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{{chembox
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 443307094
| Name = Hydrogen peroxide
| ImageFileL1_Ref = {{chemboximage|correct|??}}
| ImageFileL1 = Wasserstoffperoxid.svg
| ImageNameL1 = Structural formula of hydrogen peroxide
| ImageSizeL1 = 120px
| ImageFileR1 = Hydrogen-peroxide-3D-balls.png
| ImageNameR1 = Ball-and-stick model of the hydrogen peroxide molecule
| ImageSizeR1=120px
| IUPACName = dihydrogen dioxide
| OtherNames = Dioxidane
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = BBX060AN9V
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = D00008
| InChI = 1/H2O2/c1-2/h1-2H
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 16240
| SMILES = OO
| InChIKey = MHAJPDPJQMAIIY-UHFFFAOYAL
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 71595
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/H2O2/c1-2/h1-2H
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = MHAJPDPJQMAIIY-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| CASNo = 7722-84-1
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 763
| PubChem = 784
| IUPHAR_ligand = 2448
| RTECS = MX0900000 (>90% soln.)<br/>MX0887000 (>30% soln.)
| EINECS = 231-765-0
| UNNumber = 2015 (>60% soln.)<br/>2014 (20–60% soln.)<br/>2984 (8–20% soln.)
| ATCCode_prefix = A01
| ATCCode_suffix = AB02
| ATC_Supplemental = {{ATC|D08|AX01}}, {{ATC|S02|AA06}}
}}
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
| Formula = {{chem|2(HO)}}
| MolarMass = 34.0147 g/mol
| Appearance = Very light blue color; colorless in solution
| Density = 1.110 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (20&nbsp;°C, 30-percent)<br/>1.450 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (20&nbsp;°C, pure)
| Solubility = [[Miscible]]
| SolubleOther = soluble in [[ether]]
| MeltingPtC = -0.43
| BoilingPtC = 150.2
| pKa = 11.62 <ref>Pradyot Patnaik. ''Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals''. McGraw-Hill, 2002, ISBN 0-07-049439-8</ref>
| RefractIndex = 1.34
| Viscosity = 1.245&nbsp;c[[Poise|P]] (20&nbsp;°C)
| Dipole = 2.26&nbsp;[[Debye|D]]
}}
| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry
| DeltaHf = -4.007 kJ/g
| DeltaHc =
| Entropy =
| HeatCapacity = 1.267 J/g K (gas) <br> 2.619 J/g K (liquid)
}}
| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards
| ExternalMSDS = [http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0164.htm ICSC 0164 (>60% soln.)]
| EUIndex = 008-003-00-9
| EUClass = Oxidant ('''O''')<br/>Corrosive ('''C''')<br/>Harmful ('''Xn''')
| RPhrases = {{R5}}, {{R8}}, {{R20/22}}, {{R35}}
| SPhrases = {{S1/2}}, {{S17}}, {{S26}}, {{S28}}, {{S36/37/39}}, {{S45}}
| NFPA-H = 3
| NFPA-F = 0
| NFPA-R = 2
| NFPA-O = OX
| FlashPt = Non-flammable
| LD50 = 1518 mg/kg
}}
| Section8 = {{Chembox Related
| OtherCpds = [[water (molecule)|Water]]<br/>[[Ozone]]<br/>[[Hydrazine]]<br/>[[Hydrogen disulfide]]
}}
}}

'''Hydrogen peroxide''' ({{chem|H|2|O|2}}) is the simplest [[peroxide]] (a compound with an oxygen-oxygen [[single bond]]) and an [[oxidizer]]. Hydrogen peroxide is a clear [[liquid]], slightly more [[viscosity|viscous]] than [[water]]. In dilute solution, it appears colorless. With its oxidizing properties, hydrogen peroxide is often used as a [[bleach]] or cleaning agent. The oxidizing capacity of hydrogen peroxide is so strong that it is considered a highly [[reactive oxygen species]]. Hydrogen peroxide is therefore used as a [[propellant]] in [[rocket]]ry.<ref>{{Cite book| url = http://books.google.com/?id=AzoCJfTmRDsC | title =A Vertical Empire: The History of the UK Rocket and Space Programme, 1950-1971 | first = C. N. | last = Hill | publisher = Imperial College Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 9781860942686}}</ref> Hydrogen peroxide is also naturally produced in organisms as a by-product of [[oxidative metabolism]]. Nearly all living things (specifically, all obligate and facultative [[aerobes]]) possess enzymes known as catalyse [[peroxidase]]s, which harmlessly and catalytically decompose low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen.

==Structure and properties==
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| header =
| width = 200
| image1 = H2O2 gas structure.svg
| alt1 = O-O bond length = 147.4 pm <br>O-H bond length = 95.0 pm
| caption1 = Structure and dimensions of the H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> molecule in the gas phase...
| image2 = H2O2 solid structure.svg
| alt2 = O-O bond length = 145.8 pm <br>O-H bond length = 98.8 pm
| caption2 = ... and in the solid (crystalline) phase.
}}

{{chem|H|2|O|2}} adopts a nonplanar structure of C2 [[symmetry group|symmetry]]. Although [[Chirality (chemistry)|chiral]], the molecule undergoes rapid [[racemization]]. The flat shape of the ''anti'' [[conformer]] would minimize [[steric repulsions]], the 90° torsion angle of the ''syn'' conformer would optimize mixing between the filled ''p-type'' orbital of the oxygen (one of the [[lone pair]]s) and the [[LUMO]] of the [[Vicinal (chemistry)|vicinal]] O-H bond.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dougherty|first=Dennis A.|coauthors=Eric V. Anslyn |title=Modern Physical Organic Chemistry |publisher=University Science |year=2005 |page=122|isbn=1-891389-31-9 }}</ref> The observed [[Linear alkane conformation|anticlinal]] "skewed" shape is a compromise between the two conformers.

Although the O−O bond is a single bond, the molecule has a relatively high barrier to rotation, of 29.45 [[Kilojoule|kJ]]/[[Mole (chemistry)|mol]]; the rotational barrier is 12.5 kJ/mol for the bulkier molecule [[ethane]]. The increased barrier is ascribed to repulsion between nonbonding electrons (lone pairs) on the adjacent oxygen centres. The [[Molecular geometry|bond angles]] are affected by [[hydrogen bonding]], which is relevant to the difference between the structure of gaseous and [[crystalline]] forms; indeed a wide range of values is seen in crystals containing {{chem|H|2|O|2}}.

===Comparison with analogues===
Analogues of hydrogen peroxide include the chemically identical deuterium peroxide, and [[hydrogen disulfide]].<ref>[http://lb.chemie.uni-hamburg.de/static/CN/2_D_disch.php?content=169/EOY569_a Landolt-Börnstein Substance – Property Index]</ref> [[Hydrogen disulfide]] has a boiling point of only 70.7&nbsp;°C despite having a higher molecular weight, indicating that hydrogen bonding increases the boiling point of hydrogen peroxide.

===Physical properties of hydrogen peroxide solutions===
The properties of [[aqueous]] solutions of hydrogen peroxide differ from those of the pure material, reflecting the effects of hydrogen bonding between water and hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide and water form a [[eutectic]] mixture, exhibiting [[freezing-point depression]]. Pure water melts and freezes at approximately 273&nbsp;K, and pure hydrogen peroxide just 0.4&nbsp;K below that, but a 50% (by volume) solution melts and freezes at 221&nbsp;K.<ref>[http://www.h2o2.com/intro/FMC_MSDS_40_to_60.pdf 60% hydrogen peroxide msds 50% H2O2 MSDS]</ref> its boiling point is 42 degree Celsius.

===pH of {{chem|H|2|O|2}}===
Pure hydrogen peroxide has a [[pH]] of 6.2; thus it is considered to be a weak [[acid]]. The pH can be as low as 4.5 when diluted at approximately 60%.<ref>[http://www.h2o2.com/faqs/FaqDetail.aspx?fId=26 What is the pH of H2O2 solutions? | H2O2.com – US Peroxide – Technologies for Clean Environment]</ref>

==History==
Hydrogen peroxide was first described in 1818 by [[Louis Jacques Thénard]] by reacting [[barium peroxide]] with [[nitric acid]].<ref>{{Cite journal
| title = Observations sur des nouvelles combinaisons entre l’oxigène et divers acides
| author = L. J. Thénard
| journal = [[Annales de chimie et de physique]], 2nd series
| volume = 8
| year =1818
| pages = 306–312
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=-N43AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA306#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> An improved version of this process used [[hydrochloric acid]], followed by [[sulfuric acid]] to precipitate the [[barium sulfate]] byproduct. Thénard's process was used from the end of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century.<ref>C. W. Jones, J. H. Clark. ''Applications of Hydrogen Peroxide and Derivatives''. Royal Society of Chemistry, '''1999'''.</ref> Modern production methods are discussed below.

For a long time, pure hydrogen peroxide was believed to be unstable, owing to failed attempts to separate the hydrogen peroxide from the water, which is present during synthesis. This instability was, however, due to traces of impurities ([[transition metals]] [[salt]]s) that catalyze the decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide. One hundred percent pure hydrogen peroxide was first obtained through [[vacuum distillation]] by [[Richard Wolffenstein (chemist)|Richard Wolffenstein]] in 1894.<ref>{{Cite journal
| title = Concentration und Destillation von Wasserstoffsuperoxyd
| author = [[Richard Wolffenstein (chemist)|Richard Wolffenstein]]
| journal = Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft
| volume = 27
| issue = 3
| pages = 3307–12
| year = 1894
| doi = 10.1002/cber.189402703127}}</ref> At the end of the 19th century, [[Petre Melikishvili]] and his pupil L. Pizarjevski showed that of the many proposed formulas of hydrogen peroxide, the correct one was H−O−O−H.

The use of {{chem|H|2|O|2}} sterilization in biological safety cabinets and barrier isolators is a popular alternative to [[ethylene oxide]] (EtO) as a safer, more efficient decontamination method. {{chem|H|2|O|2}} has long been widely used in the pharmaceutical industry. In aerospace research, {{chem|H|2|O|2}} is used to sterilize [[artificial satellites]] and [[space probes]].

The U.S. FDA has granted 510(k) clearance to use {{chem|H|2|O|2}} in individual medical device manufacturing applications. EtO criteria outlined in ANSI/AAMI/ISO 14937 may be used as a validation guideline. [[Sanyo]] was the first manufacturer to use the {{chem|H|2|O|2}} process in situ in a cell culture incubator, which is a faster and more efficient cell culture sterilization process.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}

==Manufacture==
Formerly, hydrogen peroxide was prepared by the [[electrolysis]] of an aqueous solution of [[sulfuric acid]] or acidic [[ammonium bisulfate]] ({{chem|NH|4|HSO|4}}), followed by [[hydrolysis]] of the [[peroxodisulfate]] {{chem|((SO|4|)|2|)|2−}} that is formed. Today, hydrogen peroxide is manufactured almost exclusively by the [[autoxidation]] of a 2-alkyl anthrahydroquinone (or 2-alkyl-9,10-dihydroxyanthracene) to the corresponding 2-alkyl anthraquinone in the so called [[anthraquinone process]]. Major producers commonly use either the 2-ethyl or the 2-amyl derivative. The cyclic reaction depicted below shows the 2-ethyl derivative, where [[2-ethyl-9,10-dihydroxyanthracene]] ({{chem|C|16|H|12|(OH)|2}}) is oxidized to the corresponding [[2-ethylanthraquinone]] ({{chem|C|16|H|12|O|2}}) and hydrogen peroxide. Most commercial processes achieve this by bubbling [[compressed air]] through a solution of the derivatized [[anthracene]], whereby the oxygen present in the air reacts with the labile hydrogen atoms (of the hydroxy group), giving hydrogen peroxide and regenerating the anthraquinone. Hydrogen peroxide is then [[Liquid-liquid extraction|extracted]] and the [[anthraquinone]] derivative is reduced back to the dihydroxy (anthracene) compound using [[hydrogen]] gas in the presence of a metal [[catalyst]]. The cycle then repeats itself.<ref name="Antra">{{Cite journal
| title = Hydrogen Peroxide Synthesis: An Outlook beyond the Anthraquinone Process
| pages = 6962–6984
| author = Jose M. Campos-Martin, Gema Blanco-Brieva, Jose L. G. Fierro
| year = 2006
| doi =10.1002/anie.200503779
| journal = Angewandte Chemie International Edition
| volume = 45
| issue =42
| pmid = 17039551}}</ref><ref name="Riedl&Pleiderer">H. Riedl and G. Pfleiderer, U.S. Patent 2,158,525 (October 2, 1936 in USA, and October 10, 1935 in Germany) to I. G. Farbenindustrie, Germany</ref>

[[Image:Riedl-Pfleiderer process.svg|420px|center|Hydrogen peroxide production with the Riedl-Pfleiderer process process]]

This process is known as the [[Riedl-Pfleiderer process]],<ref name="Riedl&Pleiderer"/> having been first discovered by them in 1936. The overall equation for the process is deceptively simple:<ref name="Antra"/>
:{{chem|H|2}} + {{chem|O|2}} → {{chem|H|2|O|2}}

The economics of the process depend heavily on effective recycling of the [[quinone]] (which is expensive) and extraction solvents, and of the [[hydrogenation]] [[catalyst]].

In 1994, world production of {{chem|H|2|O|2}} was around 1.9 million [[tonne]]s and grew to 2.2 million in 2006,<ref name=HageLienke/> most of which was at a concentration of 70% or less.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} In that year bulk 30% {{chem|H|2|O|2}} sold for around US $0.54 per [[Kilogram|kg]], equivalent to US $1.50 per kg (US $0.68 per [[pound (mass)|lb]]) on a "100% basis".{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}

===New developments===
A new, so-called "high-productivity/high-yield" process, based on an optimized distribution of isomers of 2-amyl anthraquinone, has been developed by [[Solvay (company)|Solvay]]. In July 2008, this process allowed the construction of a "mega-scale" single-train plant in [[Zandvliet]] (Belgium). The plant has an annual production capacity more than twice that of the world's next-largest single-train plant. An even-larger plant is scheduled to come onstream at Map Ta Phut (Thailand) in 2011. It is likely that this will lead to a reduction in the cost of production due to [[economies of scale]].<ref name=ChemSystems>[http://www.chemsystems.com/about/cs/news/items/PERP%200708_3_Hydrogen%20Peroxide.cfm Hydrogen Peroxide 07/08-03 Report, ChemSystems, May 2009.]</ref>

A process to produce hydrogen peroxide directly from the elements has been of interest for many years. The problem with the direct synthesis process is that, in terms of thermodynamics, the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen favors production of water. It had been recognized for some time that a finely dispersed [[catalyst]] is beneficial in promoting selectivity to hydrogen peroxide, but, while selectivity was improved, it was still not sufficiently high to permit commercial development of the process. However, an apparent breakthrough was made in the early 2000s by researchers at [[Headwaters Technology]]. The breakthrough revolves around development of a minute (nanometer-size) phase-controlled noble metal crystal particles on carbon support. This advance led, in a joint venture with [[Evonik Industries]], to the construction of a pilot plant in Germany in late 2005. It is claimed that there are reductions in investment cost because the process is simpler and involves less equipment; however, the process is also more corrosive and unproven. This process results in low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (about 5–10 wt% versus about 40 wt% through the anthraquione process).<ref name=ChemSystems/>

In 2009, another catalyst development was announced by researchers at [[Cardiff University]].<ref name="G.J. Hutchings 2009">G.J. Hutchings et al, Science, 2009, 323, 1037</ref> This development also relates to the direct synthesis, but, in this case, using [[gold]]–[[palladium]] nanoparticles. Under normal circumstances, the direct synthesis must be carried out in an acid medium to prevent immediate decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide once it is formed. Whereas hydrogen peroxide tends to decompose on its own (which is why, even after production, it is often necessary to add stabilisers to the commercial product when it is to be transported or stored for long periods), the nature of the catalyst can cause this decomposition to accelerate rapidly. It is claimed that the use of this gold-palladium catalyst reduces this decomposition and, as a consequence, little to no acid is required. The process is in a very early stage of development and currently results in very low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide being formed (less than about 1–2 wt%). Nonetheless, it is envisaged by the inventors that the process will lead to an inexpensive, efficient, and environmentally friendly process.<ref name=ChemSystems/><ref name="G.J. Hutchings 2009"/><ref name = "palladium process">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090219141507.htm |title=Gold-palladium Nanoparticles Achieve Greener, Smarter Production Of Hydrogen Peroxide |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=2009-03-03 |accessdate=2010-09-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1168980 | year = 2009 | month = Feb | author = Jennifer K. Edwards, Benjamin Solsona, Edwin Ntainjua N, Albert F. Carley | title = Switching off hydrogen peroxide hydrogenation in the direct synthesis process. | volume = 323 | issue = 5917 | pages = 1037–41 | pmid = 19229032 | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]]}}</ref>

A novel electrochemical process for the production of alkaline hydrogen peroxide has been developed by [[Dow Chemical Company|Dow]]. The process employs a monopolar cell to achieve an electrolytic reduction of oxygen in a dilute sodium hydroxide solution.<ref name=ChemSystems/>

===Availability===
Hydrogen peroxide is most commonly available as a solution in water. For consumers, it is usually available from pharmacies at 3 and 6 wt% concentrations. The concentrations are sometimes described in terms of the volume of oxygen gas generated; one milliliter of a 20-volume solution generates twenty milliliters of oxygen gas when completely decomposed. For laboratory use, 30 wt% solutions are most common. Commercial grades from 70% to 98% are also available, but due to the potential of solutions of >68% hydrogen peroxide to be converted entirely to steam and oxygen (with the temperature of the steam increasing as the concentration increases above 68%) these grades are potentially far more hazardous, and require special care in dedicated storage areas. Buyers must typically submit to inspection by the small number of commercial manufacturers.

==Reactions==
===Decomposition===
[[File:H2O2 catalytic decomposition.JPG|thumb|Manganese dioxide decomposing a very dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide]]
Hydrogen peroxide decomposes (disproportionates) [[exothermic reaction|exothermically]] into [[water (molecule)|water]] and [[oxygen]] gas [[Spontaneous process|spontaneously]]:

:2 {{chem|H|2|O|2}} → 2 {{chem|H|2|O}} + {{chem|O|2}}

This process is thermodynamically favorable. It has a [[Standard enthalpy change of reaction|Δ''H''<sup><s>o</s></sup>]] of −98.2&nbsp;[[Kilojoule|kJ]]·[[Mole (chemistry)|mol]]<sup>&minus;1</sup> and a Δ[[Entropy|S]] of 70.5&nbsp;J·mol<sup>&minus;1</sup>·K<sup>&minus;1</sup>. The rate of decomposition is dependent on the temperature (cool environment slows down decomposition, therefore hydrogen peroxide is often stored in refrigerator) and concentration of the peroxide, as well as the [[pH]] and the presence of impurities and stabilizers. Hydrogen peroxide is incompatible with many substances that [[catalyse]] its decomposition, including most of the [[transition metal]]s and their compounds. Common [[catalysts]] include [[manganese dioxide]], [[silver]], and [[platinum]].<ref>{{cite book|title=General Chemistry: Principles & Modern Applications|author = Petrucci, Ralph H.|edition=9th|pages = 606|publisher = Prentice Hall|year = 2007|isbn=0131493302}}</ref> The same reaction is catalysed by the [[enzyme]] [[catalase]], found in the [[liver]], whose main function in the body is the removal of toxic byproducts of [[metabolism]] and the reduction of [[oxidative stress]]. The decomposition occurs more rapidly in [[alkali]], so [[acid]] is often added as a stabilizer.

The liberation of oxygen and energy in the decomposition has dangerous side-effects. Spilling high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide on a flammable substance can cause an immediate fire, which is further fueled by the oxygen released by the decomposing hydrogen peroxide. [[High test peroxide]], or HTP (also called high-strength peroxide) must be stored in a suitable,{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} vented container to prevent the buildup of oxygen gas, which would otherwise lead to the eventual rupture of the container.

In the presence of certain catalysts, such as {{chem|link=ferrous|Fe|2+}} or {{chem|link=titanium(III) chloride|Ti|3+}}, the decomposition may take a different path, with free radicals such as HO· ([[Hydroxyl radical|hydroxyl]]) and HOO· being formed. A combination of {{chem|H|2|O|2}} and {{chem|Fe|2+}} is known as [[Fenton's reagent]].

A common concentration for hydrogen peroxide is ''20-volume'', which means that, when 1 volume of hydrogen peroxide is decomposed, it produces 20 volumes of oxygen. A ''20-volume'' concentration of hydrogen peroxide is equivalent to 1.667&nbsp;mol/dm<sup>3</sup> ([[Molar solution]]) or about 6%.

===Redox reactions===
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2010}}
In acidic solutions, {{chem|H|2|O|2}} is one of the most powerful oxidizers known—stronger than [[chlorine]], [[chlorine dioxide]], and [[potassium permanganate]]. Also, through catalysis, {{chem|H|2|O|2}} can be converted into [[hydroxyl radical]]s (.OH), which are highly reactive.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Oxidant]]/Reduced product
! [[Oxidation]] potential, V
|-
| [[Fluorine]]/Hydrogen fluoride
| 3.0
|-
| [[Ozone]]/Oxygen
| 2.1
|-
| Hydrogen peroxide/Water
| 1.8
|-
| [[Potassium permanganate]]/Manganese dioxide
| 1.7
|-
| [[Chlorine dioxide]]/HClO
| 1.5
|-
| [[Chlorine]]/Chloride
| 1.4
|}

In aqueous solutions, hydrogen peroxide can oxidize or reduce a variety of inorganic ions. When it acts as a reducing agent, [[oxygen]] gas is also produced.

In [[acid]]ic solutions {{chem|Fe|2+}} is oxidized to {{chem|Fe|3+}} (hydrogen peroxide acting as an oxidizing agent),

:2 {{chem|[[Fe]]|2+}}(aq) + {{chem|H|2|O|2}} + 2 {{chem|link=Hydronium|H|+}}(aq) → 2 {{chem|[[Fe]]|3+}}(aq) + 2{{chem|H|2|O}}(l)

and [[sulfite]] ({{chem|SO|3|2−}}) is oxidized to [[sulfate]] ({{chem|SO|4|2−}}). However, [[potassium permanganate]] is reduced to {{chem|Mn|2+}} by acidic {{chem|H|2|O|2}}. Under [[alkaline]] conditions, however, some of these reactions reverse; for example, {{chem|Mn|2+}} is oxidized to {{chem|Mn|4+}} (as {{chem|link=Manganese(IV) oxideMnO|2}}).

Other examples of hydrogen peroxide's action as a reducing agent are reaction with [[sodium hypochlorite]] or [[potassium permanganate]], which is a convenient method for preparing [[oxygen]] in the laboratory.

:NaOCl + {{chem|H|2|O|2}} → {{chem|O|2}} + NaCl + {{chem|H|2|O}}

:2 {{chem|KMnO|4}} + 3 {{chem|H|2|O|2}} → 2 {{chem|MnO|2}} + 2 KOH + 2 {{chem|H|2|O}} + 3 {{chem|O|2}}

Hydrogen peroxide is frequently used as an [[Redox|oxidizing agent]] in organic chemistry. One application is for the oxidation of [[thioether]]s to [[sulfoxide]]s.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} For example, [[methyl phenyl sulfide]] was oxidized to [[methyl phenyl sulfoxide]] in 99% yield in methanol in 18 hours (or 20 minutes using a {{chem|link=Titanium(III) chloride|TiCl|3}} catalyst):{{Citation needed|date=February 2008}}

:Ph{{chem|−S−CH|3}} + {{chem|H|2|O|2}} → Ph{{chem|−S(O)−CH|3}} + {{chem|H|2|O}}

Alkaline hydrogen peroxide is used for [[epoxidation]] of electron-deficient alkenes such as [[acrylic acid]]s, and also for oxidation of [[alkylborane]]s to [[alcohol]]s, the second step of [[hydroboration-oxidation]].

===Formation of peroxide compounds===
Hydrogen peroxide is a weak acid, and it can form [[hydroperoxide]] or [[peroxide]] [[salt]]s or derivatives of many metals.

For example, on addition to an aqueous solution of [[chromic acid]] ({{chem|CrO|3}}) or acidic solutions of dichromate salts, it will form an unstable blue peroxide CrO({{chem|O|2}}{{chem|)|2}}. In aqueous solution it rapidly decomposes to form oxygen gas and chromium salts.

It can also produce peroxoanions by reaction with [[anion]]s; for example, reaction with [[borax]] leads to [[sodium perborate]], a bleach used in laundry detergents:

:{{chem|Na|2|B|4|O|7}} + 4 {{chem|H|2|O|2}} + 2 NaOH → 2 {{chem|Na|2|B|2|O|4|(OH)|4}} + {{chem|H|2|O}}

{{chem|H|2|O|2}} converts [[carboxylic acid]]s (RCOOH) into peroxy acids (RCOOOH), which are themselves used as oxidizing agents. Hydrogen peroxide reacts with [[acetone]] to form [[acetone peroxide]], and it interacts with [[ozone]] to form [[hydrogen trioxide]], also known as [[trioxidane]]. Reaction with [[urea]] produces [[carbamide peroxide]], used for whitening teeth. An acid-base adduct with [[triphenylphosphine oxide]] is a useful "carrier" for {{chem|H|2|O|2}} in some reactions.

===Alkalinity===
Hydrogen peroxide can still form adducts with very strong acids. The [[superacid]] {{chem|link=Fluoroantimonic acid|HF/SbF|5}} forms unstable compounds containing the {{chem|[H|3|O|2|]|+}} ion.

==Uses==
===Municipal wastewater applications===
For over 50 years the standard way to deal with odors entering wastewater treatment plants was to pre-chlorinate the influent sewers. Recently, however, an increasing number of [[publicly owned treatment works|POTW]]s have revisited this issue and come up with a different answer - hydrogen peroxide ({{chem|H|2|O|2}}). Their results show that hydrogen peroxide can replace chlorine with little to no increase in costs, and with notable benefits to downstream operations. This paper looks at four recent studies conducted at large municipalities and identifies the factors that led them to select hydrogen peroxide for liquid-phase headworks odor control. [http://www.h2o2.com/municipal-applications/wastewater-treatment.aspx?pid=146&name=Article-H2S-Control-Headworks-Odor-Control]

====Cost Effective Control of Hydrogen Sulfide in Municipal Sludge====
In many municipal treatment facilities, the processing of wastewater sludge (or biosolids) poses operational and safety challenges due to hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S) generation. In addition to being a hazard to operations personnel ({{chem|H|2|S}} is a poisonous gas), {{chem|H|2|S}} odors generated during sludge processing can cause community complaints and make plant working conditions unpleasant. Furthermore, damage to equipment and concrete structures caused by H<sub>2</sub>S initiated corrosion can be substantial. Typical areas where {{chem|H|2|S}} problems occur include gravity thickeners, mix tanks, and dewatering presses.

Hydrogen sulfide is generated in sludge via the same mechanism as in collection systems - conversion of sulfates to sulfides by bacteria. This biochemical generation of H<sub>2</sub>S is brought about by anaerobic or oxygen limited conditions. There are numerous chemical and non-chemical treatment technologies available which can control H<sub>2</sub>S in municipal sludge processing operations. [http://www.h2o2.com/municipal-applications/wastewater-treatment.aspx?pid=149&name=Case-Study-Municipal-Sludge]

===Industrial applications===
[[File:Container JOTU501003 9.jpg|thumb|200px|ISO tank container for hydrogen peroxide transportation]]

About 50% of the world's production of hydrogen peroxide in 1994 was used for [[bleaching of wood pulp|pulp- and paper-bleaching]].<ref name=HageLienke>{{Cite journal
| journal = Angewandte Chemie International Edition
| title = Applications of Transition-Metal Catalysts to Textile and Wood-Pulp Bleaching
| author = Ronald Hage, Achim Lienke
| volume = 45
| issue = 2
| year = 2005
| doi = 10.1002/anie.200500525
| pages = 206–222
| pmid = 16342123}}</ref> Other bleaching applications are becoming more important as hydrogen peroxide is seen as an environmentally benign alternative to [[chlorine]]-based bleaches.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}

====Sulfide Oxidation with Hydrogen Peroxide====

Sulfide is found throughout the environment as a result of both natural and industrial processes. Most sulfide found in nature was produced biologically (under anaerobic conditions) and occurs as free hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S) - characterized by its rotten egg odor. We are most likely to encounter biogenic H<sub>2</sub>S in sour groundwaters, swamps and marshes, natural gas deposits, and sewage collection/treatment systems. Manmade sources of H<sub>2</sub>S typically occur as a result of natural materials containing sulfur (e.g., coal, gas and oil) being refined into industrial products. For a variety of reasons - aesthetics (odor control), health (toxicity), ecological (oxygen depletion in receiving waters), and economic (corrosion of equipment and infrastructure) - sulfide laden wastewaters must be handled carefully and remediated before they can be released to the environment. Typical discharge limits for sulfide are < 1&nbsp;mg/L. [http://h2o2.com/industrial/applications.aspx?pid=105&name=Sulfide-Oxidation Sulfide Oxidation]

====BOD and COD Removal in Wastewater Using Hydrogen Peroxide====

Hydrogen peroxide has been used to reduce the [[Biochemical Oxygen Demand|BOD]] and [[Chemical Oxygen Demand|COD]] of industrial wastewaters for many years. While the cost of removing BOD/COD through chemical oxidation is typically greater than that through physical or biological means, there are nonetheless specific situations which justify its use. These include:

* Predigestion of wastewaters which contain moderate to high levels of compounds that are toxic, inhibitory, or recalcitrant to biological treatment (e.g., pesticides, plasticizers, resins, coolants, and dyestuffs);
* Pretreatment of high strength / low flow wastewaters – where biotreatment may not be practical – prior to discharge to a Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW);
* Enhanced separation of entrained organics by flotation and settling processes; and
Supply of supplemental Dissolved Oxygen (DO) when biological treatment systems experience temporary overloads or equipment failure.

As indicated by these examples, H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> can be used as a stand-alone treatment or as an enhancement to existing physical or biological treatment processes, depending on the situation. [http://h2o2.com/industrial/applications.aspx?pid=104&name=BOD-COD-Removal BOD-COD Removal]

====High Strength Wastewater Pretreatment====

Hydrogen peroxide is one of the most versatile, dependable and environmentally compatible oxidizing agents. The relative safety and simplicity of its use as an oxidizing agent has led to the development of a number of applications in refinery wastewater systems.

“Uncatalyzed” Hydrogen Peroxide
The strong oxidizing power of H2O2 makes it suitable for the destruction of a variety of pollutants. Optimization of conditions using H2O2 to destroy these pollutants can involve control of pH, temperature and reaction time. No additional additives are required.

“Catalyzed” Hydrogen Peroxide
Pollutants that are more difficult to oxidize require H2O2 to be activated with catalysts such as iron. Catalyzed oxidation can also be used to destroy easily oxidized pollutants more rapidly.

Under acid pH conditions, the addition of iron salts to a wastewater solution activates H2O2 to generate free radicals, which can attack a variety of organic compounds. Other metal salts and conditions can apply (e.g. in cyanide destruction, a copper catalyst can be used at a pH of 8.5 - 11.5). [http://h2o2.com/industrial/refinery-petrochemical-applications.aspx?pid=100&name=High-Strength-Wastewater-Pretreatment High Strength Wastewater Pretreatment]

====Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Abatement with Hydrogen Peroxide====

Nitrogen oxides are major pollutants in the atmosphere, being a precursor to acid rain, photochemical smog, and ozone accumulation. The oxides are mainly nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO<sub>2</sub>) both of which are corrosive and hazardous to health. With the use of catalytic converters on automobiles, the initial regulatory focus of controlling of mobile NOx emissions has reached the point where further restriction has become economically impractical. Consequently, the stationary sources of NOx emissions are now being subjected to more stringent standards in many areas of the U.S. Stationary sources include nitric acid manufacturing plants, manufacturers of nitrated materials such as fertilizer and explosives, and industrial manufacturers (metallurgical processors, glass manufacturers, cement kilns, power generators, etc.) where high processing temperatures are used. Because of the environmental concerns posed by air pollution, a great deal of research time and money has been expended to develop methods for controlling NOx emissions. [http://h2o2.com/industrial/applications.aspx?pid=101&name=Nitrogen-Oxides-Abatement Nitrogen Oxide Abatement (NOx)]

Other major industrial applications for hydrogen peroxide include the manufacture of [[sodium percarbonate]] and [[sodium perborate]], used as mild bleaches in [[laundry]] [[detergents]]. It is used in the production of certain [[organic peroxides]], such as [[dibenzoyl peroxide]], used in [[Radical polymerization|polymerisations]] and other chemical processes. Hydrogen peroxide is also used in the production of [[epoxides]], such as [[propylene oxide]]. Reaction with [[carboxylic acids]] produces a corresponding [[peroxy acid]]. [[Peracetic acid]] and [[meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid]] (commonly abbreviated mCPBA) are prepared from [[acetic acid]] and ''meta''-chlorobenzoic acid, respectively. The latter is commonly reacted with [[alkene]]s to give the corresponding [[epoxide]].

In the [[Printed circuit board|PCB]] manufacturing process, hydrogen peroxide mixed with sulfuric acid was used as the microetch chemical for copper surface roughening preparation.

A combination of a powdered precious metal-based catalyst, hydrogen peroxide, methanol and water can produce superheated steam in one to two seconds, releasing only {{chem|link=carbon dioxide|CO|2}} and high-temperature steam for a variety of purposes.<ref>[http://www.soci.org/SCI/general/2007/html/ge630.jsp Instant steam puts heat on MRSA, Society Of Chemical Industry]</ref>

Recently, there has been increased use of [[vaporized hydrogen peroxide]] in the validation and bio-decontamination of half-suit and glove-port isolators in pharmaceutical production.

Nuclear [[pressurized water reactor]]s (PWRs) use hydrogen peroxide during the plant shutdown to force the oxidation and dissolution of activated corrosion products deposited on the fuel. The corrosion products are then removed with the cleanup systems before the reactor is disassembled.

Hydrogen peroxide is also used in the oil and gas exploration industry to oxidize rock matrix in preparation for micro-fossil analysis.

===Chemical applications===
A method of producing [[propylene oxide]] from hydrogen peroxide has been developed. The process is claimed to be environmentally friendly, since the only significant byproduct is water. It is also claimed the process has significantly lower investment and operating costs. Two of these "HPPO" (hydrogen peroxide to propylene oxide) plants came onstream in 2008: One of them located in Belgium is a [[Solvay]], Dow-BASF joint venture, and the other in Korea is a EvonikHeadwaters, SK Chemicals joint venture. A [[caprolactam]] application for hydrogen peroxide has been commercialized. Potential routes to [[phenol]] and [[epichlorohydrin]] utilizing hydrogen peroxide have been postulated.<ref name=ChemSystems/>

===Biological function===
Hydrogen peroxide is also one of the two chief chemicals in the defense system of the [[bombardier beetle]], reacting with [[hydroquinone]] to discourage predators.

A study published in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' found that hydrogen peroxide plays a role in the [[immune system]]. Scientists found that hydrogen peroxide inside of cells increased after tissues are damaged in [[zebra fish]], which is thought to act as a signal to [[white blood cell]]s to converge on the site and initiate the healing process. When the genes required to produce hydrogen peroxide were disabled, white blood cells did not accumulate at the site of damage. The experiments were conducted on fish; however, because fish are genetically similar to humans, the same process is speculated to occur in humans. The study in ''Nature'' suggested [[asthma]] sufferers have higher levels of hydrogen peroxide in their lungs than healthy people, which could explain why asthma sufferers have inappropriate levels of white blood cells in their lungs.<ref name="BBC">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8078525.stm|title=Natural bleach 'key to healing' |date=6 June 2009|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2009-07-02}}</ref><ref name="Nature zebra">{{Cite journal|accessdate=2009-07-02|last=Niethammer|first=Philipp|coauthors=Clemens Grabher, A. Thomas Look & Timothy J. Mitchison|date=3 June 2009|title=A tissue-scale gradient of hydrogen peroxide mediates rapid wound detection in zebrafish|journal=Nature|volume=459|pages= 996–9 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v459/n7249/full/nature08119.html|doi=10.1038/nature08119|pmid=19494811|issue=7249|pmc=2803098}}</ref>

Hydrogen peroxide has important roles as a signaling molecule in the regulation of a variety of biological processes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Veal EA, Day AM, Morgan BA |title=Hydrogen peroxide sensing and signaling |journal=Mol. Cell |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |year=2007 |month=April |pmid=17434122 |doi=10.1016/j.molcel.2007.03.016 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1097-2765(07)00186-4}}</ref> Hydrogen peroxide also plays an important role in aging<ref>{{cite journal |author=Giorgio M, Trinei M, Migliaccio E, Pelicci PG |title=Hydrogen peroxide: a metabolic by-product or a common mediator of ageing signals? |journal=Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=722–8 |year=2007 |month=September |pmid=17700625 |doi=10.1038/nrm2240 }}</ref> and cancer.<ref>{{cite journal |author=López-Lázaro M |title=Dual role of hydrogen peroxide in cancer: possible relevance to cancer chemoprevention and therapy |journal=Cancer Lett. |volume=252 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |year=2007 |month=July |pmid=17150302 |doi=10.1016/j.canlet.2006.10.029 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304-3835(06)00592-1}}</ref>

===Domestic uses===
[[Image:Hydrogen peroxide 30 percent on skin.JPG|thumb|alt=Fingertips|Skin immediately after exposure to 30% {{chem|H|2|O|2}}]]
* Diluted {{chem|H|2|O|2}} (between 3% and 8%) is used to bleach human [[hair]] when mixed with [[ammonium hydroxide]], hence the phrase "[[peroxide blonde]]".
* It is absorbed by [[skin]] upon contact and creates a local skin [[capillary]] [[embolism]] that appears as a temporary whitening of the skin.
* It is used to whiten [[bone]]s that are to be put on display.
* 6% (20-vol) is useful for disinfecting cuts and to stop bleeding for relatively superficial cuts.
* 3% {{chem|H|2|O|2}} is effective at treating fresh (red) blood-stains in clothing and on other items. It must be applied to clothing before blood stains can be accidentally "set" with heated water. Cold water and soap are then used to remove the peroxide treated [[blood]].
* Some horticulturalists and users of [[hydroponics]] advocate the use of weak hydrogen peroxide solution in watering solutions. Its spontaneous decomposition releases oxygen that enhances a plant's root development and helps to treat [[root rot]] (cellular root death due to lack of oxygen) and a variety of other pests.<ref>{{Cite web| url = http://www.socalplumeriacare.com/Faqs/F-7.pdf | title = Hydrogen Peroxide and Horticulture | first = Bryce | last = Fredrickson | accessdate = 2009-01-25}}</ref><ref>[http://www.using-hydrogen-peroxide.com/peroxide-garden.html Ways to use hydrogen peroxide in the garden]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bhattarai SP, Su N, Midmore DJ |title=Oxygation Unlocks Yield Potentials of Crops in Oxygen-Limited Soil Environments |journal=Advances in Agronomy |volume=88 |pages=313–377 |year=2005 |doi=10.1016/S0065-2113(05)88008-3 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065211305880083}}</ref>
* Laboratory tests conducted by fish culturists in recent years have demonstrated that common household hydrogen peroxide can be used safely to provide oxygen for small fish.<ref>[http://www.great-lakes.org/Wkly_news/07-07-03.html#Oxygen Great-lakes.org]</ref><ref>[http://www.fws.gov/midwest/ashland/mtan/mtan_35.html#Guide%20to%20Drug,%20Vaccine,%20and%20Pesticide%20Use%20in%20Aquaculture fws.gov]</ref> Hydrogen peroxide releases oxygen by decomposition when it is exposed to [[catalysts]] such as [[manganese dioxide]].
* Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidizer effective in controlling sulfide and organic-related odors in wastewater collection and treatment systems. It is typically applied to a wastewater system where there is a retention time of 30 minutes to 5 hours before hydrogen sulfide is released. Hydrogen peroxide oxidizes the hydrogen sulfide and promotes bio-oxidation of organic odors. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to oxygen and water, adding dissolved oxygen to the system, thereby negating some Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
* Mixed with baking soda and a small amount of hand soap, hydrogen peroxide is effective at removing [[skunk]] odor.<ref>Chemist Paul Krebaum claims to have originated the formula for use on skunked pets at [http://home.earthlink.net/~skunkremedy/home/ Skunk Remedy]</ref>
* Hydrogen peroxide is used with [[phenyl oxalate ester]] and an appropriate [[dye]] in [[glow stick]]s as an [[oxidizing agent]]. It reacts with the ester to form an unstable {{chem|CO|2}} [[Dimer (chemistry)|dimer]], which excites the dye to an [[excited state]]; the dye emits a [[photon]] (light) when it [[spontaneous emission|spontaneously relaxes]] back to the [[ground state]].
* Hydrogen peroxide can be combined with [[vinegar]] and table salt to form a substitute for industrial chemicals such as [[ferric chloride]], [[ammonium persulfate]], or [[hydrochloric acid]] as a hobbyist's [[printed circuit board]] etchant.<ref>[http://www.stephenhobley.com/blog/2011/03/02/still-messing-with-forces-i-dont-understand-the-formula/ PCB Etchant from household materials]</ref>
* Hydrogen peroxide can be used to clean tile and grout on floors. Sometimes it is recommended to clean with [[baking soda]] together with the hydrogen peroxide.<ref>http://www.doityourself.com/stry/tile-and-grout-cleaning</ref>

===Propellant===
{{details|High test peroxide}}
[[File:Rocket Belt Propulsion.svg|thumb|200px|Rocket Belt hydrogen peroxide propulsion system used in a [[jet pack]]]]

High concentration {{chem|H|2|O|2}} is referred to as HTP or [[High test peroxide]]. It can be used either as a [[monopropellant]] (not mixed with fuel) or as the oxidizer component of a [[bipropellant rocket]]. Use as a monopropellant takes advantage of the decomposition of 70–98+% concentration hydrogen peroxide into steam and oxygen. The propellant is pumped into a reaction chamber where a catalyst, usually a silver or platinum screen, triggers decomposition, producing steam at over 600&nbsp;°C, which is expelled through a [[nozzle]], generating [[thrust]]. {{chem|H|2|O|2}} monopropellant produces a maximum [[specific impulse]] (''I''<sub>sp</sub>) of 161 s (1.6 [[newton-second|kN·s]]/kg), which makes it a low-performance monopropellant. Peroxide generates much less thrust than [[hydrazine]], but is not [[toxic]]. The [[Bell Rocket Belt]] used hydrogen peroxide monopropellant.

As a bipropellant {{chem|H|2|O|2}} is decomposed to burn a fuel as an oxidizer. Specific impulses as high as 350 s (3.5&nbsp;kN·s/kg) can be achieved, depending on the fuel. Peroxide used as an oxidizer gives a somewhat lower ''I''<sub>sp</sub> than liquid oxygen, but is dense, storable, noncryogenic and can be more easily used to drive gas turbines to give high pressures using an efficient ''closed cycle''. It can also be used for regenerative cooling of rocket engines. Peroxide was used very successfully as an oxidizer in World-War-II German rockets (e.g. [[T-Stoff]], containing oxyquinoline stabilizer, for the [[Me-163]]), and for the low-cost British [[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]] and [[Black Arrow]] launchers. <!--{{cite web
| url = http://www.cue-dih.co.uk/aerospace/aeropdfs/htp_for_prop.pdf
| title = Hydrogen Peroxide for Power and Propulsion}}-->

In the 1940s and 1950s, the [[Hellmuth Walter|Walter]] [[gas turbine|turbine]] used hydrogen peroxide for use in [[submarine]]s while submerged; it was found to be too noisy and require too much maintenance compared to [[Submarine#Propulsion|diesel-electric]] power systems. Some [[torpedo]]es used hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer or propellant, but this was dangerous and has been discontinued by most [[navy|navies]]. Hydrogen peroxide leaks were blamed for the sinkings of [[HMS Sidon (P259)|HMS ''Sidon'']] and the [[Russian submarine Kursk|Russian submarine ''Kursk'']]. It was discovered, for example, by the Japanese Navy in torpedo trials, that the concentration of {{chem|H|2|O|2}} in right-angle bends in HTP pipework can often lead to explosions in submarines and torpedoes. SAAB Underwater Systems is manufacturing the Torpedo 2000. This torpedo, used by the Swedish navy, is powered by a piston engine propelled by HTP as an oxidizer and [[kerosene]] as a fuel in a bipropellant system.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scott|first=Richard |date=November, 1997|title=Homing Instincts|journal=Jane's Navy Steam generated by catalytic decomposition of 80–90% hydrogen peroxide was used for driving the turbopump turbines of the V-2 rockets, the X-15 rocketplanes, the early Centaur RL-10 engines and is still used on [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz]] for that purpose to-day{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}. International|url=http://babriet.tripod.com/articles/art_hominginstinct.htm}}</ref>

While rarely used now as a monopropellant for large engines, small hydrogen peroxide [[attitude control]] [[thruster (disambiguation)|thruster]]s are still in use on some [[satellite]]s.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} They are easy to throttle, and safer to fuel and handle before launch than hydrazine thrusters. However, [[hydrazine]] is more often used in spacecraft because of its higher [[specific impulse]] and lower rate of decomposition.

===Therapeutic use===
Hydrogen peroxide is ''[[generally recognized as safe]]'' (GRAS) as an [[antimicrobial agent]], an oxidizing agent and for other purposes by the U.S. FDA.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sec. 184.1366 Hydrogen peroxide|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office via GPO Access|url=http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/04nov20031500/edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2001/aprqtr/21cfr184.1366.htm|date=2001-04-01|accessdate=2007-07-07}}</ref> For example, 35% hydrogen peroxide is used to prevent infection transmission in the hospital environment, and hydrogen peroxide vapor is registered with the US EPA as a sporicidal sterilant. <br />
It is a [[List of common misconceptions#Miscellaneous|common misconception]] that hydrogen peroxide is a [[disinfectant]] or [[antiseptic]] for treating wounds.<ref>{{Cite news
| title = Really? The Claim: Hydrogen Peroxide Is a Good Treatment for Small Wounds
| first = Anahd
| last = O’Connor
| publisher = [[New York Times]]
| date=2007-06-19
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/19/health/19real.html
| accessdate = 2011-07-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news
| title = Medical myths don't die easily
| first = Aaron E.
| last = Carroll
| coauthors = Rachel C. Vreeman
| publisher = [[CNN]]
| date=2011-07-12
| url = http://www.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/07/12/vreeman.carroll.medical.myths/index.html?hpt=op_t1
| accessdate = 2011-07-13}}</ref> While it is an effective cleaning agent, hydrogen peroxide is not an effective agent for reducing [[bacterial infection]] of wounds. Further, hydrogen peroxide applied to wounds can impede [[healing]] and lead to [[scar]]ring because it destroys newly formed [[Skin|skin cells]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wilgus TA, Bergdall VK, Dipietro LA, Oberyszyn TM |title=Hydrogen peroxide disrupts scarless fetal wound repair |journal=Wound Repair Regen |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=513–9 |year=2005 |pmid=16176460 |doi=10.1111/j.1067-1927.2005.00072.x |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=1067-1927&date=2005&volume=13&issue=5&spage=513}}</ref>
* Hydrogen peroxide can be used as a toothpaste, or oral [[Debridement (dental)|debriding]] agent, when mixed with correct quantities of baking soda and salt. This use is no more effective than toothpaste alone, however.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shepherd|first=Steven|publisher=FDA Consumer|title=Brushing Up on Gum Disease|url=http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/CONSUMER/CON00065.html|accessdate=2007-07-07 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070514102017/http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/CONSUMER/CON00065.html |archivedate = May 14, 2007}}</ref>
* Hydrogen peroxide and [[benzoyl peroxide]] are sometimes used to treat [[Acne vulgaris|acne]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Milani|first=Massimo|coauthors=Bigardi, Andrea; Zavattarelli, Marco|year=2003|title=Efficacy and safety of stabilised hydrogen peroxide cream (Crystacide) in mild-to-moderate acne vulgaris: a randomised, controlled trial versus benzoyl peroxide gel|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/452990|journal=Current Medical Research and Opinion|volume=19|issue=2|pages=135–138(4)|doi=10.1185/030079902125001523|pmid=12740158}} {{Dead link|date=January 2010}}</ref>
* Hydrogen peroxide is used as an [[emetic]] in veterinary practice.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Drugs to Control or Stimulate Vomiting|encyclopedia=Merck Veterinary manual|url=http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/190303.htm|publisher=[[Merck & Co.]], Inc|year=2006}}</ref><ref>[http://www.petplace.com/dogs/how-to-induce-vomiting-emesis-in-dogs/page1.aspx How to Induce Vomiting (Emesis) in Dogs]</ref>

====Alternative uses====
{{see also|Liquid Oxygen (supplement)}}
* Following the call by [[alternative medicine]] advisors for drinking diluted hydrogen peroxide, and using it in various ways such as in shampoo and as an additive to toothpaste, as a treatment to illness in general and cancer in particular, the [[American Cancer Society]] states that "there is no scientific evidence that hydrogen peroxide is a safe, effective or useful cancer treatment", and advises cancer patients to "remain in the care of qualified doctors who use proven methods of treatment and approved clinical trials of promising new treatments." <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Questionable methods of cancer management: hydrogen peroxide and other 'hyperoxygenation' therapies |journal=CA: a cancer journal for clinicians|volume=43|issue=1|pages=47–56|year=1993|pmid=8422605|doi=10.3322/canjclin.43.1.47}}</ref>
* Another controversial alternative medical procedure is [[inhalation]] of hydrogen peroxide at a concentration of about 1%. Intravenous usage of hydrogen peroxide has been linked to several deaths.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Cooper|first=Anderson|title=A Prescription for Death?|publisher=CBS News|date=2005-01-12|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/01/12/60II/main666489.shtml|accessdate=2007-07-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Mikkelson|first=Barbara|title=Hydrogen Peroxide|url=http://www.snopes.com/medical/healthyself/peroxide.asp|publisher=Snopes.com|date=2006-04-30|accessdate=2007-07-07}}</ref>

=== Improvised explosive device / home-made bomb precursor ===
Hydrogen peroxide was the main ingredient in the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]] that killed 52 [[London Underground]] and bus passengers. The bomb-making ingredients are reported to be easier to buy than large numbers of [[aspirin]] pills.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-12337575 BBC News - 7/7 inquests: Coroner warns over bomb ingredient]</ref>

==Safety==
Regulations vary, but low concentrations, such as 3%, are widely available and legal to buy for medical use. Most over-the-counter peroxide solutions are not suitable for ingestion. Higher concentrations may be considered hazardous and are typically accompanied by a [[Material Safety Data Sheet]] (MSDS). In high concentrations, hydrogen peroxide is an aggressive oxidizer and will corrode many materials, including human skin. In the presence of a [[reducing agent]], high concentrations of {{chem|H|2|O|2}} will react violently.

High-concentration hydrogen peroxide streams, typically above 40%, should be considered a D001 hazardous waste, due to concentrated hydrogen peroxide's meeting the definition of a [[United States Department of Transportation|DOT]] oxidizer according to U.S. regulations, if released into the environment. The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] Reportable Quantity (RQ) for D001 hazardous wastes is {{convert|100|lb|kg}}, or approximately {{convert|10|USgal|L}}, of concentrated hydrogen peroxide.

Hydrogen peroxide should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area and away from any flammable or combustible substances.<ref>[http://www.bu.edu/es/labsafety/ESMSDSs/MSHydPeroxide.html Hydrogen Peroxide MSDS]</ref> It should be stored in a container composed of non-reactive materials such as stainless steel or glass (other materials including some plastics and aluminium alloys may also be suitable).<ref>[http://www.ozoneservices.com/articles/004.htm Ozonelab Peroxide compatibility]</ref> Because it breaks down quickly when exposed to light, it should be stored in an opaque container, and pharmaceutical formulations typically come in brown bottles that filter out light.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.truthorfiction.com/rumors/h/hydrogen-peroxide.htm |title = The Many Uses of Hydrogen Peroxide-Truth! Fiction! Unproven! |accessdate = 2008-06-30}}</ref>

Hydrogen peroxide, either in pure or diluted form, can pose several risks:
* '''Explosive vapors.''' Above roughly 70% concentrations, hydrogen peroxide can give off vapor that can detonate above 70&nbsp;°C (158&nbsp;°F) at normal atmospheric pressure. {{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} This can then cause a boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion ([[BLEVE]]) of the remaining liquid. [[Distillation]] of hydrogen peroxide at normal pressures is thus highly dangerous.
* '''Hazardous reactions.''' Hydrogen peroxide vapors can form sensitive contact explosives with hydrocarbons such as greases. Hazardous reactions ranging from ignition to explosion have been reported with [[alcohol]]s, [[ketone]]s, [[carboxylic acid]]s (particularly [[acetic acid]]), [[amine]]s and [[phosphorus]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}
* '''Spontaneous ignition.''' Concentrated hydrogen peroxide, if spilled on clothing (or other flammable materials), will preferentially evaporate water until the concentration reaches sufficient strength, at which point the material may spontaneously ignite.<ref>[http://www.ntsb.gov/publictn/2000/HZB0001.htm NTSB – Hazardous Materials Incident Brief]</ref><ref>[http://media.armadilloaerospace.com/misc/MaterialTest.mpg Armadilloaerospace material tests with HTP]</ref>
* '''Corrosive.''' Concentrated hydrogen peroxide (>50%) is corrosive, and even domestic-strength solutions can cause irritation to the eyes, [[mucous membrane]]s and skin.<ref>For example, see an [http://hazard.com/msds/mf/baker/baker/files/h4070.htm MSDS for a 3% peroxide solution].</ref> Swallowing hydrogen peroxide solutions is particularly dangerous, as decomposition in the stomach releases large quantities of gas (10 times the volume of a 3% solution) leading to internal bleeding. Inhaling over 10% can cause severe pulmonary irritation.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}
* '''Bleach agent.''' Low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide, on the order of 3% or less, will chemically bleach many types of clothing to a pinkish hue. Caution should be exercised when using common products that may contain hydrogen peroxide, such as facial cleaner or contact lens solution, which easily splatter upon other surfaces.
* '''Internal ailments.''' Large oral doses of hydrogen peroxide at a 3% concentration may cause "irritation and blistering to the mouth (which is known as [[Black hairy tongue]]), throat, and abdomen", as well as "abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea".<ref>[http://www.sefsc.noaa.gov/HTMLdocs/HydrogenPeroxide3.htm Hydrogen Peroxide, 3%. 3. Hazards Identification] Southeast Fisheries Science Center, daughter agency of [[NOAA]].</ref>
* '''Vapor pressure.''' Hydrogen peroxide has a significant vapor pressure (1.2 kPa at 50&nbsp;°C[CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 76th Ed, 1995-1996]) and exposure to the vapor is potentially hazardous. Hydrogen peroxide vapor is a primary irritant, primarily affecting the eyes and respiratory system and the NIOSH Immediately dangerous to life and health limit (IDLH) is only 75 ppm.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/intridl4.html Documentation for Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH): NIOSH] National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health&#93; Chemical Listing and Documentation of Revised IDLH Values (as of 3/1/95)]</ref> Long term exposure to low ppm concentrations is also hazardous and can result in permanent lung damage and [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) has established a permissible exposure limit of 1.0 ppm calculated as an eight hour time weighted average (29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z-1) and hydrogen peroxide has also been classified by the [[American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists]] (ACGIH) as a "known animal carcinogen, with unknown relevance on humans.[2008 Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents & Biological Exposure Indices, ACGIH] In applications where high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide are used, suitable personal protective equipment should be worn and it is prudent in situations where the vapor is likely to be generated, such as hydrogen peroxide gas or vapor sterilization, to ensure that there is adequate ventilation and the vapor concentration monitored with a continuous gas monitor for hydrogen peroxide. Continuous gas monitors for hydrogen peroxide are available from several suppliers. Further information on the hazards of hydrogen peroxide is available from OSHA<ref>[http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/hydrogenperoxide/recognition.html Occupational Safety and Health Guideline for Hydrogen Peroxide]</ref> and from the ATSDR.<ref>[http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/MHMI/mmg174.html Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry]</ref>
* '''Skin disorders.''' [[Vitiligo]] is an acquired skin disorder with the loss of native skin pigment, which affects about 0.5-1% of the world population. Recent studies have discovered increased {{chem|H|2|O|2}} levels in the epidermis and in blood are one of many hallmarks of this disease.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vitiligo.eu.com/turmeric.htm |title=forschung |publisher=Vitiligo.eu.com |accessdate=2010-09-05}}</ref>

===Historical incidents===
* On July 16, 1934, in [[Kummersdorf]], Germany, a rocket engine using hydrogen peroxide exploded, killing three people. As a result of this incident, [[Wernher von Braun]] decided not to use hydrogen peroxide as an oxidizer in the rockets he developed afterward.
* Several people received minor injuries after a hydrogen peroxide spill on board [[Northwest Airlines flight 957]] from Orlando to Memphis on October 28, 1998 and subsequent fire on Northwest Airlines flight 7.<ref>Hazardous Materials Incident Brief DCA-99-MZ-001, [http://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2000/hzb0001.pdf "Spill of undeclared shipment of hazardous materials in cargo compartment of aircraft"]. pub: National Transportation Safety Board. October 28, 1998; adopted May 17, 2000.</ref>
* During the [[World War II|Second World War]], doctors in [[Nazi concentration camps|German concentration camps]] experimented with the use of hydrogen peroxide injections in the killing of human subjects.<ref>{{Cite web| title=The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide | publisher=Robert Jay Lifton | url=http://www.holocaust-history.org/lifton/LiftonT257.shtml | accessdate=1 November 2007}}</ref>
* Hydrogen peroxide was said to be one of the ingredients in the bombs that failed to explode in the [[July 21, 2005 London bombings]].<ref>Four Men Found Guilty in Plot to Blow Up London's Transit System, [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,288631,00.html "FOXNews.com"]. (July 9, 2007)</ref>
* The [[Russia]]n submarine [[K-141 Kursk]] sailed out to sea to perform an exercise of firing dummy torpedoes at the [[Russian battlecruiser Pyotr Velikiy|Pyotr Velikiy]], a [[Kirov class battlecruiser]]. On August 12, 2000 at 11:28 local time (07:28 UTC), there was an [[Russian submarine Kursk explosion|explosion]] while preparing to fire the torpedoes. The only credible report to date is that this was due to the failure and explosion of one of the Kursk's hydrogen peroxide-fueled torpedoes. It is believed that [[High test peroxide|HTP]], a form of highly concentrated hydrogen peroxide used as propellant for the torpedo, seeped through rust in the torpedo casing. A similar incident was responsible for the loss of [[HMS Sidon (P259)|HMS Sidon]] in 1955
* On August 16, 2010 a spill of about {{convert|10|USgal|L}} of cleaning fluid spilled on the 53rd floor of 1515 Broadway, in Times Square, New York City. The spill, which a spokesperson for the New York City fire department said was of Hydrogen Peroxide, shut down Broadway between West 42nd and West 48th streets as a number of fire engines responded to the [[HAZMAT|hazmat]] situation. There were no reported injuries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Times Sq. cleaning fluid spill brings fire trucks|url=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/US_TIMES_SQUARE_SPILL?SITE=FLPEJ&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT|date=August 17, 2010}}</ref>{{dead link|date=January 2012}}

==See also==
*[[Elephant toothpaste]]
*[[Trioxidane]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book |author=J. Drabowicz, ''et al.'' |editor=G. Capozzi, ''et al.'' |title=The Syntheses of Sulphones, Sulphoxides and Cyclic Sulphides |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chichester UK |year=1994 |isbn=0-471-93970-6 |pages=112–6 |url=}}
*{{cite book |author=N.N. Greenwood, A. Earnshaw |title=Chemistry of the Elements |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |location=Oxford UK |year=1997 |edition=2nd}} A great description of properties & chemistry of {{chem|H|2|O|2}}.
*{{cite book |author=J. March |title=Advanced Organic Chemistry |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |year=1992 |page=723 |edition=4th}}
*{{cite book |author=W.T. Hess |chapter=Hydrogen Peroxide |title=Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |year=1995 |volume=13 |pages=961–995 |edition=4th}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{External links|date=June 2010}}
* [http://www.tecaeromex.com/ingles/destilai.htm Hydrogen Peroxide Distillation for rocket fuel]
* [http://msds.fmc.com/msds/100000010225-MSDS_US-E.pdf Material Safety Data Sheet]
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfactsx4.html ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry FAQ]
*{{cite journal |author=Tombes MB, Gallucci B |title=The effects of hydrogen peroxide rinses on the normal oral mucosa |journal=Nurs Res |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=332–7 |year=1993 |pmid=8247815 }}
* [http://www.erps.org Experimental Rocket Propulsion Society]
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0164.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0164]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0335.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
* [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Cancer/oxygen.html Oxygenation Therapy:Unproven Treatments for Cancer and AIDS]
* [http://www.gaiaresearch.co.za/hydroperoxide.html Hydrogen Peroxide in the Human Body]
* [http://www.using-hydrogen-peroxide.com Information on many common uses for hydrogen peroxide, especially household uses.]
* [http://copublications.greenfacts.org/en/tooth-whiteners/index.htm Hydrogen peroxide in tooth whiteners] summary by [[GreenFacts]] of the European Commission SCCP assessment

{{Hydrogen compounds}}
{{Stomatological preparations}}
{{Antiseptics and disinfectants}}
{{Otologicals}}
{{Hair colors}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hydrogen Peroxide}}
[[Category:Hydrogen peroxide]]
[[Category:Antiseptics]]
[[Category:Bleaches]]
[[Category:Disinfectants]]
[[Category:Household chemicals]]
[[Category:Hydrogen compounds]]
[[Category:Light-sensitive chemicals]]
[[Category:Peroxides]]
[[Category:Rocket oxidizers]]
[[Category:1894 introductions]]
[[Category:Otologicals]]
[[Category:Oxidizing agents]]

[[ar:فوق أكسيد الهيدروجين]]
[[bg:Диводороден пероксид]]
[[ca:Peròxid d'hidrogen]]
[[cs:Peroxid vodíku]]
[[da:Brintoverilte]]
[[de:Wasserstoffperoxid]]
[[et:Vesinikperoksiid]]
[[el:Υπεροξείδιο υδρογόνου]]
[[es:Peróxido de hidrógeno]]
[[eo:Hidrogena peroksido]]
[[fa:آب اکسیژنه]]
[[fr:Peroxyde d'hydrogène]]
[[gl:Peróxido de hidróxeno]]
[[ko:과산화 수소]]
[[hi:हाइड्रोजन परऑक्साइड]]
[[id:Hidrogen peroksida]]
[[it:Perossido di idrogeno]]
[[he:מימן על-חמצני]]
[[kn:ಹೈಡ್ರೋಜನ್ ಪೆರಾಕ್ಸೈಡ್]]
[[la:Hydrogenii peroxidum]]
[[lv:Ūdeņraža peroksīds]]
[[lt:Vandenilio peroksidas]]
[[hu:Hidrogén-peroxid]]
[[mk:Водород пероксид]]
[[nl:Waterstofperoxide]]
[[ja:過酸化水素]]
[[no:Hydrogenperoksid]]
[[nn:Hydrogenperoksid]]
[[pl:Nadtlenek wodoru]]
[[pt:Peróxido de hidrogênio]]
[[ro:Apă oxigenată]]
[[ru:Пероксид водорода]]
[[simple:Hydrogen peroxide]]
[[sk:Peroxid vodíka]]
[[sr:Vodonik-peroksid]]
[[fi:Vetyperoksidi]]
[[sv:Väteperoxid]]
[[ta:ஐதரசன் பேரொட்சைடு]]
[[tr:Hidrojen peroksit]]
[[uk:Перекис водню]]
[[ur:Hydrogen peroxide]]
[[vi:Hiđrô perôxít]]
[[zh:过氧化氢]]

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