house's "barbarian" background. The newest proof is the recent archaeological discovery showing that another contemporary prominent Li clan, namely that of Li Xian, the Northern Zhou Grand General with the same Longxi ancestry claim, was in fact of unmistakable Tuoba Xianbei descent."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chen |first1=Sanping |title=Multicultural China in the Early Middle Ages |date=17 April 2012 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-0628-9 |pages=5-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ugbWH-5OjegC&pg=PA6 |language=en}}</ref>


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Revision as of 05:11, 4 June 2022

Li Xian
李賢
Portrait from the tomb of General Li Xian.
Created569 CE
DiscoveredGuyuan, Northern China
Guyuan is located in China
Guyuan
Guyuan

Li Xian (Chinese: 李贤, Lǐ Xián, 502-569 CE) was a Northern Zhou general and Governor of Dunhuang.[1] He was born in 502 CE in Guyuan, at the time under Northern Wei rule.[2] As a soldier, he served the three dynasties of the Northern Wei, Western Wei, and Northern Zhou.[3] Emperor Yuwen Tai entrusted him with the education of two of his son during 6 years, as the imperial court had become too dangerous, and one of them, Yuwen Yong, would become Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou.[3] Li Xian was in charge of defenses on the northern frontier of the Chinese Empire, in contact with the Silk Road.[4] He died in Changan at the age of 66, in 569 CE.[1] He was important enough to be mentioned in the Zhoushu and the Beishi.[2] He was the great-grandfather of the famous Sui dynasty princess Li Jingxun.[4]

His tomb, containing him and his wife Wu Hui (吴辉), was discovered in Guyuan in 1983 (北周李贤墓).[4] The tomb was built in brick, and composed of a 42 meter sloping ramp leading to a square corbelled chamber.[1] The walls of the whole structure were covered with paintings of officials, soldiers, servants, and musicians, but only a few have remained intact.[1][5] Numerous small statuettes of servants and warriors were also found in the tomb (239 in total).[6][7]

His epitaph suggests that he was of Tuoba-Xianbei, or possibly Turkic, ethnicity.[4][8][9][10] The epitaph of Li Xian contains the following line about his ancestry:

本姓李，漢將陵之後也。十世祖俟地歸，聰明仁智，有則哲之監，知魏聖帝齊聖廣淵，奄有天下，乃率諸國定扶戴之議。鑿石開路，南越陰山，竭手爪之功，成股肱之任，建國㩉拔，因以為氏。

Simplified: 本姓李，汉将陵之后也。十世祖俟地归，聪明仁智，有则哲之监，知魏圣帝齐圣广渊，奄有天下，乃率诸国定扶戴之仪，凿石开路，南越阴山，竭手爪之功，成股肱之任，建国拓拔，因以为氏。

"The surname [of the deceased] is Li, a descendant of Han dynasty General Li Ling. His 10th generation ancestor was Yidigui, intelligent, generous and full of wisdom, cognizant of the nature of men, who knew Emperor Shengwu the very holy, ruler of the world, leader of all countries with justice, who opened roads among the rocks, went south across the Yin Mountains, used his skills to the utmost, accomplished major service, built the country of the Tuoba, and thereby achieved a great name."

— Epitaph of Li Xian (extract).[11][12][13]

Although the epitaph states that Li Xian was descended from Li Ling, it also explains that his 10th generation ancestor was named Yidigui ("俟地归"), and that he had migrated south from the steppes across the Yin Mountains ("南越陰山"), so Li Xian himself had visibly not forgotten his origin from the northern steppes.[2] According to the epitaph, Yidigui also was acquainted with the "Saint Emperor of the Wei" ("魏聖帝"), thought to be the Tuoba chieftain Tuoba Jiefen whose similar dynastic name was "Emperor Shengwu" (圣武皇帝), and who led the second Tuoba migration to the south.[14]

Regardless of origin, the Chinese one-syllable name "Li" had been used at least since the time of his great-grandfather, who was Governor of Tianshui and "General of Pacifying the West" (laws had been passed forbidding Xianbei clothing at court, and demanding the adoption of Chinese one-syllable names during the 5th century CE).[2] His tomb contained several Central Asian objects too, such as a ewer with Greco-Roman scenes.[4][1][15] The grave also contained a sword with round pommel and scabbard-type attachement.[16][17] According to the epitaph, he received a posthumous title: "Pillar of the State Great General" (柱国大将军)".[3]

Li Xian claimed descent from the Longxi Li clan through the line of Li Ling. The Longxi Li were also claimed as ancestors by the imperial house of the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE), though through a different line. The probable Tuoba-Xianbei identity of Li Xian as revealed by his epitaph has led to some scholars suggesting that the rulers of the Tang dynasty had "barbarian" background, rather than being purely Han as suggested by official records.[18][19]

  • Tomb of Li Xian (plan). 42 meter sloping ramp leading to a square corbelled chamber
    Tomb of Li Xian (plan). 42 meter sloping ramp leading to a square corbelled chamber
  • A ewer with Greco-Roman scenes from the tomb of Northern Zhou general Li Xian.[4][1] It was probably made in Bactria.[20]
    A ewer with Greco-Roman scenes from the tomb of Northern Zhou general Li Xian.[4][1] It was probably made in Bactria.[20]
  • Tomb of Li Xian, panel
    Tomb of Li Xian, panel
  • Tomb of Li Xian, panel
    Tomb of Li Xian, panel
  • Tomb of Li Xian, panel
    Tomb of Li Xian, panel
  • Tomb of Li Xian, panel
    Tomb of Li Xian, panel
  • Epitaph of Li Xian (李賢墓誌).[11]
    Epitaph of Li Xian (李賢墓誌).[11]
  • Tombstone of Li Xian
    Tombstone of Li Xian
  • Epitaph of Li Xian, with transliteration
    Epitaph of Li Xian, with transliteration
  • The expression "建國㩉拔" Jianguo Tuoba ("Built the Country of the Tuoba") in the epitaph.
    The expression "建國㩉拔" Jianguo Tuoba ("Built the Country of the Tuoba") in the epitaph.
  • Character 㩉
  • Original report of the excavation: 《寧夏回族自治區博物館、寧夏固原北周李賢夫婦墓發掘簡報》〈1985年第十一期）"A brief report on the excavation of the Northern Zhou tomb of Li Xian and his wife at Guyuan in Ningxia"

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f CARPINO, ALEXANDRA; JAMES, JEAN M. (1989). "Commentary on the Li Xian Silver Ewer". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 3: 71–75. ISSN 0890-4464.
  2. ^ a b c d Whitfield, Susan (13 March 2018). Silk, Slaves, and Stupas: Material Culture of the Silk Road. Univ of California Press. p. 198-. ISBN 978-0-520-95766-4. About the epitaph tablets: "All these tell us that Li Xian was born to a prominent family in the Guyuan area -in present-day Ningxia Province, China, where the tomb is located, then under the rule of the Northern Wei. His family were migrants to this area. The biographies record that his 10th generation ancestor Yidigui had come southwest from the steppes accross the Yin mountains. (...) As we see from the biographies, they had not lost knowledge of their northern steppe ancestry"
  3. ^ a b c Wu, Jui-Man (2010). "MORTUARY ART IN THE NORTHERN ZHOU CHINA (557-581 CE): VISUALIZATION OF CLASS, ROLE, AND CULTURAL IDENTITY" (PDF). University of Pittsburgh: 109-.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Wu, Mandy Jui-man (2004). "Exotic Goods as Mortuary Display in Sui Dynasty Tombs--A Case Study of Li Jingxun's Tomb". Sino-Platonic Papers. 142.
  5. ^ Shi, Li. The History of Art in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasty. DeepLogic. p. 18.
  6. ^ Watt, James C. Y. (2004). China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 255. ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1.
  7. ^ Dien, Albert E. (1 January 2007). Six Dynasties Civilization. Yale University Press. p. 224-227 (Fig.40-41). ISBN 978-0-300-07404-8.
  8. ^ Juliano, Annette L.; Lerner, Judith A.; Alram, Michael; Society, Asia; Museum, Asia Society (October 2001). Monks and Merchants: Silk Road Treasures from Northwest China. Harry N. Abrams. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-8109-3478-8. Li Xian was from a prominent family of the Guyuan area where the lacquered coffin cited above was found. There is some question as to the ethnic affiliation of the Li family ; Turkish , Xiongnu , and Xianbei have all been argued. A tenth generation ancestor named Yidigui led the way south through the Yin Mountains. Li Xian's family had been in Guyuan for at least three generations and in the Tianshui area before that , so no doubt there had been a long period of adaptation to Chinese culture.
  9. ^ Holcombe, Charles (1 June 2001). The Genesis of East Asia, 221 B.C.-A.D. 907. University of Hawaii Press. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-8248-6475-0.
  10. ^ Ma, Debin; Glahn, Richard von (24 February 2022). The Cambridge Economic History of China: Volume 1, To 1800. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-55479-4. Before adopting the surname Li, the ancestors of Lixian were Tuoba, the royal Xianbei lineage of the Northern Dynasties.
  11. ^ a b For the Simplified Chinese transcription: Wu, Jui-Man (2010). "MORTUARY ART IN THE NORTHERN ZHOU CHINA (557-581 CE): VISUALIZATION OF CLASS, ROLE, AND CULTURAL IDENTITY" (PDF). University of Pittsburgh: 198-199 B:4.
  12. ^ "墓誌數據庫詳情-浙大墓誌庫". csid.zju.edu.cn.
  13. ^ 文物 (in Chinese). 文物出版社. 1985. 建国拓拔,因以为氏。"这就证实了他并非李陵之后,而是鲜卑拓跋氏的后裔。其家族冒姓李,也从一个侧面反映了当时的风习和民族大融合的情况。
  14. ^ "中国考古集成" (in Chinese). 北京出版社: 3709. 其十世祖"俟地归"氏应为一少数民族姓氏。关于其祖随魏南迁一事,志文较本传为详。魏圣帝指圣武帝拓跋诘玢。鲜卑拓跋部东汉初迁居今内蒙古地带的呼伦贝尔草原一带,在此居七代后,献帝拓眩邻"七分国人"共分八部,让他们放弃大泽牧地继续南迁。 {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  15. ^ Setaioli, Aldo (2020). "Harbingers of the Trojan War on a Gilt Silver Ewer from Guyuan". Giornale Italiano di Filologia. 72: 9. ISSN 0017-0461.
  16. ^ Csiky, Gergely (17 September 2015). Avar-Age Polearms and Edged Weapons: Classification, Typology, Chronology and Technology. BRILL. p. 316. ISBN 978-90-04-30454-3.
  17. ^ "Guyuan Museum notice". 26 August 2021.
  18. ^ Chen, Sanping (1996). "Succession Struggle and the Ethnic Identity of the Tang Imperial House". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 6 (3): 381. ISSN 1356-1863. The official histories compiled during the Tang had been subjected to much political doctoring in order to mask and conceal the imperial house's "barbarian" background. The newest proof is the recent archaeological discovery showing that another contemporary prominent Li clan, namely that of Li Xian, the Northern Zhou Grand General with the same Longxi ancestry claim, was in fact of unmistakable Tuoba Xianbei descent.
  19. ^ Chen, Sanping (17 April 2012). Multicultural China in the Early Middle Ages. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-8122-0628-9.
  20. ^ Whitfield, Susan (13 March 2018). Silk, Slaves, and Stupas: Material Culture of the Silk Road. Univ of California Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-520-95766-4.
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