Differential scanning calorimetry: Difference between revisions
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==References== |
==References== |
Revision as of 05:48, 12 January 2012
![]() Differential Scanning Calorimeter | |
Acronym | DSC |
---|---|
Classification | Thermal analysis |
Manufacturers | Linseis Thermal Analysis, Mettler Toledo, Netzsch, Shimadzu, PerkinElmer, Setaram Instrumentation, TA Instruments |
Other techniques | |
Related | Isothermal titration calorimetry Dynamic mechanical analysis Thermomechanical analysis Thermogravimetric analysis Differential thermal analysis Dielectric thermal analysis |
Differential scanning calorimetry or DSC is a thermoanalytical technique in which the difference in the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a sample and reference is measured as a function of temperature. Both the sample and reference are maintained at nearly the same temperature throughout the experiment. Generally, the temperature program for a DSC analysis is designed such that the sample holder temperature increases linearly as a function of time. The reference sample should have a well-defined heat capacity over the range of temperatures to be scanned.
The technique was developed by E.S. Watson and M.J. O'Neill in 1962,[1] and introduced commercially at the 1963 Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy. The first adiabatic differential scanning calorimeter that could be used in biochemistry was developed by P.L. Privalov and D.R. Monaselidze in 1964.[2] The term DSC was coined to describe this instrument which measures energy directly and allows precise measurements of heat capacity.[3]
Detection of phase transitions
The basic principle underlying this technique is that when the sample undergoes a physical transformation such as phase transitions, more or less heat will need to flow to it than the reference to maintain both at the same temperature. Whether less or more heat must flow to the sample depends on whether the process is exothermic or endothermic. For example, as a solid sample melts to a liquid it will require more heat flowing to the sample to increase its temperature at the same rate as the reference. This is due to the absorption of heat by the sample as it undergoes the endothermic phase transition from solid to liquid. Likewise, as the sample undergoes exothermic processes (such as crystallization) less heat is required to raise the sample temperature. By observing the difference in heat flow between the sample and reference, differential scanning calorimeters are able to measure the amount of heat absorbed or released during such transitions. DSC may also be used to observe more subtle phase changes, such as glass transitions. It is widely used in industrial settings as a quality control instrument due to its applicability in evaluating sample purity and for studying polymer curing.[4][5][6]
DTA
An alternative technique, which shares much in common with DSC, is differential thermal analysis (DTA). In this technique it is the heat flow to the sample and reference that remains the same rather than the temperature. When the sample and reference are heated identically phase changes and other thermal processes cause a difference in temperature between the sample and reference. Both DSC and DTA provide similar information.DSC measures the energy required to keep both the reference and the sample at the same temperature whereas DTA measures the difference in temperature between the sample and the reference when they are both put under the same heat.
DSC curves
The result of a DSC experiment is a curve of heat flux versus temperature or versus time. There are two different conventions: exothermic reactions in the sample shown with a positive or negative peak, depending on the kind of technology used in the experiment. This curve can be used to calculate enthalpies of transitions. This is done by integrating the peak corresponding to a given transition. It can be shown that the enthalpy of transition can be expressed using the following equation:
where is the enthalpy of transition, is the calorimetric constant, and is the area under the curve. The calorimetric constant will vary from instrument to instrument, and can be determined by analyzing a well-characterized sample with known enthalpies of transition.[5]
Applications
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0f/InterprettingDSCcurve.png)
Differential scanning calorimetry can be used to measure a number of characteristic properties of a sample. Using this technique it is possible to observe fusion and crystallization events as well as glass transition temperatures Tg. DSC can also be used to study oxidation, as well as other chemical reactions.[4][5][6][7]
Glass transitions may occur as the temperature of an amorphous solid is increased. These transitions appear as a step in the baseline of the recorded DSC signal. This is due to the sample undergoing a change in heat capacity; no formal phase change occurs.[4][6]
As the temperature increases, an amorphous solid will become less viscous. At some point the molecules may obtain enough freedom of motion to spontaneously arrange themselves into a crystalline form. This is known as the crystallization temperature (Tc). This transition from amorphous solid to crystalline solid is an exothermic process, and results in a peak in the DSC signal. As the temperature increases the sample eventually reaches its melting temperature (Tm). The melting process results in an endothermic peak in the DSC curve. The ability to determine transition temperatures and enthalpies makes DSC a valuable tool in producing phase diagrams for various chemical systems.[4]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/CalibratingDSCcurve.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/2and3stDSCcurves.png)
Examples
The technique is widely used across a range of applications, both as a routine quality test and as a research tool. The equipment is easy to calibrate, using low melting indium at 156.5985 °C for example, and is a rapid and reliable method of thermal analysis.
Polymers
DSC is used widely for examining polymers to check their composition. Melting points and glass transition temperatures for most polymers are available from standard compilations, and the method can show possible polymer degradation by the lowering of the expected melting point, Tm, for example. Tm depends on the molecular weight of the polymer, so lower grades will have lower melting points than expected. The percentage crystallinity of a polymer can be found from the crystallization peak of the DSC graph since the heat of fusion can be calculated from the area under an absorption peak. DSC can also be used to study thermal degradation of polymers. Impurities in polymers can be determined by examining thermograms for anomalous peaks, and plasticisers can be detected at their characteristic boiling points.
Liquid crystals
DSC is used in the study of liquid crystals. As some forms of matter go from solid to liquid they go through a third state, which displays properties of both phases. This anisotropic liquid is known as a liquid crystalline or mesomorphous state. Using DSC, it is possible to observe the small energy changes that occur as matter transitions from a solid to a liquid crystal and from a liquid crystal to an isotropic liquid.[5]
Oxidative stability
Using differential scanning calorimetry to study the stability to oxidation of samples generally requires an airtight sample chamber. Usually, such tests are done isothermally (at constant temperature) by changing the atmosphere of the sample. First, the sample is brought to the desired test temperature under an inert atmosphere, usually nitrogen. Then, oxygen is added to the system. Any oxidation that occurs is observed as a deviation in the baseline. Such analysis can be used to determine the stability and optimum storage conditions for a material or compound.[4]
Safety Screening
DSC makes a reasonable initial safety screening tool. In this mode the sample will be housed in a non-reactive crucible (often gold, or gold plated steel), and which will be able to withstand pressure (typically up to 100 bar). The presence of an exothermic event can then be used to assess the stability of a substance to heat. However, due to a combination of relatively poor sensitivity, slower than normal scan rates (typically 2-3 °/min - due to much heavier crucible) and unknown activation energy, it is necessary to deduct about 75-100 °C from the initial start of the observed exotherm to suggest a maximum temperature for the material. A much more accurate data set can be obtained from an adiabatic calorimeter, but such a test may take 2–3 days from ambient at a rate of a 3 °C increment per half hour.
Drug analysis
DSC is widely used in the pharmaceutical and polymer industries. For the polymer chemist, DSC is a handy tool for studying curing processes, which allows the fine tuning of polymer properties. The cross-linking of polymer molecules that occurs in the curing process is exothermic, resulting in a positive peak in the DSC curve that usually appears soon after the glass transition.[4][5][6]
In the pharmaceutical industry it is necessary to have well-characterized drug compounds in order to define processing parameters. For instance, if it is necessary to deliver a drug in the amorphous form, it is desirable to process the drug at temperatures below those at which crystallization can occur.[5]
General chemical analysis
Freezing-point depression can be used as a purity analysis tool when analysed by Differential scanning calorimetry.[8] This is possible because the temperature range over which a mixture of compounds melts is dependent on their relative amounts. Consequently, less pure compounds will exhibit a broadened melting peak that begins at lower temperature than a pure compound.[5][6]
Food science
In food science research, DSC is used in conjunction with other thermal analytical techniques to determine water dynamics. Changes in water distribution may be correlated with changes in texture. Similar to materials science studies, the effects of curing on confectionery products can also be analyzed.
Metals
In recent decades this technology has been involved in the study of metallic materials. Low melting materials such as solder are easily examined for example. It is known that it is possible to use DSC to find the solidus and liquidus temperature of a metal alloy, but at this time the widest application is the study of precipitations, and Guiner-Preston zones,
See also
References
- ^ U.S. patent 3,263,484
- ^ Molecular biology, vol.6. Moscow. 1975. pp. 7–33 (in russian).
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Wunderlich, B. (1990). Thermal Analysis. New York: Academic Press. pp. 137–140. ISBN 0127656057.
- ^ a b c d e f Dean, John A. (1995). The Analytical Chemistry Handbook. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. pp. 15.1–15.5. ISBN 0070161976.
- ^ a b c d e f g Pungor, Erno (1995). A Practical Guide to Instrumental Analysis. Florida: Boca Raton. pp. 181–191.
- ^ a b c d e Skoog, Douglas A., F. James Holler and Timothy Nieman (1998). Principles of Instrumental Analysis (5 ed.). New York. pp. 805–808. ISBN 0030020786.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ M. J. O'Neill (1964). "The Analysis of a Temperature-Controlled Scanning Calorimeter". Anal. Chem. 36 (7): 1238–1245. doi:10.1021/ac60213a020.
- ^ "DSC Purity Analysis" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-02-05.
External links
- www.pslc.ws/macrog/dsc.htm Differential Scanning Calorimetry information from the Polymer Science Learning Center
Bibliography
- Brydson, J A, Plastics Materials, Butterworth-Heinemann, 7th Ed (1999).
- Ezrin, Meyer, Plastics Failure Guide: Cause and Prevention, Hanser-SPE (1996).
- Wright, D.C., Environmental Stress Cracking of Plastics RAPRA (2001).
- Lewis, Peter Rhys, and Gagg, C, Forensic Polymer Engineering: Why polymer products fail in service, Woodhead/CRC Press (2010).