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The Head Start Program is a program of the United States Department of Health and Human Services that provides comprehensive education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and their families.

Head Start began in 1965^[1] and was later updated by the Head Start Act of 1981.^[2] It went through its most intense revisions in its latest reauthorization in December, 2007. It is one of the longest-running programs to address systemic poverty in the United States. As of late 2005^[update], more than 22 million pre-school aged children have participated in Head Start. The $6.8+ billion dollar budget for 2005 provided services to more than 905,000 children, 57% of whom were four years old or older, and 43% three years old or younger. Services were provided by 1,604 different programs operating more than 48,000 classrooms scattered across every state (and nearly every county) at an average cost of $7,222 per child. The staff consists of nearly 212,000 paid personnel in addition to six times as many volunteers.^{[citation needed]}

Mission statement

Head Start is a national program that promotes school readiness by enhancing the social and cognitive development of children through the provision of educational, health, nutritional, social and other services to enrolled children and families.^[3]

History

Head Start was started as part of President Lyndon Johnson's War on Poverty and Great Society. It was modeled on the Little School of the 400. The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 had a single line authorizing program,^[4] and the Act gave broad powers to the Office of Economic Opportunity,^[4] which began the program. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 also addressed preschool education.^[5] In 1968, "Head Start begins funding a program that will eventually be called Sesame Street. It is a Carnegie Corporation Preschool Television Show".^[6]

The Office of Economic Opportunity's Community Action Program launched Project Head Start as an eight-week summer program in 1965. The project was designed to help end poverty by providing preschool children from low-income families with a program that would meet emotional, social, health, nutritional, and psychological needs. The following year it was authorized by Congress as a fully-funded year-round program. In 1981, the Head Start Act was passed.^[2]

Head Start was then transferred to the Office of Child Development in the Department of Welfare (later the Department of Health and Human Services) by the Nixon Administration in 1969. Today it is a program within the Administration for Children and Families (ACF) in the HHS. In FY 1995, the Early Head Start program was established to serve children from birth to three years of age in recognition of the mounting evidence that the earliest years matter a great deal to children's growth and development. Programs are administered locally by non-profit organizations and local education agencies such as school systems. Head Start is a program for children age 3 to 5 in the United States.

Programs

Early Head Start–Promotes healthy prenatal outcomes, promotes healthy family the development of infants and toddlers beginning as young as newborn infants.
Head Start–Helps to create healthy development in low-income children ages three to five. Programs offer a wide variety of services, that depend on a child's and each family's heritage and experience, to influence all aspects of a child's development and learning.
Family and Community Partnerships–Head Start offers parents opportunities and support as they identify and meet their own goals, nurture the development of their children in the context of their family and culture, and advocate for communities that are supportive of children and families of all cultures. The building of trusting, collaborative relationships between parents and staff allows them to share with and to learn from one another.^[7]
Migrant and Seasonal Head Start–Provides Head Start services to children of migrant and seasonal farm workers who meet income and other eligibility guidelines. Services are for children from six-months to five-years of age. Because of the nature of the work done by the families, the hours of services are longer and the length of program is shorter (fewer months) than traditional Head Start services.
American Indian-Alaska Native Head Start–Provides American Indian and Alaska Native children and families with services such as: health care, educational, nutritional, socialization, as well as other services promoting school readiness. Services are primarily for disadvantaged preschool children, and infants and toddlers.

Services

Head Start provides education, health and social services to eligible families with the goal of ensuring the children enrolled are ready to start school. Education includes pre-school education to nationally set standards that have become the de-facto standards^{[citation needed]} for pre-school in the USA. Health services include screenings, health check-ups and dental check-ups. Social services provide family advocates to work with parents and assist them in accessing community resources.

Eligibility for Head Start services is largely income-based (100% of the federal poverty level), though each locally-operated program includes other eligibility criteria such as disabilities and services to other family members. Up to 10% of any funded program's enrollment can be from over-income families or families experiencing emergency situations, but with the latest Head Start Act there was a provision to offer an option to serve children from 100 to 130% of the federal poverty guidelines. All programs are required to provide full services to children with disabilities (10% of their total enrollment).

An important update to the Head Start re-authorization signed by President Bush on December 12, 2007 is the importance of Head Start to serve the homeless children in America. Homelessness is defined as a child "who lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence." This includes not only the typical homeless child in a shelter or other outreach program, or those living in motels or cars but also the children who are living in a "sharing the housing of others due to loss of housing, economic hardship, or similar reason." (http://www.naehcy.org). These homeless children must be sought out by the local Head Start and have to be served within a reasonable time frame. Head Start programs must communicate with the local school districts to help in providing services to the younger siblings of those the school has identified as homeless as well as helping older siblings of the preschool children Head Start has identified.

Funding

Grants are awarded by the ACF Regional Offices and the Office of Head Start's American Indian - Alaska Native and Migrant and Seasonal Program Branches directly to local public agencies, private organizations, Indian Tribes and school systems for the purpose of operating Head Start programs at the community level.^[7]

Qualifications of teachers

Section 648A of the Head Start Act^[8] lays out guidelines for the training of Head Start teachers and aides. In 2007, the section was revised to mandate that all teachers must have associates degrees in a related field by 2013, and half must have bachelor's degrees.^[9] As of 2003, the average Head Start teacher made only $21,000 per year, compared to the $43,000 that public school teachers made.^[10] As of 2009, the average teacher makes 26,000 per year.

Effectiveness

Reports on the long-term effectiveness of Head Start are mixed.

Reports and statements supportive of Head Start

According to Datta (Datta, 1976 & Lee et al.,1990) who summarized 31 studies, the program showed immediate improvement in the IQ scores of participating children, though after beginning school, the non-participants were able to narrow the difference. Children who attended Head Start are, relative to their siblings who did not, significantly more likely to complete high school, attend college, and possibly have higher earnings in their early twenties. They are less likely to have been booked or charged with a crime.^[11] Head Start is associated with large and significant gains in test scores. Head Start significantly reduces the probability that a child will repeat a grade.^[1] Recent criticisms of Project Head Start have resulted in plans to improve program services and to expand in a more thoughtful manner to make the program more responsive to the needs of children and families. New directions include expansion below and beyond the ages previously served by Head Start.^[12]

Reports and statements with "mixed reviews" of Head Start

Currie and Thomas^[13] try to control for many family background factors. The analysis is based on within-family data, comparing children in Head Start with their siblings who were not in Head Start. Also, mothers who were themselves enrolled in Head Start were compared to their adult sisters who were not. Currie and Thomas analyzed groups separately by ethnicity: White, Black and Hispanic. White children, who were the most disadvantaged, showed larger and longer lasting improvements than black children.

Not all studies support the claim that Head Start is effective when measured by long-term gain. Many researchers acknowledge that Head Start appears to make a significant educational impact early-on but argue that these benefits quickly fade. This phenomenon known as “Head Start Fade” begins to show itself as early as second and third grade when students who attended Head Start programs begin to fall behind their non-participant peers. The concept of “ Head Start Fade” leaves government officials and educators left wondering what can be done beyond the preschool years to perpetuate the early gains made by enrollment in Head Start programs. For a more thorough exploration of this argument see:

1) Where Do Head Start Attendees End up? One Reason Why Preschool Effects Fade out Valerie E. Lee, Susanna Loeb Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Spring, 1995), pp. 62–82 doi:10.2307/1164270 2) Does Head Start Fade Out? S. Barnett (1993), Education Week, 5, 40 3) Long Term Effects of Early Childhood Programs on Cognitive and School Outcomes. S. Barnett (1995, Winter), The Future of Children, 5(3), 25–50

Magnuson, Ruhm, and Waldfogel^[14] conclude that early education does increase reading and mathematics skills at school entry. However, the study also found that, in contrast to the general population in pre-kindergarten, disadvantaged children and those attending schools with "low levels of academic instruction" get the largest and most lasting academic gains from early education.

Congressional Impact Study

Congress mandated an intensive study of the effectiveness of Head Start, the "Head Start Impact Study", which has issued a series of reports on the design and study of a target population of 5000 3- and 4- year old children.^[15] The Head Start Impact Study First Year Findings were released in June 2005, and the Executive Summary is available from Health and Human Services.^[16] The study participants, beginning in fall 2002, were assigned to either the Head Start program or other parent-selected community resources. Thus, the study measured Head Start's effectiveness as compared to a variety of other forms of community support and educational intervention, as opposed to comparing Head Start to a non-intervention alternative.

The results of the first report showed consistent small to moderate advantages to children from participating in Head Start programs rather than other programs, with a few areas where no advantage was reported. The benefits improved with early participation and varied among racial and ethnic groups.

Reports and statements critical of Head Start

Another issue has been that according to the most widely cited source supporting Head Start, children who finish the program and are placed into disadvantaged schools perform worse than their peers by second grade. Only by continuing to isolate these children (such as dispersing and sending them to better-performing school districts) can the gains be captured.^[17] In an article in the New York Times "Head Start Falls Further Behind" Beshrov and Call discuss the finding of an 1998 evaluation of the Head Start program and how it led to a rigorous national evaluation of the program. The article stated that research concluded that the current program had little meaningful impact.^[18]

Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner, authors of Freakonomics, conclude that Head Start participation has no lasting effect on test scores in the early years of school, based on regression analysis of data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Levitt, one of the authors of Freakonomics, and Fryer come to the same conclusion in one 2004 paper they wrote.^[19]

A study released in January 2010, though not in a peer-reviewed journal, concluded that Head Start appears to be mostly a failure, especially for children after first grade. It strongly advocated elimination of the program to use the funds more effectively elsewhere.^{[citation needed]}

References

^ ^a ^b "Does Head Start Make A Difference?" (PDF). American Economic Review. 85 (3): 341–341. 1995. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
^ ^a ^b FDA. Memorandum of Understanding.
^ [E:\ACF Office of Public Affairs (OPA) Fact Sheet - Head Start Bureau (HSB).mht].
^ ^a ^b Zigler E, Muenchow S. (1994). Head Start, p. 8. Basic Books.
^ Vinovskis M. (2005). The Birth of Head Start. University of Chicago Press.
^ http://www.gopb.org/History.htm
^ ^a ^b http://www.acf.hhs.gov/opa/fact_sheets/headstart_factsheet.html
^ Head Start Act Section 648A
^ Washington Post. (2007). Bill to Expand Head Start, Bolster Its Teacher Qualifications Is Approved.
^ NIEER Fact Sheet on Head Start Teachers – July 2003.
^ Longer-Term Effects of Head Start Eliana Garces, Duncan Thomas, Janet Currie The American Economic Review, Vol. 92, No. 4 (Sep., 2002), pp. 999–1012
^ Head Start: Criticisms in a Constructive Context. Zigler, Edward; Styfco, Sally J. American Psychologist, v49 n2 pp. 127–32 Feb 1994
^ [1] (1995)
^ [2] (2004)
^ http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/hs/impact_study/
^ http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/hs/impact_study/reports/first_yr_execsum/first_yr_execsum.pdf
^ Administrative History of the Office of Economic Opportunity, Vol. I, p.252, Box 1, LBJ Library.
^ Beshrov Douglas, Call Douglas. "Head Start Falls Further Behind". New York Times
^ http://pricetheory.uchicago.edu/levitt/Papers/FryerLevittUnderstandingTheBlack2004.pdf

External links

[Difference-1] "Does Head Start Make A Difference?" (PDF). American Economic Review. 85 (3): 341–341. 1995. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)

[FDAMemo-2] FDA. Memorandum of Understanding.

[3] [E:\ACF Office of Public Affairs (OPA) Fact Sheet - Head Start Bureau (HSB).mht].

[Zigler1994-4] Zigler E, Muenchow S. (1994). Head Start, p. 8. Basic Books.

[5] Vinovskis M. (2005). The Birth of Head Start. University of Chicago Press.

[6] ttp://www.gopb.org/History.htm

[acf.hhs.gov-7] ttp://www.acf.hhs.gov/opa/fact_sheets/headstart_factsheet.html

[8] Head Start Act Section 648A

[9] Washington Post. (2007). Bill to Expand Head Start, Bolster Its Teacher Qualifications Is Approved.

[10] NIEER Fact Sheet on Head Start Teachers – July 2003.

[11] Longer-Term Effects of Head Start Eliana Garces, Duncan Thomas, Janet Currie The American Economic Review, Vol. 92, No. 4 (Sep., 2002), pp. 999–1012

[12] Head Start: Criticisms in a Constructive Context. Zigler, Edward; Styfco, Sally J. American Psychologist, v49 n2 pp. 127–32 Feb 1994

[13] [1] (1995)

[14] [2] (2004)

[15] ttp://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/hs/impact_study/

[16] ttp://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/hs/impact_study/reports/first_yr_execsum/first_yr_execsum.pdf

[17] Administrative History of the Office of Economic Opportunity, Vol. I, p.252, Box 1, LBJ Library.

[18] Beshrov Douglas, Call Douglas. "Head Start Falls Further Behind". New York Times

[19] ttp://pricetheory.uchicago.edu/levitt/Papers/FryerLevittUnderstandingTheBlack2004.pdf

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@@ Line 36: / Line 36: @@
 ==Effectiveness==
-The long-term effectiveness of Head Start has long been considered mostly poor.{{fact}}
+Reports on the long-term effectiveness of Head Start are mixed.
-===Reports and statements critical of Head Start===
+===Reports and statements supportive of Head Start===
+According to Datta (Datta, 1976 & Lee et al.,1990) who summarized 31 studies, the program showed immediate improvement in the IQ scores of participating children, though after beginning school, the non-participants were able to narrow the difference. Children who attended Head Start are, relative to their siblings who did not, significantly more likely to complete high school, attend college, and possibly have higher earnings in their early twenties. They are less likely to have been booked or charged with a crime.<ref>''Longer-Term Effects of Head Start'' Eliana Garces, Duncan Thomas, Janet Currie The American Economic Review, Vol. 92, No. 4 (Sep., 2002), pp. 999–1012</ref> Head Start is associated with large and significant gains in test scores.  Head Start significantly reduces the probability that a child will repeat a grade.<ref name=Difference/> Recent criticisms of Project Head Start have resulted in plans to improve program services and to expand in a more thoughtful manner to make the program more responsive to the needs of children and families. New directions include expansion below and beyond the ages previously served by Head Start.<ref>''Head Start: Criticisms in a Constructive Context.'' Zigler, Edward; Styfco, Sally J. ''American Psychologist'', v49 n2 pp. 127–32 Feb 1994</ref>
-A study released in January 2010, though not in a peer-reviewed journal, concluded that Head Start appears to be mostly a failure, especially for children after first grade. It strongly advocated elimination of the program to use the funds more effectively elsewhere.{{Citation needed|date=March 2010 }}
-[[Steven D. Levitt]] and Stephen J. Dubner, authors of ''[[Freakonomics]],'' conclude that Head Start participation has no lasting effect on test scores in the early years of school, based on [[regression analysis]] of data from the [http://nces.ed.gov/ecls/ Early Childhood Longitudinal Study].  Levitt, one of the authors of ''Freakonomics'', and Fryer come to the same conclusion in one 2004 paper they wrote.<ref>http://pricetheory.uchicago.edu/levitt/Papers/FryerLevittUnderstandingTheBlack2004.pdf</ref>
-Another issue has been that according to the most widely cited source supporting Head Start, children who finish the program and are placed into disadvantaged schools perform worse than their peers by second grade. Only by continuing to isolate these children (such as dispersing and sending them to better-performing school districts) can the gains be captured.<ref>Administrative History of the Office of Economic Opportunity, Vol. I, p.252, Box 1, LBJ Library.</ref>
-In an article in the New York Times "Head Start Falls Further Behind" Beshrov and Call discuss the finding of an 1998 evaluation of the Head Start program and how it led to a rigorous national evaluation of the program.  The article stated that research concluded that the current program had little meaningful impact.<ref>Beshrov Douglas, Call Douglas. "Head Start Falls Further Behind". New York Times</ref>
 ===Reports and statements with "mixed reviews" of Head Start===
-Magnuson, Ruhm, and Waldfogel<ref>[http://www.nber.org/digest/mar05/w10452.html] (2004)</ref> conclude that early education does increase reading and mathematics skills at school entry.  However, the study also found that, in contrast to the general population in pre-kindergarten, disadvantaged children and those attending schools with "low levels of academic instruction" get the largest and most lasting academic gains from early education.
 Currie and Thomas<ref>[http://lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/headst01.html] (1995)</ref> try to control for many family background factors. The analysis is based on within-family data, comparing children in Head Start with their siblings who were not in Head Start. Also, mothers who were themselves enrolled in Head Start were compared to their adult sisters who were not. Currie and Thomas analyzed groups separately by ethnicity: White, Black and Hispanic.  White children, who were the most disadvantaged, showed larger and longer lasting improvements than black children.
@@ Line 63: / Line 56: @@
 S. Barnett (1995, Winter), The Future of Children, 5(3), 25–50
+Magnuson, Ruhm, and Waldfogel<ref>[http://www.nber.org/digest/mar05/w10452.html] (2004)</ref> conclude that early education does increase reading and mathematics skills at school entry.  However, the study also found that, in contrast to the general population in pre-kindergarten, disadvantaged children and those attending schools with "low levels of academic instruction" get the largest and most lasting academic gains from early education.
-===Reports and statements supportive of Head Start===
-According to Datta (Datta, 1976 & Lee et al.,1990) who summarized 31 studies, the program showed immediate improvement in the IQ scores of participating children, though after beginning school, the non-participants were able to narrow the difference. Children who attended Head Start are, relative to their siblings who did not, significantly more likely to complete high school, attend college, and possibly have higher earnings in their early twenties. They are less likely to have been booked or charged with a crime.<ref>''Longer-Term Effects of Head Start'' Eliana Garces, Duncan Thomas, Janet Currie The American Economic Review, Vol. 92, No. 4 (Sep., 2002), pp. 999–1012</ref> Head Start is associated with large and significant gains in test scores.  Head Start significantly reduces the probability that a child will repeat a grade.<ref name=Difference/> Recent criticisms of Project Head Start have resulted in plans to improve program services and to expand in a more thoughtful manner to make the program more responsive to the needs of children and families. New directions include expansion below and beyond the ages previously served by Head Start.<ref>''Head Start: Criticisms in a Constructive Context.'' Zigler, Edward; Styfco, Sally J. ''American Psychologist'', v49 n2 pp. 127–32 Feb 1994</ref>
 ===Congressional Impact Study===
@@ Line 72: / Line 63: @@
 The results of the first report showed consistent small to moderate advantages to children from participating in Head Start programs rather than other programs, with a few areas where no advantage was reported.  The benefits improved with early participation and varied among racial and ethnic groups.
+===Reports and statements critical of Head Start===
+Another issue has been that according to the most widely cited source supporting Head Start, children who finish the program and are placed into disadvantaged schools perform worse than their peers by second grade. Only by continuing to isolate these children (such as dispersing and sending them to better-performing school districts) can the gains be captured.<ref>Administrative History of the Office of Economic Opportunity, Vol. I, p.252, Box 1, LBJ Library.</ref>
+In an article in the New York Times "Head Start Falls Further Behind" Beshrov and Call discuss the finding of an 1998 evaluation of the Head Start program and how it led to a rigorous national evaluation of the program.  The article stated that research concluded that the current program had little meaningful impact.<ref>Beshrov Douglas, Call Douglas. "Head Start Falls Further Behind". New York Times</ref>
+[[Steven D. Levitt]] and Stephen J. Dubner, authors of ''[[Freakonomics]],'' conclude that Head Start participation has no lasting effect on test scores in the early years of school, based on [[regression analysis]] of data from the [http://nces.ed.gov/ecls/ Early Childhood Longitudinal Study].  Levitt, one of the authors of ''Freakonomics'', and Fryer come to the same conclusion in one 2004 paper they wrote.<ref>http://pricetheory.uchicago.edu/levitt/Papers/FryerLevittUnderstandingTheBlack2004.pdf</ref>
+A study released in January 2010, though not in a peer-reviewed journal, concluded that Head Start appears to be mostly a failure, especially for children after first grade. It strongly advocated elimination of the program to use the funds more effectively elsewhere.{{Citation needed|date=March 2010 }}
 ==See also==