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{{about|aircraft|the cocktail|Aviation (cocktail) }}
{{Infobox aviation
|name=Aviation
|image=
|caption=[[NASA]] [[Gulfstream V]] C-37A
}}
{{transport}}
'''Aviation''' is the design, development, production, operation, and use of [[aircraft]], especially heavier-than-air aircraft. ''Aviation'' is derived from ''avis'', the Latin word for ''bird''.

==History==
{{Main|History of aviation}}

Many cultures have built devices that travel through the air, from the earliest projectiles such as stones and spears,<ref>[http://www.tmth.edu.gr/en/aet/1/14.html Archytas of Tar entum, Technology Museum of Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece]</ref><ref>[http://automata.co.uk/History%20page.htm Automata history]</ref> the
[[boomerang]] in [[Australia]], the hot air [[Kongming lantern]], and [[kite]]s. There are early legends of human flight such as the story of [[Icarus]], and [[Jamshid]] in Persian myth, and later, somewhat more credible claims of short-distance human flights appear, such as the flying automaton of [[Archytas]] of [[Taranto|Tarentum]] (428–347 BC),<ref>"''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Efr2Ll1OdqMC&pg=PA128&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Aviation: Reaching for the Sky]''". Don Berliner (1996). The Oliver Press, Inc. p.28. ISBN 1-881508-33-1</ref> the winged flights of [[Abbas Ibn Firnas]] (810–887), [[Eilmer of Malmesbury]] (11th century), and the hot-air [[Passarola]] of [[Bartholomeu Lourenço de Gusmão|Bartolomeu Lourenço de Gusmão]] (1685–1724).

The modern age of aviation began with the first untethered human lighter-than-air flight on November 21, 1783, in a [[hot air balloon]] designed by the [[Montgolfier brothers]]. The practicality of balloons was limited because they could only travel downwind. It was immediately recognized that a steerable, or [[Airship|dirigible]], balloon was required. [[Jean-Pierre Blanchard]] flew the first human-powered dirigible in 1784 and crossed the English Channel in one in 1785.

In 1799 [[Sir George Cayley]] set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Aviation History
| url = http://www.aviation-history.com/early/cayley.htm
| publisher =
| accessdate = 2009-07-26
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = Sir George Carley (British Inventor and Scientist)
| url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100795/Sir-George-Cayley-6th-Baronet
| publisher = Britannica
| accessdate = 2009-07-26
| quote = English pioneer of aerial navigation and aeronautical engineering and designer of the first successful glider to carry a human being aloft.}}</ref> Early dirigible developments included machine-powered propulsion ([[Henri Giffard]], 1852), rigid frames ([[David Schwarz (aviation inventor)|David Schwarz]], 1896), and improved speed and maneuverability ([[Alberto Santos-Dumont]], 1901)

[[File:First flight2.jpg|thumb|First assisted take-off flight by the [[Wright Brothers]], December 17, 1903]]
While there are [[Early flying machines|many competing claims]] for the earliest powered, heavier-than-air flight, the most widely-accepted date is December 17, 1903 by the [[Wright brothers]]. The Wright brothers were the first to fly in a powered and controlled aircraft. Previous flights were gliders (control but no power) or free flight (power but no control), but the Wright brothers combined both, setting the new standard in aviation records. Following this, the widespread adoption of [[aileron]]s rather than wing warping made aircraft much easier to control, and only a decade later, at the start of [[World War I]], heavier-than-air powered aircraft had become practical for reconnaissance, artillery spotting, and even attacks against ground positions.

Aircraft began to transport people and cargo as designs grew larger and more reliable. The Wright brothers took aloft the first passenger, Charles Furnas, one of their mechanics, on May 14, 1908.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/1908_The_Year_the_Airplane_Went_Public.html |title=1908: The Year the Airplane Went Public |author=Tom D. Crouch |publisher=''[[Air & Space/Smithsonian]]'' |date=August 29, 2008 |accessdate=August 21, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/thismonth/this_month_may08.html |title=This Month in Exploration: May |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=August 21, 2012}}</ref> In contrast to small non-rigid [[Non-rigid airship|blimps]], giant [[rigid airship]]s became the first aircraft to transport passengers and cargo over great distances. The best known aircraft of this type were manufactured by the German [[Zeppelin]] company.

[[Image:Hindenburg at lakehurst.jpg|thumb|left|''[[LZ 129 Hindenburg|Hindenburg]]'' at [[Lakehurst Naval Air Station]], 1936]]
The most successful Zeppelin was the [[LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin|Graf Zeppelin]]. It flew over one million miles, including an around-the-world flight in August 1929. However, the dominance of the Zeppelins over the airplanes of that period, which had a range of only a few hundred miles, was diminishing as airplane design advanced. The "Golden Age" of the airships ended on May 6, 1937 when the [[Hindenburg (airship)|Hindenburg]] caught fire, killing 36 people. Although there have been periodic initiatives to revive their use, airships have seen only niche application since that time.

Great progress was made in the field of aviation during the 1920s and 1930s, such as [[Charles Lindbergh|Charles Lindbergh's]] solo transatlantic flight in 1927, and [[Charles Kingsford Smith]]'s transpacific flight the following year. One of the most successful designs of this period was the [[Douglas DC-3]], which became the first [[airliner]] that was profitable carrying passengers exclusively, starting the modern era of passenger airline service. By the beginning of [[World War II]], many towns and cities had built airports, and there were numerous qualified pilots available. The war brought many innovations to aviation, including the first [[turbojet|jet]] aircraft and the first liquid-fueled [[rocket]]s.

[[Image:Helios cthomas.jpg|thumb|left|[[NASA]]'s [[Helios Prototype|Helios]] researches [[solar power]]ed flight.]]
After [[World War II]], especially in [[North America]], there was a boom in [[general aviation]], both private and commercial, as thousands of pilots were released from military service and many inexpensive war-surplus transport and training aircraft became available. Manufacturers such as [[Cessna]], [[The New Piper Aircraft|Piper]], and [[Beechcraft]] expanded production to provide light aircraft for the new middle-class market.

By the 1950s, the development of civil jets grew, beginning with the [[de Havilland Comet]], though the first widely-used passenger jet was the [[Boeing 707]], because it was much more economical than other planes at the time. At the same time, [[gas turbine|turboprop]] propulsion began to appear for smaller commuter planes, making it possible to serve small-volume routes in a much wider range of weather conditions.

Since the 1960s, [[composite material|composite]] airframes and quieter, more efficient engines have become available, and [[Concorde]] provided [[supersonic transport|supersonic passenger service]] for more than two decades, but the most important lasting innovations have taken place in instrumentation and control. The arrival of [[transistor|solid-state]] electronics, the [[Global Positioning System]], [[communications satellite|satellite communications]], and increasingly small and powerful [[computer]]s and [[light-emitting diode|LED]] displays, have dramatically changed the cockpits of [[airliner]]s and, increasingly, of smaller aircraft as well. Pilots can navigate much more accurately and view terrain, obstructions, and other nearby aircraft on a map or through [[synthetic vision]], even at night or in low visibility.

On June 21, 2004, [[Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne|SpaceShipOne]] became the first privately funded aircraft to make a [[spaceflight]], opening the possibility of an aviation market capable of leaving the Earth's atmosphere. Meanwhile, flying prototypes of aircraft powered by alternative fuels, such as [[ethanol]], [[electricity]], and even [[solar energy]], are becoming more common.

==Civil aviation==
{{Main|Civil aviation}}
Civil aviation includes all non-military flying, both [[general aviation]] and [[scheduled air transport]].

===Air transport===
{{Main|Airline}}
[[Image:Nwa a330-300 n805nw arp.jpg|thumb|right|[[Northwest Airlines]] [[Airbus A330|Airbus A330-323X]]]]

There are five major manufacturers of civil transport aircraft (in alphabetical order):
*[[Airbus]], based in [[Europe]]
*[[Boeing]], based in the [[United States]]
*[[Bombardier Aerospace|Bombardier]], based in [[Canada]]
*[[Embraer]], based in [[Brazil]]
*[[United Aircraft Corporation]], based in [[Russia]]

Boeing, Airbus, [[Ilyushin]] and [[Tupolev]] concentrate on wide-body and narrow-body jet [[airliner]]s, while Bombardier, Embraer and [[Sukhoi]] concentrate on [[regional airliner]]s. Large networks of specialized parts suppliers from around the world support these manufacturers, who sometimes provide only the initial design and final assembly in their own plants. The Chinese [[ACAC consortium]] will also soon enter the civil transport market with its [[ACAC ARJ21]] regional jet.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1670256,00.html | work=Time | title=Eyes on the Skies | first=Kathleen | last=Kingsbury | date=October 11, 2007 | accessdate=April 26, 2010}}</ref>

Until the 1970s, most major airlines were [[flag carrier]]s, sponsored by their governments and heavily protected from competition. Since then, [[open skies]] agreements have resulted in increased competition and choice for consumers, coupled with falling prices for airlines. The combination of high fuel prices, low fares, high salaries, and crises such as the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] and the [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS epidemic]] have driven many older airlines to government-bailouts, bankruptcy or mergers. At the same time, [[low-cost carrier]]s such as [[Ryanair]], [[Southwest Airlines|Southwest]] and [[Westjet]] have flourished.

===General aviation===
{{Main|General aviation}}
[[Image:cessna.120.g-btbw.arp.jpg|thumb|right|1947 [[Cessna 140|Cessna 120]]]]
[[Image:ixess hang glider arp.jpg|thumb|right|A weight-shift [[ultralight aviation|ultralight aircraft]], the [[Air Creation]] Tanarg]]

''General aviation'' includes all non-scheduled civil flying, both [[private aviation|private]] and [[commercial aviation|commercial]]. General aviation may include business flights, [[air charter]], private aviation, flight training, [[hot air balloon|ballooning]], [[parachuting]], [[Glider (sailplane)|gliding]], [[hang gliding]], [[aerial photography]], [[Powered Hang Glider|foot-launched powered hang gliders]], air ambulance, crop dusting, charter flights, [[traffic reporting]], police air patrols and forest fire fighting.

Each country regulates aviation differently, but general aviation usually falls under different regulations depending on whether it is private or commercial and on the type of equipment involved.

Many small aircraft manufacturers serve the general aviation market, with a focus on private aviation and flight training.

The most important recent developments for small aircraft (which form the bulk of the GA fleet) have been the introduction of advanced [[avionics]] (including [[Global Positioning System|GPS]]) that were formerly found only in large [[airliner]]s, and the introduction of [[composite material]]s to make small aircraft lighter and faster. [[Ultralight aviation|Ultralight]] and [[homebuilt aircraft]] have also become increasingly popular for recreational use, since in most countries that allow private aviation, they are much less expensive and less heavily regulated than certified aircraft.

==Military aviation==
{{Main|Military aviation|Aerial warfare}}
Simple [[balloon (aircraft)|balloons]] were used as surveillance aircraft as early as the 18th century. Over the years, [[military aircraft]] have been built to meet ever increasing capability requirements. Manufacturers of military aircraft compete for contracts to supply their government's arsenal. Aircraft are selected based on factors like cost, performance, and the speed of production.
[[Image:Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird.jpg|thumb|The [[Lockheed SR-71]] remains unsurpassed in many areas of performance.]]

===Types of military aviation===

*[[Fighter aircraft]]'s primary function is to destroy other aircraft. (e.g. [[Sopwith Camel]], [[A6M Zero]], [[McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle|F-15]], [[MiG-29]], [[Su-27]], and [[F-22]]).
*[[Ground attack|Ground attack aircraft]] are used against [[Tactical bombing|tactical]] earth-bound targets. (e.g. [[Junkers Ju 87|Junkers Stuka]], [[A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10]], [[Ilyushin Il-2|Il-2]], [[J-22 Orao]], [[AH-64]] and [[Sukhoi Su-25|Su-25]]).
*[[Bomber]]s are generally used against more [[Strategic bombing|strategic]] targets, such as factories and oil fields. (e.g. [[Zeppelin]], [[Tu-95]], [[Dassault Mirage IV|Mirage IV]], and [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]]).
*[[Military transport aircraft|Transport aircraft]] are used to transport hardware and personnel. (e.g. [[C-17 Globemaster III]], [[C-130 Hercules]] and [[Mil Mi-26]]).
*[[Surveillance aircraft|Surveillance]] and [[Aerial reconnaissance|reconnaissance]] aircraft obtain information about enemy forces. (e.g. [[Rumpler Taube]], [[de Havilland Mosquito|Mosquito]], [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]], [[Bell OH-58 Kiowa|OH-58]] and [[MiG-25|MiG-25R]]).
*[[Unmanned aerial vehicle|Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)]] are used primarily as reconnaissance fixed-wing aircraft, though many also carry payloads. Cargo aircraft are in development. (e.g. [[RQ-7|RQ-7B Shadow]], [[MQ-8|MQ-8 Fire Scout]], and [[MQ-1C|MQ-1C Gray Eagle]]).
*[[Missiles]] deliver warheads, normally explosives, but also things like leaflets.

==Aviation accidents and incidents==
{{main|Aviation accidents and incidents}}
[[Image:crash.arp.600pix.jpg|thumb|right|[[U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds|Thunderbird]] 1st year Capt. Christopher Stricklin [[Ejection seat|ejected]] from his [[USAF]] [[F-16]] aircraft at an [[airshow]] at [[Mountain Home Air Force Base]], [[Idaho]], on September 14, 2003. While performing a [[Cuban Eight|Reverse Half Cuban Eight]], Stricklin realized he could not pull up in time and ejected. Eight-tenths of a second later, the plane crashed, skidding aflame 200 yards, and the engine flew out and went another 100 yards. Except for a few bruises, he was not injured.]]

An '''aviation accident''' is defined by the [[Convention on International Civil Aviation]] Annex 13 as an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of [[flight]] until such time as all such persons have disembarked, in which a person is fatally or seriously injured, the aircraft sustains damage or structural failure or the aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible.<ref>{{cite web|last=The Investigation Process Research Resource Site|title=International Investigation Standards|url=http://www.iprr.org/manuals/Annex13.html|accessdate=7 May 2012}}</ref>

The first fatal aviation accident occurred in a [[Wright Model A]] aircraft at [[Fort Myer|Fort Myer, Virginia, USA]], on September 17, 1908, resulting in injury to the pilot, [[Orville Wright]] and death of the passenger, Signal Corps Lieutenant [[Thomas Etholen Selfridge|Thomas Selfridge]].<ref>{{cite web|last=About.com Inventors|title=Wright Brothers - First Fatal Airplane Crash in 1908|url=http://inventors.about.com/od/weirdmuseums/ig/Wright-Brothers/First-Fatal-Airplane-Crash.htm|accessdate=7 May 2012}}</ref>

An '''aviation incident''' is defined as an occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft that affects or could affect the safety of operations.<ref name="AirSafe.com">{{cite web|last=AirSafe.com|title=Definitions of Key Terms Used by AirSafe.com|url=http://www.airsafe.com/events/define.htm|accessdate=7 May 2012}}</ref>

An accident in which the damage to the aircraft is such that it must be written off, or in which the plane is destroyed is called a ''hull loss accident''.<ref name="AirSafe.com"/>

==Air Traffic Control (ATC)==
{{Main|Air traffic control}}
[[Image:Towers Schiphol small.jpg|thumb|[[Air traffic control tower]]s at [[Amsterdam Airport]]]]

Air traffic control (ATC) involves communication with aircraft to help maintain ''separation''&nbsp;— that is, they ensure that aircraft are sufficiently far enough apart horizontally or vertically for no risk of collision. Controllers may co-ordinate position reports provided by pilots, or in high traffic areas (such as the [[United States]]) they may use [[radar]] to see aircraft positions.

There are generally four different types of ATC:
*center controllers, who control aircraft en route between airports
*control towers (including tower, ground control, clearance delivery, and other services), which control aircraft within a small distance (typically 10–15&nbsp;km horizontal, and 1,000 m vertical) of an airport.
*oceanic controllers, who control aircraft over international waters between continents, generally without radar service.
*terminal controllers, who control aircraft in a wider area (typically 50–80&nbsp;km) around busy airports.

ATC is especially important for aircraft flying under [[Instrument flight rules]] (IFR), where they may be in weather conditions that do not allow the pilots to see other aircraft. However, in very high-traffic areas, especially near major airports, aircraft flying under [[Visual flight rules]] (VFR) are also required to follow instructions from ATC.

In addition to separation from other aircraft, ATC may provide weather advisories, terrain separation, navigation assistance, and other services to pilots, depending on their workload.

ATC do not control all flights. The majority of VFR flights in North America are not required to talk to ATC (unless they are passing through a busy terminal area or using a major airport), and in many areas, such as northern [[Canada]] and low altitude in northern [[Scotland]], Air trafic control services are not available even for IFR flights at lower altitudes.

==Environmental impact==
{{Main|Aviation and the environment}}

Like all activities involving [[combustion]], operating powered aircraft (from [[airliner]]s to hot air balloons) release [[soot]] and other pollutants into the atmosphere. [[Greenhouse gas]]es such as [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) are also produced. In addition, there are environmental impacts specific to aviation:
[[Image:Contrails.jpg|thumb|Water vapor [[Condensation trails|contrails]] left by high-altitude jet [[airliner]]s. These may contribute to [[cirrus cloud]] formation.]]

*Aircraft operating at high altitudes near the [[tropopause]] (mainly large [[jet airliner]]s) emit aerosols and leave [[contrail]]s, both of which can increase [[cirrus cloud]] formation&nbsp;— cloud cover may have increased by up to 0.2% since the birth of aviation.<ref>[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/aviation/032.htm Aviation and the Global Atmosphere (IPCC)]</ref>
*Aircraft operating at high altitudes near the tropopause can also release chemicals that interact with greenhouse gases at those altitudes, particularly [[nitrogen oxide|nitrogen compounds]], which interact with ozone, increasing ozone concentrations.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Lin | first = X. | coauthors = Trainer, M. and Liu, S.C., | title = On the nonlinearity of the tropospheric ozone production. | journal = Journal of Geophysical Research | volume = 93 | issue = D12 | pages = 15879–15888 | year = 1988 | doi = 10.1029/JD093iD12p15879 | bibcode=1988JGR....9315879L}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Grewe | first = V. | coauthors = D. Brunner, M. Dameris, J. L. Grenfell, R. Hein, D. Shindell, J. Staehelin | title = Origin and variability of upper tropospheric nitrogen oxides and ozone at northern mid-latitudes | journal = Atmospheric Environment | volume = 35 | issue = 20 | pages = 3421–3433 | month = July | year = 2001 | url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1352231001001340 | doi = 10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00134-0 | accessdate = 2007-11-20 }}</ref>
*Most light piston aircraft burn [[avgas]], which contains [[tetra-ethyl lead]] (TEL). Some lower-compression piston engines can operate on unleaded [[mogas]], and turbine engines and diesel engines&nbsp;— neither of which requires lead&nbsp;— are appearing on some newer [[light aircraft]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Aviation}}
{{Wikipedia books}}
{{Commons category|Aviation}}
{{wikiversity|Aviation|at-link=School:Aviation|at=The School of Aviation}}

*[[Aeronautics]]
*[[wikt:Appendix:Aviation, aerospace, and aeronautical terms|Aviation, aerospace, and aeronautical terms]]
*[[Environmental impact of aviation]]
*[[List of aviation topics]]
*[[Timeline of aviation]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|col width=50 em}}

<!-- ==External links== -->
{{Aviation lists}}

[[Category:Aviation| ]]
[[Category:Transport]]

{{Link FA|it}}

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Revision as of 16:56, 24 October 2012

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