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Since reports of the HIV virus began to emerge in the United States in the 1980's, the epidemic has frequently been linked to gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM) by epidemiologists and medical professionals. The first official report was published by the CDC on June 5th, 1981 and detailed the cases of five young gay men who were hospitalised with serious infections <ref> CDC (1981, 5th June) 'Pheumocystis Pneumonia - Los Angeles', MMWR, Vol. 30 No. 21. </ref> A month later, The New York Times reported that 41 homosexual men had been diagnosed with [[Kaposi’s Sarcoma]], and eight had died less than 24 months after the diagnosis was made. <ref> The New York Times (1981, 3rd July) "Rare cancer seen in 41 homosexuals" http://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/03/us/rare-cancer-seen-in-41-homosexuals.html?&pagewanted=2 </ref> By 1982, the condition was referred to as GRID [[Gay-related immune deficiency]], "gay cancer", or "gay compromise syndrome." <ref> Oswald, G.A, et al (1982) 'Attempted immune stimulation in the "gay compromise syndrome"'. BMJ, 1982 October 16; 285(6348): 1082. </ref> It was not until July of the same year that AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) was suggested to replace GRID <ref> Grmek, M.D. (1990) 'History of AIDS: Emergence and origin of a modern pandemic', New Jersey: Princeton University Press. </ref> and it was not until September 1982 that the CDC first used the AIDS acronym in a report. <ref> Grmek, M.D. (1990) 'History of AIDS: Emergence and origin of a modern pandemic', New Jersey: Princeton University Press. </ref>
Since reports of the [[HIV]] virus began to emerge in the United States in the 1980's, the HIV epidemic has frequently been linked to gay, bisexual, and other [[Men who have sex with men]] [MSM] by epidemiologists and medical professionals. The first official report on the virus was published by the CDC on June 5th, 1981 and detailed the cases of five young gay men who were hospitalised with serious infections. <ref> CDC (1981, 5th June) 'Pheumocystis Pneumonia - Los Angeles', MMWR, Vol. 30 No. 21. </ref> A month later, The New York Times reported that 41 "homosexuals" had been diagnosed with [[Kaposi’s Sarcoma]], and eight had died less than 24 months after the diagnosis was made. <ref> The New York Times (1981, 3rd July) "Rare cancer seen in 41 homosexuals" http://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/03/us/rare-cancer-seen-in-41-homosexuals.html?&pagewanted=2 </ref> By 1982, the condition was referred to in the medical community as GRID ([[Gay-related immune deficiency]]), "gay cancer", and "gay compromise syndrome." <ref> Oswald, G.A, et al (1982) 'Attempted immune stimulation in the "gay compromise syndrome"'. BMJ, 1982 October 16; 285(6348): 1082. </ref> It was not until July 1982 that AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) was suggested to replace GRID. <ref> Grmek, M.D. (1990) 'History of AIDS: Emergence and origin of a modern pandemic', New Jersey: Princeton University Press. </ref> and it was not until September that the CDC first used the AIDS acronym in an official report. <ref> Grmek, M.D. (1990) 'History of AIDS: Emergence and origin of a modern pandemic', New Jersey: Princeton University Press. </ref>


Although it is now understood that HIV does not only affect the gay community and can be spread in a variety of ways, the HIV virus still severely affects MSM across the globe. MSM are only a small proportion of the U.S. population, but they are consistently the population group most affected by the HIV/AIDS virus and are the largest percentage of American persons with an AIDS diagnosis who have died. <ref> Center for Disease Control. “HIV among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM)” (2010). Department of Health and Human Services. </ref> The United Nations estimates that 2 to 20% of MSM are infected with HIV, depending on the region they live in. <ref> Men who have sex with men, HIV prevention and care” Geneva, November 2005. UNAIDS. http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/jc1233-msm-meetingreport_en.pdf </ref>
It now well-understood that HIV does not only affect the gay community and can be spread in a variety of ways, but the HIV virus still severely affects MSM across the globe. MSM are only a small percentage of the U.S. population, but they are consistently the population group most affected by the HIV/AIDS virus and are the largest proportion of American citizens with an AIDS diagnosis who have died. <ref> Center for Disease Control. “HIV among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM)” (2010). Department of Health and Human Services. </ref> The United Nations estimates that 2 to 20% of MSM are infected with HIV, depending on the region they live in. <ref> Men who have sex with men, HIV prevention and care” Geneva, November 2005. UNAIDS. http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/jc1233-msm-meetingreport_en.pdf </ref>


==MSM as a Behavioral Category==
==MSM as a Behavioral Category==
{{Main|Men who have sex with men}}
{{Main|Men who have sex with men}}
Men who have sex with men (abbreviated as '''MSM''', also known as '''males who have sex with males''') are [[male|male person]]s who engage in sexual activity with members of the same sex, regardless of how they identify themselves; many men choose not to (or cannot for other reasons) accept [[sexual identity|sexual identities]] of [[homosexual]] or [[bisexuality|bisexual]].<ref name>{{cite web|title= UNAIDS: Men who have sex with men|publisher= UNAIDS|url= http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/dataimport/pub/briefingnote/2006/20060801_policy_brief_msm_en.pdf|accessdate=October 24, 2012}}</ref> MSM is often used in medical literature and [[social research]] to describe such men as a group for research studies without considering issues of self-identification. MSM and women who have sex with women "WSW" have been used in medical literature since at least 1990. <ref> Young, Rebecca M. and Ilan H. Meyer. “The Trouble With “MSM” and “WSW”: Erasure of the Sexual-Minority Person in Public Health Discourse.” Am J Public Health. (2005) 95: 1144–1149. </ref>
Men who have sex with men (abbreviated as '''MSM''', also known as '''males who have sex with males''') are [[male|male person]]s who engage in sexual activity with members of the same sex, regardless of how they personally identify themselves. Many men choose not to (or cannot for other reasons) accept [[sexual identity|sexual identities]] of [[homosexual]] or [[bisexuality|bisexual]].<ref name>{{cite web|title= UNAIDS: Men who have sex with men|publisher= UNAIDS|url= http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/dataimport/pub/briefingnote/2006/20060801_policy_brief_msm_en.pdf|accessdate=October 24, 2012}}</ref> MSM is often used in medical literature and [[social research]] to describe such men as a group for research studies without considering issues of self-identification. The terms MSM and women who have sex with women "WSW" have been used in medical scholarship since at least 1990. <ref> Young, Rebecca M. and Ilan H. Meyer. “The Trouble With “MSM” and “WSW”: Erasure of the Sexual-Minority Person in Public Health Discourse.” Am J Public Health. (2005) 95: 1144–1149. </ref>


===Demographics===
===Demographics===
Line 17: Line 17:


==Risk Factors==
==Risk Factors==
⚫
The HIV virus is more easily transmitted through unprotected anal intercourse than through unprotected vaginal intercourse <ref> http://www.avert.org/men-sex-men.htm </ref>and men who report unprotected receptive anal intercourse are at increased risk of contracting the HIV virus. <ref> BA Koblin. “Risk factors for HIV infection among men who have sex with men” (2006) AIDS, 20. 731-739. </ref> A 2004 study of HIV positive men found men who had unprotected anal intercourse (UAI) in the past year were put at risk for contracting the virus. The study found that men who reported engaging in UAI had increased from 30% in 1996 to 42% in 2000. Almost half of all men who participated in UAI in 1996-1997 said that they had not known the HIV status of their partner <ref> Dodds, J.P., D.E. Mercey, J.V. Parry & A.M. Johnson. (2004) Increasing risk behaviour and high levels of undiagnosed HIV infection in a community sample of homosexual men. Sex Transm Infect; 80:236-240 </ref> Studies have found that risk factors for HIV infection are anal intercourse with a man in the past 12 months, having unstable housing, and having inhaled [[alkyl nitrites]] (“poppers.”) <ref> Mimiaga, M., Reisner, S., Cranston, K., Isenberg, D., Bright, D., Daffin, G., Bland, S., & Driscoll, M. (2009). Sexual mixing patterns and partner characteristics of black msm in Massachusetts at increased risk for HIV infection and transmission. Journal of Urban Health, 86(4), 602-623. </ref> A 2009 study on the prevalence of unprotected anal intercourse among HIV-diagnosed MSM found that majority protected their partners during sexual activity, but a sizeable number of men continue to engage in sexual behaviors that place themselves and others at risk for HIV infections. <ref> Crepaz, Nicole, Marks, Gary; Liau, Adrian; Mullins, Mary M; Aupont, Latrina W; Marshall, Khiya J; Jacobs, Elizabeth D; Wolitski, Richard J; (2009) “Prevalence of unprotected anal intercourse among HIV-diagnosed MSM in the United States: a meta-analysis”, AIDS, 80, 23:1617-1629 </ref>


A 2008 CDC study found that one in five (19%) of MSM in major U.S. cities were infected with HIV and almost half (44%) were unaware of their infection. <ref> Center for Disease Control. “HIV among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM)” (2010). Department of Health and Human Services. </ref>
A 2006 study found that men who reported 4 or more male sexual partners were at increased risk of HIV infection. Study participants who reported amphetamine or heavy alcohol use before sex were more likely to have HIV or other sexually transmitted infections. <ref> BA Koblin. “Risk factors for HIV infection among men who have sex with men” (2006) AIDS, 20. 731-739. </ref>

⚫
The HIV virus is more easily transmitted through unprotected anal sex than through unprotected vaginal sex.<ref> http://www.avert.org/men-sex-men.htm </ref> A 2004 study of HIV positive men found men who had unprotected [[anal intercourse]] (UAI) in the past year were put at risk for contracting the virus. The study found that men who reported engaging in UAI had increased from 30% in 1996 to 42% in 2000. Almost half of all men who participated in UAI in 1996-1997 said that they had not known the HIV status of their partner <ref> Dodds, J.P., D.E. Mercey, J.V. Parry & A.M. Johnson. (2004) Increasing risk behaviour and high levels of undiagnosed HIV infection in a community sample of homosexual men. Sex Transm Infect; 80:236-240 </ref> Studies have found that risk factors for HIV infection are anal intercourse with a man in the past 12 months, having unstable housing, and having inhaled [[alkyl nitrites]] (“poppers.”) <ref> Mimiaga, M., Reisner, S., Cranston, K., Isenberg, D., Bright, D., Daffin, G., Bland, S., & Driscoll, M. (2009). Sexual mixing patterns and partner characteristics of black msm in Massachusetts at increased risk for HIV infection and transmission. Journal of Urban Health, 86(4), 602-623. </ref> A 2009 study on the prevalence of unprotected anal intercourse among HIV-diagnosed MSM found that majority protected their partners during sexual activity, but a sizeable number of men continue to engage in sexual behaviors that place themselves and others at risk for HIV infections. <ref> Crepaz, Nicole, Marks, Gary; Liau, Adrian; Mullins, Mary M; Aupont, Latrina W; Marshall, Khiya J; Jacobs, Elizabeth D; Wolitski, Richard J; (2009) “Prevalence of unprotected anal intercourse among HIV-diagnosed MSM in the United States: a meta-analysis”, AIDS, 80, 23:1617-1629 </ref>


===Condom fatigue===
===Condom fatigue===
Line 33: Line 32:
The Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) published a paper in 2005 offering specific policy solutions for alleviating the spread of the HIV virus in the MSM population for specific regions around the world. They pointed to “a profound lack of knowledge” and stigma about sexual identity as worldwide barriers to preventing transmission and encouraging those infection to seek treatment. The UNAIDS program has recommended that the South African government implement “sex positive” policies to reduce societal stigma around homosexuality and promote the use of water-based lubricants. Particularly in Morocco, the program has advocated distributing condoms in prisons. In recent years, the Chinese government has begun to acknowledge the sexuality of its constituents. According to UNAIDS, the “Government has made significant progress in recognizing the issue of male-to-male sexual health and HIV.” In Latin America, outreach to rural areas is critical to ensuring care to all individuals. The United Nations also emphasizes a focus on LGBT populations that are most vulnerable in Latin American nations. Jamaica, as in many countries across the globe, homosexuality is outlawed so there are unique challenges to HIV prevention in the MSM community. The UN is trying to implement community-based strategies in Jamaica while still ensuring the anonymity of the people served. In Norway, UNAIDS has observed an increasing number of MSM who have untreated sexually transmitted infections, and their emphasis is on promoting condom use within the gay community. Despite Canada’s “liberal and progressive” reputation on the world stage, HIV-related stigma is still related to the gay community. The United Nations believes the United States needs to recognize sexual educations as a fundamental human right. Additionally, better research on MSM in the U.S. would positively affect funding for HIV prevention and treatment programs. <ref> “Men who have sex with men, HIV prevention and care” Geneva, November 2005. UNAIDS. http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/jc1233-msm-meetingreport_en.pdf </ref>
The Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) published a paper in 2005 offering specific policy solutions for alleviating the spread of the HIV virus in the MSM population for specific regions around the world. They pointed to “a profound lack of knowledge” and stigma about sexual identity as worldwide barriers to preventing transmission and encouraging those infection to seek treatment. The UNAIDS program has recommended that the South African government implement “sex positive” policies to reduce societal stigma around homosexuality and promote the use of water-based lubricants. Particularly in Morocco, the program has advocated distributing condoms in prisons. In recent years, the Chinese government has begun to acknowledge the sexuality of its constituents. According to UNAIDS, the “Government has made significant progress in recognizing the issue of male-to-male sexual health and HIV.” In Latin America, outreach to rural areas is critical to ensuring care to all individuals. The United Nations also emphasizes a focus on LGBT populations that are most vulnerable in Latin American nations. Jamaica, as in many countries across the globe, homosexuality is outlawed so there are unique challenges to HIV prevention in the MSM community. The UN is trying to implement community-based strategies in Jamaica while still ensuring the anonymity of the people served. In Norway, UNAIDS has observed an increasing number of MSM who have untreated sexually transmitted infections, and their emphasis is on promoting condom use within the gay community. Despite Canada’s “liberal and progressive” reputation on the world stage, HIV-related stigma is still related to the gay community. The United Nations believes the United States needs to recognize sexual educations as a fundamental human right. Additionally, better research on MSM in the U.S. would positively affect funding for HIV prevention and treatment programs. <ref> “Men who have sex with men, HIV prevention and care” Geneva, November 2005. UNAIDS. http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/jc1233-msm-meetingreport_en.pdf </ref>


===Partner Selection===
UNAIDS has observed “sero-selection” (choosing a partner based on their HIV status) becoming increasingly prevalent in partner choice and transmission in the United States. <ref> Men who have sex with men, HIV prevention and care” Geneva, November 2005. UNAIDS. http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/jc1233-msm-meetingreport_en.pdf </ref> Many HIV-infected individuals do not seek treatment until late in their infection (an estimated 42% do not seek treatment until they begin to experience signs of illness.) Furthermore, a significant portion of individuals who are tested for HIV never return for their test results. Studies have advocated for funding and implementation of HIV tests that can be administered outside medical settings since 2003. Home testing is considered especially important because 8%-39% of partners tested in studies of partner counseling and referral services (PCRS) were found to have previously undiagnosed HIV infection that their partner was unaware of. <ref> R. S. Janssen, M.D., I. M. Onorato, M.D., R. O. Valdiserri, M.D., T. M. Durham, M.S., W. P. Nichols, M.P.A., E. M. Seiler, M.P.A., H. W. Jaffe, M.D. “Advancing HIV Prevention: New Strategies for a Changing Epidemic -- United States, 2003” (2003) The Body Pro: HIV Resource for Health Professionals. </ref> In October 2012, OraQuick, the first rapid HIV home-testing kit, went on sale for $40. The test is nearly 100% accurate when it predicts HIV-negative results for HIV-negative individuals. However, for HIV-positive individuals that are not yet producing the antibodies detected by the test, it produces a false negative 93% of the time. Although the manufacturer, OraSure Technologies, is not advertising the test for use for selection of partners, experts have suggested that it may prevention unprotected sexual contact with partners that lie about or are unaware of their HIV status. <ref> McNeil Jr., Donald G. “Another Use for Rapid Home H.I.V. Test: Screening Sexual Partners.” The New York Times. October 5th, 2012. </ref>
UNAIDS has observed “sero-selection” (choosing a partner based on their HIV status) becoming increasingly prevalent in partner choice and transmission in the United States. <ref> Men who have sex with men, HIV prevention and care” Geneva, November 2005. UNAIDS. http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/jc1233-msm-meetingreport_en.pdf </ref> A 2008 CDC study found that one in five (19%) of MSM in major U.S. cities were infected with HIV and almost half (44%) were unaware of their infection. <ref> Center for Disease Control. “HIV among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM)” (2010). Department of Health and Human Services. </ref> Many HIV-infected individuals do not seek treatment until late in their infection (an estimated 42% do not seek treatment until they begin to experience signs of illness.) Furthermore, a significant portion of individuals who are tested for HIV never return for their test results. Studies have advocated for funding and implementation of HIV tests that can be administered outside medical settings since 2003. Home testing is considered especially important because 8%-39% of partners tested in studies of partner counseling and referral services (PCRS) were found to have previously undiagnosed HIV infection that their partner was unaware of. <ref> R. S. Janssen, M.D., I. M. Onorato, M.D., R. O. Valdiserri, M.D., T. M. Durham, M.S., W. P. Nichols, M.P.A., E. M. Seiler, M.P.A., H. W. Jaffe, M.D. “Advancing HIV Prevention: New Strategies for a Changing Epidemic -- United States, 2003” (2003) The Body Pro: HIV Resource for Health Professionals. </ref> In October 2012, OraQuick, the first rapid HIV home-testing kit, went on sale for $40. The test is nearly 100% accurate when it predicts HIV-negative results for HIV-negative individuals. However, for HIV-positive individuals that are not yet producing the antibodies detected by the test, it produces a false negative 93% of the time. Although the manufacturer, OraSure Technologies, is not advertising the test for use for selection of partners, experts have suggested that it may prevention unprotected sexual contact with partners that lie about or are unaware of their HIV status. <ref> McNeil Jr., Donald G. “Another Use for Rapid Home H.I.V. Test: Screening Sexual Partners.” The New York Times. October 5th, 2012. </ref>


A recent study examined how the Oraquick test would identify the behavior of 27 self-identified gay men who frequently had unprotected sex with acquaintances. The researchers gave each participant 16 tests to use over the course of three months. 101 potential partners were tested, and 10 were positive. None of the participants had sex with someone who tested positive. 23 other potential partners refused testing and left the encounter. 2 men admitted they were HIV-positive. Most participants said they would continue using home tests after the study ended to test potential partners on their own. The researchers considered home testing to be an effective prevention method for high-risk groups. <ref> Carballo-Dieguez, Alex, Timothy Frasca, Ivan Balan, Mobolaji Ibitoye, and Curtis Dolezal. “Use of a Rapid HIV Home Test Prevents HIV Exposure in a High Risk Sample of Men Who Have Sex With Men.” AIDS and Behavior. Volume 16, Number 7 (2012), 1753-1760. </ref> However, the test’s $40 cost is considered a major deterrent to commonplace partner testing.
A recent study examined how the Oraquick test would identify the behavior of 27 self-identified gay men who frequently had unprotected sex with acquaintances. The researchers gave each participant 16 tests to use over the course of three months. 101 potential partners were tested, and 10 were positive. None of the participants had sex with someone who tested positive. 23 other potential partners refused testing and left the encounter. 2 men admitted they were HIV-positive. Most participants said they would continue using home tests after the study ended to test potential partners on their own. The researchers considered home testing to be an effective prevention method for high-risk groups. <ref> Carballo-Dieguez, Alex, Timothy Frasca, Ivan Balan, Mobolaji Ibitoye, and Curtis Dolezal. “Use of a Rapid HIV Home Test Prevents HIV Exposure in a High Risk Sample of Men Who Have Sex With Men.” AIDS and Behavior. Volume 16, Number 7 (2012), 1753-1760. </ref> However, the test’s $40 cost is considered a major deterrent to commonplace partner testing.
<ref> McNeil Jr., Donald G. “Another Use for Rapid Home H.I.V. Test: Screening Sexual Partners.” The New York Times. October 5th, 2012. </ref>
<ref> McNeil Jr., Donald G. “Another Use for Rapid Home H.I.V. Test: Screening Sexual Partners.” The New York Times. October 5th, 2012. </ref>


==See Also==
*[[ACT UP]]
*[[Gay Men's Health Crisis]]


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 04:31, 26 October 2012

Since reports of the HIV virus began to emerge in the United States in the 1980's, the HIV epidemic has frequently been linked to gay, bisexual, and other Men who have sex with men [MSM] by epidemiologists and medical professionals. The first official report on the virus was published by the CDC on June 5th, 1981 and detailed the cases of five young gay men who were hospitalised with serious infections. [1] A month later, The New York Times reported that 41 "homosexuals" had been diagnosed with Kaposi’s Sarcoma, and eight had died less than 24 months after the diagnosis was made. [2] By 1982, the condition was referred to in the medical community as GRID (Gay-related immune deficiency), "gay cancer", and "gay compromise syndrome." [3] It was not until July 1982 that AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) was suggested to replace GRID. [4] and it was not until September that the CDC first used the AIDS acronym in an official report. [5]

It now well-understood that HIV does not only affect the gay community and can be spread in a variety of ways, but the HIV virus still severely affects MSM across the globe. MSM are only a small percentage of the U.S. population, but they are consistently the population group most affected by the HIV/AIDS virus and are the largest proportion of American citizens with an AIDS diagnosis who have died. [6] The United Nations estimates that 2 to 20% of MSM are infected with HIV, depending on the region they live in. [7]

MSM as a Behavioral Category

Main article: Men who have sex with men

Men who have sex with men (abbreviated as MSM, also known as males who have sex with males) are male persons who engage in sexual activity with members of the same sex, regardless of how they personally identify themselves. Many men choose not to (or cannot for other reasons) accept sexual identities of homosexual or bisexual.[8] MSM is often used in medical literature and social research to describe such men as a group for research studies without considering issues of self-identification. The terms MSM and women who have sex with women "WSW" have been used in medical scholarship since at least 1990. [9]

Demographics

The United Nations estimates that 6-20% of men worldwide have sex with other men at some point during their lifetime. [10]The Center for Disease Control estimates that men who have sex with men represent about 2% of the American population. [11] A 2007 study estimated that they are 7.1 million men who have sex with men (MSM) in the United States, or 6.4% of the overall population. Of these men, 71% are White, 15.9% are Hispanic, and 8.9% are black. The percentage of men who were MSM varied by state, with the lowest percentage in South Dakota (3.3%) and the highest in the District of Columbia (13.2%). However, the same study found that 57% of men who have sex with men identify as bisexual or straight [12] A 2010 Study estimated that 2.6% had engaged in same-sex behavior in the past year, 4.0% in the past five years, and 7.0% at any point in their lifetime. [13]

HIV Infection Rates

The CDC reports that in 2009, MSM accounted for 61% of all new HIV infections and that MSM who had a history of injection drug use accounted for an additional 3% of new infections. Among the approximately 784,701 people living with an HIV diagnosis, 396,810 (51%) were MSM. About 48% of MSM living with an HIV diagnosis were white, 30% were black/African American, and 19% were Hispanic or Latino. Although the majority of MSM are white, non-whites accounted for 54% of new infections HIV related MSM infections in 2008. [14] A recent study estimated that for every 100,000 MSM, 692 will be diagnosed will HIV. This makes MSM 60 times more likely to contract the virus than other men and 54 times more likely than women. [15]

Risk Factors

The HIV virus is more easily transmitted through unprotected anal intercourse than through unprotected vaginal intercourse [16]and men who report unprotected receptive anal intercourse are at increased risk of contracting the HIV virus. [17] A 2004 study of HIV positive men found men who had unprotected anal intercourse (UAI) in the past year were put at risk for contracting the virus. The study found that men who reported engaging in UAI had increased from 30% in 1996 to 42% in 2000. Almost half of all men who participated in UAI in 1996-1997 said that they had not known the HIV status of their partner [18] Studies have found that risk factors for HIV infection are anal intercourse with a man in the past 12 months, having unstable housing, and having inhaled alkyl nitrites (“poppers.”) [19] A 2009 study on the prevalence of unprotected anal intercourse among HIV-diagnosed MSM found that majority protected their partners during sexual activity, but a sizeable number of men continue to engage in sexual behaviors that place themselves and others at risk for HIV infections. [20]

A 2006 study found that men who reported 4 or more male sexual partners were at increased risk of HIV infection. Study participants who reported amphetamine or heavy alcohol use before sex were more likely to have HIV or other sexually transmitted infections. [21]

Condom fatigue

Main article: Condom fatigue

Although HIV transmission rates fell throughout the 1990's, they hit a plateau at the end of the decade. The increasing rates of sexually transmitted diseases in major cities in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom led to reports in the gay and mainstream media of "condom fatigue" and "AIDS optimism" as causes of the new "laxness" in safe sex practices. [22] This is supported by research on the tendency of couples (heterosexual or homosexual) to use condoms less over time. [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] A 2010 study found that gay and bisexual men choose to have unprotected sex for a variety of reasons and cannot be generalized. Erectile dysfunction, mental health problems and depression, lack of communication or intimacy, and a subculture of unprotected sex were all listed as reasons why men had sex without condoms voluntarily. [29]

A Kaiser Family Foundation study indicated that fewer Americans view HIV as a top health priority today compared to ten years ago. In 1996, 25% of Americans viewed HIV as an “urgent problem” to their community but in 2009, only 17% listed it as “urgent.” The percentage of 18-29 year olds that were personally concerned about contracting the virus dropped from 28% in 1995 to 17% in 2009 [30] A study conducted in 6 major U.S. cities found that only one in 4 teenage men who have sex with men believed they were personally at risk for contracting the HIV virus. [31]

Prevention

The Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) published a paper in 2005 offering specific policy solutions for alleviating the spread of the HIV virus in the MSM population for specific regions around the world. They pointed to “a profound lack of knowledge” and stigma about sexual identity as worldwide barriers to preventing transmission and encouraging those infection to seek treatment. The UNAIDS program has recommended that the South African government implement “sex positive” policies to reduce societal stigma around homosexuality and promote the use of water-based lubricants. Particularly in Morocco, the program has advocated distributing condoms in prisons. In recent years, the Chinese government has begun to acknowledge the sexuality of its constituents. According to UNAIDS, the “Government has made significant progress in recognizing the issue of male-to-male sexual health and HIV.” In Latin America, outreach to rural areas is critical to ensuring care to all individuals. The United Nations also emphasizes a focus on LGBT populations that are most vulnerable in Latin American nations. Jamaica, as in many countries across the globe, homosexuality is outlawed so there are unique challenges to HIV prevention in the MSM community. The UN is trying to implement community-based strategies in Jamaica while still ensuring the anonymity of the people served. In Norway, UNAIDS has observed an increasing number of MSM who have untreated sexually transmitted infections, and their emphasis is on promoting condom use within the gay community. Despite Canada’s “liberal and progressive” reputation on the world stage, HIV-related stigma is still related to the gay community. The United Nations believes the United States needs to recognize sexual educations as a fundamental human right. Additionally, better research on MSM in the U.S. would positively affect funding for HIV prevention and treatment programs. [32]

Partner Selection

UNAIDS has observed “sero-selection” (choosing a partner based on their HIV status) becoming increasingly prevalent in partner choice and transmission in the United States. [33] A 2008 CDC study found that one in five (19%) of MSM in major U.S. cities were infected with HIV and almost half (44%) were unaware of their infection. [34] Many HIV-infected individuals do not seek treatment until late in their infection (an estimated 42% do not seek treatment until they begin to experience signs of illness.) Furthermore, a significant portion of individuals who are tested for HIV never return for their test results. Studies have advocated for funding and implementation of HIV tests that can be administered outside medical settings since 2003. Home testing is considered especially important because 8%-39% of partners tested in studies of partner counseling and referral services (PCRS) were found to have previously undiagnosed HIV infection that their partner was unaware of. [35] In October 2012, OraQuick, the first rapid HIV home-testing kit, went on sale for $40. The test is nearly 100% accurate when it predicts HIV-negative results for HIV-negative individuals. However, for HIV-positive individuals that are not yet producing the antibodies detected by the test, it produces a false negative 93% of the time. Although the manufacturer, OraSure Technologies, is not advertising the test for use for selection of partners, experts have suggested that it may prevention unprotected sexual contact with partners that lie about or are unaware of their HIV status. [36]

A recent study examined how the Oraquick test would identify the behavior of 27 self-identified gay men who frequently had unprotected sex with acquaintances. The researchers gave each participant 16 tests to use over the course of three months. 101 potential partners were tested, and 10 were positive. None of the participants had sex with someone who tested positive. 23 other potential partners refused testing and left the encounter. 2 men admitted they were HIV-positive. Most participants said they would continue using home tests after the study ended to test potential partners on their own. The researchers considered home testing to be an effective prevention method for high-risk groups. [37] However, the test’s $40 cost is considered a major deterrent to commonplace partner testing. [38]

See Also

References

  1. ^ CDC (1981, 5th June) 'Pheumocystis Pneumonia - Los Angeles', MMWR, Vol. 30 No. 21.
  2. ^ The New York Times (1981, 3rd July) "Rare cancer seen in 41 homosexuals" http://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/03/us/rare-cancer-seen-in-41-homosexuals.html?&pagewanted=2
  3. ^ Oswald, G.A, et al (1982) 'Attempted immune stimulation in the "gay compromise syndrome"'. BMJ, 1982 October 16; 285(6348): 1082.
  4. ^ Grmek, M.D. (1990) 'History of AIDS: Emergence and origin of a modern pandemic', New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
  5. ^ Grmek, M.D. (1990) 'History of AIDS: Emergence and origin of a modern pandemic', New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
  6. ^ Center for Disease Control. “HIV among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM)” (2010). Department of Health and Human Services.
  7. ^ Men who have sex with men, HIV prevention and care” Geneva, November 2005. UNAIDS. http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/jc1233-msm-meetingreport_en.pdf
  8. ^ "UNAIDS: Men who have sex with men" (PDF). UNAIDS. Retrieved October 24, 2012.
  9. ^ Young, Rebecca M. and Ilan H. Meyer. “The Trouble With “MSM” and “WSW”: Erasure of the Sexual-Minority Person in Public Health Discourse.” Am J Public Health. (2005) 95: 1144–1149.
  10. ^ “Men who have sex with men, HIV prevention and care” Geneva, November 2005. UNAIDS. http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/jc1233-msm-meetingreport_en.pdf
  11. ^ Center for Disease Control. “HIV among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM)” (2010). Department of Health and Human Services.
  12. ^ Lieb, S., Fallon, S., Friedman, S., Thompson, D., Gates, G., Liberti, T., & Malow, R. (2011). Statewide estimation of racial/ethnic populations of men who have sex with men in the U.S. PubMed, 126(1), 60-72.
  13. ^ Purcell, D.W., C Johnson, A Lansky, J Prejean, R Stein, P Denning, Z Gaul, H Weinstock, J Su, & N Crepaz. “Calculating HIV and Syphilis Rates for Risk Groups: Estimating the National Population Size of Men Who Have Sex with Men” Latebreaker #22896 Presented March 10, 2010. 2010 National STD Prevention Conference; Atlanta, GA.
  14. ^ Center for Disease Control. “HIV among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM)” (2010). Department of Health and Human Services.
  15. ^ Purcell, D.W., C Johnson, A Lansky, J Prejean, R Stein, P Denning, Z Gaul, H Weinstock, J Su, & N Crepaz. Latebreaker #22896 Presented March 10, 2010. “Calculating HIV and Syphilis Rates for Risk Groups: Estimating the National Population Size of Men Who Have Sex with Men” 2010 National STD Prevention Conference; Atlanta, GA.
  16. ^ http://www.avert.org/men-sex-men.htm
  17. ^ BA Koblin. “Risk factors for HIV infection among men who have sex with men” (2006) AIDS, 20. 731-739.
  18. ^ Dodds, J.P., D.E. Mercey, J.V. Parry & A.M. Johnson. (2004) Increasing risk behaviour and high levels of undiagnosed HIV infection in a community sample of homosexual men. Sex Transm Infect; 80:236-240
  19. ^ Mimiaga, M., Reisner, S., Cranston, K., Isenberg, D., Bright, D., Daffin, G., Bland, S., & Driscoll, M. (2009). Sexual mixing patterns and partner characteristics of black msm in Massachusetts at increased risk for HIV infection and transmission. Journal of Urban Health, 86(4), 602-623.
  20. ^ Crepaz, Nicole, Marks, Gary; Liau, Adrian; Mullins, Mary M; Aupont, Latrina W; Marshall, Khiya J; Jacobs, Elizabeth D; Wolitski, Richard J; (2009) “Prevalence of unprotected anal intercourse among HIV-diagnosed MSM in the United States: a meta-analysis”, AIDS, 80, 23:1617-1629
  21. ^ BA Koblin. “Risk factors for HIV infection among men who have sex with men” (2006) AIDS, 20. 731-739.
  22. ^ Adam, Barry D., Winston Husbands, James Murray, and John Maxwell. (2005): AIDS optimism, condom fatigue, or self‐esteem? Explaining unsafe sex among gay and bisexual men, Journal of Sex Research, 42:3, 238-248
  23. ^ Appleby, P., Miller, L., & Rothspan, S. (1999). The paradox of trust for male couples. Personal Relationships, 6, 81-93.
  24. ^ Bochow, M. (1998). The importance of contextualizing research. In M.Wright, B. R. S. Rosser, & O. de Zwart (Eds.), New international direc- tionsinHIVpreventionfor gayandbisexualmen.NewYork:Harrington Park Press.
  25. ^ Cusick, L., & Rhodes, T. (2000). Sustaining sexual safety in relationships. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 2(4), 473-487
  26. ^ Diaz, R., & Ayala, G. (1999). Love, passion and rebellion. Culture, Health &Sexuality, 1(3),277-293
  27. ^ Hays, R., Kegeles, S., & Coates, T. (1997). Unprotected sex and HIV risk- taking among young gay men within boyfriend relationships. AIDS Educationand Prevention, 9(4), 314-329.
  28. ^ Middelthon, A. L. (2001). Interpretations of condom use and nonuse among young Norwegian gay men. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 15(1), 58-83.
  29. ^ Adam, Barry D., Winston Husbands, James Murray, and John Maxwell. (2005): AIDS optimism, condom fatigue, or self‐esteem? Explaining unsafe sex among gay and bisexual men, Journal of Sex Research, 42:3, 238-248
  30. ^ Kaiser Family Foundation. (2009) “2009 Survey of Americans on HIV/AIDS: summary of findings on the domestic epidemic.”
  31. ^ MacKellar DA, Valleroy LA, Secura GM, et al. (2007) Perceptions of lifetime risk and actual risk for acquiring HIV among young men who have sex with men. AIDS Behav:263-270.
  32. ^ “Men who have sex with men, HIV prevention and care” Geneva, November 2005. UNAIDS. http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/jc1233-msm-meetingreport_en.pdf
  33. ^ Men who have sex with men, HIV prevention and care” Geneva, November 2005. UNAIDS. http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/jc1233-msm-meetingreport_en.pdf
  34. ^ Center for Disease Control. “HIV among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM)” (2010). Department of Health and Human Services.
  35. ^ R. S. Janssen, M.D., I. M. Onorato, M.D., R. O. Valdiserri, M.D., T. M. Durham, M.S., W. P. Nichols, M.P.A., E. M. Seiler, M.P.A., H. W. Jaffe, M.D. “Advancing HIV Prevention: New Strategies for a Changing Epidemic -- United States, 2003” (2003) The Body Pro: HIV Resource for Health Professionals.
  36. ^ McNeil Jr., Donald G. “Another Use for Rapid Home H.I.V. Test: Screening Sexual Partners.” The New York Times. October 5th, 2012.
  37. ^ Carballo-Dieguez, Alex, Timothy Frasca, Ivan Balan, Mobolaji Ibitoye, and Curtis Dolezal. “Use of a Rapid HIV Home Test Prevents HIV Exposure in a High Risk Sample of Men Who Have Sex With Men.” AIDS and Behavior. Volume 16, Number 7 (2012), 1753-1760.
  38. ^ McNeil Jr., Donald G. “Another Use for Rapid Home H.I.V. Test: Screening Sexual Partners.” The New York Times. October 5th, 2012.
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