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| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision = ''[[Boidinia]]''<br>
| subdivision = ''[[Boidinia]]''<br>
''[[Cystangium]]''<br>
''[[Gloeopeniophorella]]''<br>
''[[Lactarius]]''<br>
''[[Lactarius]]''<br>
''[[Lactifluus]]''<br>
''[[Multifurca]]''<br>
''[[Multifurca]]''<br>
''[[Pseudoxenasma]]''<br>
''[[Pseudoxenasma]]''<br>
''[[Russula]]'' <br>
''[[Russula]]''
''[[Zelleromyces]]''
}}
}}
The '''Russulaceae''' are a [[family (biology)|family]] of [[fungi]] in the order [[Russulales]]. According to a 2008 estimate, the family contains 1243 species.<ref name=Kirk2008>{{cite book |author=Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA. |title=Dictionary of the Fungi. |edition=10th |publisher=CABI |location=Wallingford |year=2008|page=609|isbn=978-0-85199-826-8}}</ref> Its species typically have [[basidiocarp|fruit bodies]] with friable, chalk-like [[stipe (mycology)|stalks]], that break with a distinct crack, somewhat like a carrot but with porous flesh (see below). Microscopically, the cells are not all long thin [[hypha]]e, which would provide strength and more fibrous appearance when broken. Instead, the flesh contains also many large spherical cells ("sphaerocysts"), which give rise to the macroscopic consistency.
The '''Russulaceae''' are a [[family (biology)|family]] of [[fungi]] in the order [[Russulales]]. Besides some species of [[Corticioid fungi|crust fungi]], they comprise some well-known [[genus|genera]] of [[Lamella (mycology)|gilled]], [[ectomycorrhiza]]l [[mushroom]]s such as the "brittlegrills" (genus ''[[Russula]]'') and the "milk-caps" (genera ''[[Lactarius]]'' and ''[[Lactifluus]]''). These [[agaric]]s are easy to recognise by the brittle, friable flesh of their [[basidiocarp|fruit bodies]]. Roughly 1,900 species are described in the family.


==Systematics and taxonomy==
==Genera==
The family is dominated by two well-known [[genus|genera]]:


Historically, the gilled mushrooms of the family Russulaceae were classified with other gilled mushroom species in the [[Agaricales]],<ref name=Singer1986/> but microscopical studies of [[Basidiospore|spore]] and [[Trama (mycology)|trama]] features had already raised the possibility that they were more closely related with some "lower fungi" with other, e.g. [[Corticioid fungi|crust-like]] fruitbody types.<ref name=Donk1971/><ref name=Oberwinkler1977/> Later, the use of [[molecular phylogenetics]] confirmed that they are part of a distinct lineage, first termed "russuloid clade"<ref name=Larsson2003/><ref name=Hibbett2001/> and today classified as order [[Russulales]].<ref name=Hibbett2007/> The [[monophyly]] of the family Russulaceae is well supported,<ref name=Larsson2003/><ref name=Larsson2007/><ref name="Miller2006"/> and its [[sister group]] within the order seem to be the [[Gloeocystidiellaceae]].<ref name=Larsson2007/>
*The genus '''''[[Russula]]''''', sometimes known as '''brittlegills''', comprises around 750 species, the majority of which are quite difficult to identify. They have splitting gills and do not exude a milky substance at cut surfaces, contrarily to the genus ''[[Lactarius]]''. There are several edible species (''[[Russula vesca]]'', ''[[Russula virescens]]'' or ''[[Russula aurata]]'').


{{cladogram|align=left|
* The genus '''''[[Lactarius]]''''', or '''milk-caps''', characterised by caps and stalks that exude a milky substance ("[[latex]]") when pressed or cut and lactiferous, [[gloeoplerous]] [[hypha]]e, is a large genus of [[mycorrhiza]]l fungi. When cut, the mushroom exudes a kind of milky liquid. This liquid may be orange, red, lilac, white or yellow, and may develop its final colour only after exposure to air. Certain ones, such as ''[[Lactarius deliciosus|L. deliciosus]]'' are edible and delicious, appreciated in Mediterranean areas.
{{clade| style=font-size:90%;line-height:90%;
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Lactarius]]''
|2=''[[Multifurca]]''
}}
|2=''[[Russula]]''
}}
|2=''[[Lactifluus]]''}}
|2=basal [[Corticioid fungi|corticioid]] species}}
|caption=Phylogeny of the Russulaceae.<ref name=Buyck2008/><ref name=Larsson2007/>
}}


A 2008 molecular phylogenetic study clarified the relationships within the family.<ref name=Buyck2008/> The authors demonstrated that it contains four distinct genera of mushroom-forming fungi: ''[[Lactarius]]'' with ca. 350<ref name=kirk2014/><ref name=ugent-lactifluus/>, ''[[Lactifluus]]'' with ca. 150<ref name=kirk2014/><ref name=ugent-lactifluus/>, ''[[Multifurca]]'' with six,<ref name=Buyck2008/><ref name="Lebel2013"/> and ''[[Russula]]'' with ca. 1000 known species.<ref name=kirk2014/>
Other genera in the Russulaceae include ''[[Boidinia]]'', ''[[Cystangium]]'', ''[[Multifurca]]'', and ''[[Pseudoxenasma]]''.


[[File:Zelleromyces_cinnabarinus_62064.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Zelleromyces cinnabarinus]]'', a species with closed fruitbodies that phylogenetically belongs to the genus ''Lactarius''.]]
==Distinctive flesh consistency==
{{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=left|image1=Milchlinge-Fleisch.jpg|image2=Pilzfleisch.jpeg|width=200|caption1=Broken stem of ''[[Lactarius vellereus]]''|caption2=Broken stem of ''[[Suillus variegatus]]''}}
Due to the presence of large spherical cells which can be seen under the microscope, an important characteristic to distinguish the Russulaceae from other types of mushrooms is the consistency of the stipe. In ''Russula'' and ''Lactarius'', this breaks like the flesh of an apple, whilst in most other families it only breaks into fibres. The pictures compare the broken stipe of a ''[[Lactarius vellereus]]'', with that of ''[[Suillus variegatus]]'', a member of the [[Boletaceae]].


Genera with closed (angiocarpous) fruitbodies within the family are in fact not distinct groups; instead, ''[[Arcangeliella]]'', ''[[Gastrolactarius]]'', and ''[[Zelleromyces]]'' are phylogenetically part of ''Lactarius'', while ''[[Elasmomyces]]'', ''[[Gymnomyces]]'', ''[[Macowanites]]'', and ''[[Martellia]]'' belong to ''Russula''.<ref name=Buyck2010/><ref name=ugent-russulaceae/><ref name="verbeken2013"/>
==Parasites==

Members of both ''[[Lactarius]]'' and ''Russula'' are subject to parasitization by the [[Lobster mushroom]] (''Hypomyces lactifluorum''). This [[ascomycete]] replaces the flesh of the host mushroom, rendering it into a choice edible, though it can be peppery if the host is a species like ''[[Lactarius piperatus]]''.
The [[Corticioid fungi|crust-like]] genera ''[[Boidinia]]'', ''[[Gloeopeniophorella]]'', and ''[[Pseudoxenasma]]'' are also currently ascribed to the family Russulaceae.<ref name=kirk2014/><ref name=Larsson2007/> However, at least the genus ''Boidinia'' appears to be polyphyletic, with some species not belonging to Russulaceae phylogenetically.<ref name=Larsson2007/><ref name="Miller2006"/>

Altogether, the Russulaceae currently contain ca. 1,900 described species.<ref name=kirk2014/>

==Description==

===Macroscorpical characters===

{{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=left|image1=Milchlinge-Fleisch.jpg|image2=Pilzfleisch.jpeg|width=200|caption2=The stipe of Russulaceae (above: ''[[Lactifluus vellereus]]'') is brittle and breaks easily, while that of other agarics (below: ''[[Suillus variegatus]]'') is mostly fibrous.}}

The [[basidiocarp|fruitbodies]] of the [[agaric]] genera typically have brittle [[trama|flesh]]. This means that their caps, gills, and [[stipe (mycology)|stalks]] in general break with a distinct crack, somewhat like an [[apple]] or a [[watermelon]], as opposed to the fibrous flesh of most other mushrooms (see image). Microscopically, the flesh is made up of many large spherical cells ("sphaerocysts") in addition to the usual [[hypha]]e, which give rise to the brittle consistency. In addition to the [[agaric]] fruitbodies, several species in ''Lactarius'' and ''Russula'' have angiocarpous (closed) fruitbodies, which are sometimes [[Sporocarp (fungi)|hypogeous]]. [[Pleurotoid fungi|Pleurotoid]] (laterally stiped) fruitbodies occur in some, mainly tropical species of ''Lactifluus'' and ''Russula''.

===Microscopical characters===

Russulaceae are characterised by [[basidiospores]] with an [[Amyloid (mycology)|amyloid]] stain reaction.

[[File:Variable_Russula_(1050205306).jpg|thumb|right|Spores of ''[[Russula cyanoxantha]]'', showing the [[Amyloid (mycology)|amyloid]] ornamentation which is typical for Russulaceae.]]

===Genera distinction===

*''[[Lactarius]]'' is characterised by caps and stipes that exude a milky substance ("[[latex]]") when pressed or cut and lactiferous [[hypha]]e. This latex may be orange, red, lilac, white or yellow, and may develop its final colour only after exposure to air.

*''[[Lactifluus]]'' is very similar to ''Lactarius'', although genetically distinct. It has a more tropical distribution, although some well-known species also occur in the temperate zone.<ref name="verbeken2013"/><ref name=ugent-lactifluus/>

*''[[Multifurca]]'' is morphologically intermediate between ''Lactarius'' and ''Russula''.<ref name=Buyck2008/>

*''[[Russula]]'' fruitbodies often have colourful caps, contrarily to the mostly white stipe. Although the genus is relatively easy to recognise, species identification is quite difficult.

==Distribution==
The Russulaceae as a whole have a worldwide distribution, but patterns differ among genera: ''[[Russula]]'' is the most widespread genus, found on every continent except Antarctica. ''[[Lactarius]]'' is mainly known from the north temperate zone, but some species also occur in Africa, Central and South America, and Australia.<ref name="verbeken2013"/> ''[[Lactifluus]]'' has a more tropical distribution than ''Lactarius'', with most species known from tropical Africa, Asia, South America, and Australasia.<ref name="verbeken2013"/> ''[[Multifurca]]'' is the rarest genus, only known from some locations in North and Central America, Asia, and Australasia.<ref name=Buyck2008/><ref name="Lebel2013"/>

All corticioid species described in the Russulaceae so far were found in the Northern temperate zone.

==Ecology==

The four genera ''Lactarius'', ''Lactifluus'', ''Multifurca'' and ''Russula'' form one of several lineages of [[ectomycorrhiza]]l fungi. They form a root symbiosis with trees and shrubs of several plant families, especially the [[Betulaceae]], [[Fagaceae]], [[Pinaceae]] and [[Salicaceae]] in the north temperate zone, the [[Dipterocarpaceae]], [[Fabaceae]] and [[Nyctaginaceae]] in the Tropics, and the [[Nothofagaceae]] in the south temperate zone. Some species are quite specialised in their association, for example ''Lactarius'' and ''Russula'' species growing with ''[[Cistus]]'' shrubs in the Mediterranean region.

[[File:2012-01-03_Pseudoxenasma_verrucisporum_Larsson_%26_Hjortstam_192883.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Pseudoxenasma verrucisporum]]'' is a crust-forming, wood-decaying species in the Russulaceae.]]

The basal, corticioid species of the family are [[saprotrophic]], [[Wood-decaying fungus|wood-decaying fungi]].<ref name=Larsson2003/>

Russulaceae fruitbodies are subject to parasitisation by some other fungi, e.g. the genus ''[[Asterophora]]'', or ''[[Hypomyces lactifluorum]]'', the "Lobster mushroom", which is regarded as a delicacy.

==Edibility==

Several species of the family, e.g. ''[[Lactarius deliciosus]]'', ''[[Lactifluus volemus]]'', or ''[[Russula vesca]]'', are valued as excellent edible mushrooms. Some, such as ''[[Lactarius turpis]]'', are considered toxic, but none deadly poisonous.


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=
* The section on "Distinctive flesh consistency" was taken from [[:de:Täublinge|the German article]].

{{reflist}}
<ref name=Buyck2008>{{Cite journal |author=Buyck B, Hofstetter V, Eberhardt U, Verbeken A, Kauff F. |title=Walking the thin line between ''Russula'' and ''Lactarius'': the dilemma of ''Russula'' sect. ''Ochricompactae'' |journal=Fungal Diversity |volume=28 |year=2008 |pages=15–40 |url=http://www.fungaldiversity.org/fdp/sfdp/28-2.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref>

<ref name=Buyck2010>{{Cite journal |author=Buyck B, Hofstetter V, Verbeken A, Walleyn R. |title=Proposal to conserve ''Lactarius'' nom. cons. (Basidiomycota) with conserved type |journal=Taxon |volume=118 |year=2010 |pages=447–453 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2010/00000059/00000001/art00031}}</ref>

<ref name=Donk1971>{{cite book |chapter=Progress in the study of the classification of the higher Basidiomycetes. |title=Evolution in the higher Basidiomycetes. |author=Donk MA. |editor-last=Petersen RH. |publisher=Knoxville |pages=3-25 |isbn=}}</ref>

<ref name=Hibbett2001>{{cite book |chapter=Basidiomycota: Homobasidiomycetes |title=The Mycota. VIIB. Systematics and Evolution |author=Hibbett DH, Thorn RG. |editor-last=McLaughlin DJ, McLaughlin EG, Lemke PA |publisher=Springer-Verlag |pages=121–68 |isbn=978-3-540-58008-9}}</ref>

<ref name=Hibbett2007>{{cite journal |author=Hibbett DS, Binder M, Bischoff JF, Blackwell M, Cannon PF, Eriksson OE, ''et al''. |year=2007 |title=A higher level phylogenetic classification of the ''Fungi'' |journal=Mycological Research |pmid=17572334 |volume=111 |issue=5 |pages=509–547 |doi=10.1016/j.mycres.2007.03.004 |url=http://www.clarku.edu/faculty/dhibbett/AFTOL/documents/AFTOL%20class%20mss%2023,%2024/AFTOL%20CLASS%20MS%20resub.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref>

<ref name=kirk2014>{{Cite web |author=Kirk PM. |title=Species Fungorum (version September 2014). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life |url=http://www.catalogueoflife.org/col |accessdate=2014-09-27}}</ref>

<ref name=Larsson2003>{{Cite journal |author=Larsson E, Larsson K-H. |title=Phylogenetic relationships of russuloid basidiomycetes with emphasis on aphyllophoralean taxa |journal=Mycologia |volume=95 |year=2003 |pages= 1037-1065 |url=http://www.mycologia.org/content/95/6/1037.full.pdf+html |format=PDF |doi=}}</ref>

<ref name=Larsson2007>{{Cite journal |author=Larsson K-H. |title=Re-thinking the classification of corticioid fungi |journal=Mycological Research |volume=111 |year=2007 |pages=1040-1063 |url= |format= |doi=10.1016/j.mycres.2007.08.001}}</ref>

<ref name="Lebel2013">{{cite journal |author=Lebel T, Dunk CW, May TW. |title=Rediscovery of ''Multifurca stenophylla'' (Berk.) T.Lebel, C.W.Dunk & T.W.May comb. nov. (Russulaceae) from Australia |journal=Mycological Progress |year=2013 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=497–504 |doi=10.1007/s11557-012-0856-4}}|</ref>

<ref name="Miller2006">{{Cite journal |author=Miller SL, Larsson E, Larsson K-H, Verbeken A, Nuytinck J. |title=Perspectives in the new Russulales |journal=Mycologia |volume=98 |year=2006 |pages=960-970 |url=http://www.mycologia.org/content/98/6/960.full.pdf+html |format=PDF |doi=10.3852/mycologia.98.6.960}}</ref>

<ref name=Oberwinkler1977>{{cite book |chapter=Das neue System der Basidiomyceten. |title=Beiträge zur Biologie der niederen Pflanzen. |author=Oberwinkler F. |editor-last=Frey W, Hurka H, Oberwinkler F. |publisher=Stuttgart, New York: Gustav Fischer Verlag |pages=59-104 |isbn= |language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=Singer1986>{{cite book |author=Singer R. |title=The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy |edition=4th |publisher=Koeltz Scientific Books|location=Koenigstein Königstein im Taunus, Germany |year=1986 |page= |isbn=3-87429-254-1}}</ref>

<ref name=ugent-lactifluus>{{Cite web |title=Contrasting evolutionary patterns in two sister genera of macrofungi: ''Lactarius'' and ''Lactifluus'' |url=https://www.ugent.be/we/biology/en/research/mycology/projects/lactarius-lactifluus.htm |accessdate=2014-10-10}}</ref>

<ref name=ugent-russulaceae>{{Cite web |title=An integrated approach to the phylogeny and phylogeography of the Russulaceae (Basidiomycota) |url=https://www.ugent.be/we/biology/en/research/mycology/projects/russulaceae |accessdate=2014-10-10}}</ref>

<ref name="verbeken2013">{{Cite journal |author=Verbeken A, Nuytinck J. |title=Not every milkcap is a ''Lactarius'' |journal=Scripta Botanica Belgica |volume=51 |year=2013 |pages=162–168 |url=http://fungi.fr/Html/VerbekenNuytinckLactarius.pdf
|format=PDF}}</ref>

}}


==External links==
==External links==

*[http://www.mushroomexpert.com/russulaceae.html Taxonomy in Transition: The Russulaceae]
*[http://www2.muse.it/russulales-news/ Russulales News: Database, literature, identification]


{{wikispecies}}
{{wikispecies}}

Revision as of 20:13, 10 October 2014

Russulaceae
Russula emetica
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Division:
Basidiomycota
Class:
Agaricomycetes
Order:
Russulales
Family:
Russulaceae

Type genus
Russula
Genera

Boidinia
Gloeopeniophorella
Lactarius
Lactifluus
Multifurca
Pseudoxenasma
Russula

The Russulaceae are a family of fungi in the order Russulales. Besides some species of crust fungi, they comprise some well-known genera of gilled, ectomycorrhizal mushrooms such as the "brittlegrills" (genus Russula) and the "milk-caps" (genera Lactarius and Lactifluus). These agarics are easy to recognise by the brittle, friable flesh of their fruit bodies. Roughly 1,900 species are described in the family.

Systematics and taxonomy

Historically, the gilled mushrooms of the family Russulaceae were classified with other gilled mushroom species in the Agaricales,[1] but microscopical studies of spore and trama features had already raised the possibility that they were more closely related with some "lower fungi" with other, e.g. crust-like fruitbody types.[2][3] Later, the use of molecular phylogenetics confirmed that they are part of a distinct lineage, first termed "russuloid clade"[4][5] and today classified as order Russulales.[6] The monophyly of the family Russulaceae is well supported,[4][7][8] and its sister group within the order seem to be the Gloeocystidiellaceae.[7]

basal corticioid species

Phylogeny of the Russulaceae.[9][7]

A 2008 molecular phylogenetic study clarified the relationships within the family.[9] The authors demonstrated that it contains four distinct genera of mushroom-forming fungi: Lactarius with ca. 350[10][11], Lactifluus with ca. 150[10][11], Multifurca with six,[9][12] and Russula with ca. 1000 known species.[10]

Zelleromyces cinnabarinus, a species with closed fruitbodies that phylogenetically belongs to the genus Lactarius.

Genera with closed (angiocarpous) fruitbodies within the family are in fact not distinct groups; instead, Arcangeliella, Gastrolactarius, and Zelleromyces are phylogenetically part of Lactarius, while Elasmomyces, Gymnomyces, Macowanites, and Martellia belong to Russula.[13][14][15]

The crust-like genera Boidinia, Gloeopeniophorella, and Pseudoxenasma are also currently ascribed to the family Russulaceae.[10][7] However, at least the genus Boidinia appears to be polyphyletic, with some species not belonging to Russulaceae phylogenetically.[7][8]

Altogether, the Russulaceae currently contain ca. 1,900 described species.[10]

Description

Macroscorpical characters

The stipe of Russulaceae (above: Lactifluus vellereus) is brittle and breaks easily, while that of other agarics (below: Suillus variegatus) is mostly fibrous.

The fruitbodies of the agaric genera typically have brittle flesh. This means that their caps, gills, and stalks in general break with a distinct crack, somewhat like an apple or a watermelon, as opposed to the fibrous flesh of most other mushrooms (see image). Microscopically, the flesh is made up of many large spherical cells ("sphaerocysts") in addition to the usual hyphae, which give rise to the brittle consistency. In addition to the agaric fruitbodies, several species in Lactarius and Russula have angiocarpous (closed) fruitbodies, which are sometimes hypogeous. Pleurotoid (laterally stiped) fruitbodies occur in some, mainly tropical species of Lactifluus and Russula.

Microscopical characters

Russulaceae are characterised by basidiospores with an amyloid stain reaction.

Spores of Russula cyanoxantha, showing the amyloid ornamentation which is typical for Russulaceae.

Genera distinction

  • Lactarius is characterised by caps and stipes that exude a milky substance ("latex") when pressed or cut and lactiferous hyphae. This latex may be orange, red, lilac, white or yellow, and may develop its final colour only after exposure to air.
  • Lactifluus is very similar to Lactarius, although genetically distinct. It has a more tropical distribution, although some well-known species also occur in the temperate zone.[15][11]
  • Multifurca is morphologically intermediate between Lactarius and Russula.[9]
  • Russula fruitbodies often have colourful caps, contrarily to the mostly white stipe. Although the genus is relatively easy to recognise, species identification is quite difficult.

Distribution

The Russulaceae as a whole have a worldwide distribution, but patterns differ among genera: Russula is the most widespread genus, found on every continent except Antarctica. Lactarius is mainly known from the north temperate zone, but some species also occur in Africa, Central and South America, and Australia.[15] Lactifluus has a more tropical distribution than Lactarius, with most species known from tropical Africa, Asia, South America, and Australasia.[15] Multifurca is the rarest genus, only known from some locations in North and Central America, Asia, and Australasia.[9][12]

All corticioid species described in the Russulaceae so far were found in the Northern temperate zone.

Ecology

The four genera Lactarius, Lactifluus, Multifurca and Russula form one of several lineages of ectomycorrhizal fungi. They form a root symbiosis with trees and shrubs of several plant families, especially the Betulaceae, Fagaceae, Pinaceae and Salicaceae in the north temperate zone, the Dipterocarpaceae, Fabaceae and Nyctaginaceae in the Tropics, and the Nothofagaceae in the south temperate zone. Some species are quite specialised in their association, for example Lactarius and Russula species growing with Cistus shrubs in the Mediterranean region.

Pseudoxenasma verrucisporum is a crust-forming, wood-decaying species in the Russulaceae.

The basal, corticioid species of the family are saprotrophic, wood-decaying fungi.[4]

Russulaceae fruitbodies are subject to parasitisation by some other fungi, e.g. the genus Asterophora, or Hypomyces lactifluorum, the "Lobster mushroom", which is regarded as a delicacy.

Edibility

Several species of the family, e.g. Lactarius deliciosus, Lactifluus volemus, or Russula vesca, are valued as excellent edible mushrooms. Some, such as Lactarius turpis, are considered toxic, but none deadly poisonous.

References

  1. ^ Singer R. (1986). The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy (4th ed.). Koenigstein Königstein im Taunus, Germany: Koeltz Scientific Books. ISBN 3-87429-254-1.
  2. ^ Donk MA. "Progress in the study of the classification of the higher Basidiomycetes.". In Petersen RH. (ed.). Evolution in the higher Basidiomycetes. Knoxville. pp. 3–25.
  3. ^ Oberwinkler F. "Das neue System der Basidiomyceten.". In Frey W, Hurka H, Oberwinkler F. (ed.). Beiträge zur Biologie der niederen Pflanzen (in German). Stuttgart, New York: Gustav Fischer Verlag. pp. 59–104.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  4. ^ a b c Larsson E, Larsson K-H. (2003). "Phylogenetic relationships of russuloid basidiomycetes with emphasis on aphyllophoralean taxa" (PDF). Mycologia. 95: 1037–1065.
  5. ^ Hibbett DH, Thorn RG. "Basidiomycota: Homobasidiomycetes". In McLaughlin DJ, McLaughlin EG, Lemke PA (ed.). The Mycota. VIIB. Systematics and Evolution. Springer-Verlag. pp. 121–68. ISBN 978-3-540-58008-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  6. ^ Hibbett DS, Binder M, Bischoff JF, Blackwell M, Cannon PF, Eriksson OE; et al. (2007). "A higher level phylogenetic classification of the Fungi" (PDF). Mycological Research. 111 (5): 509–547. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2007.03.004. PMID 17572334. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ a b c d e Larsson K-H. (2007). "Re-thinking the classification of corticioid fungi". Mycological Research. 111: 1040–1063. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2007.08.001.
  8. ^ a b Miller SL, Larsson E, Larsson K-H, Verbeken A, Nuytinck J. (2006). "Perspectives in the new Russulales" (PDF). Mycologia. 98: 960–970. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.6.960.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ a b c d e Buyck B, Hofstetter V, Eberhardt U, Verbeken A, Kauff F. (2008). "Walking the thin line between Russula and Lactarius: the dilemma of Russula sect. Ochricompactae" (PDF). Fungal Diversity. 28: 15–40.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ a b c d e Kirk PM. "Species Fungorum (version September 2014). In: Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life". Retrieved 2014-09-27.
  11. ^ a b c "Contrasting evolutionary patterns in two sister genera of macrofungi: Lactarius and Lactifluus". Retrieved 2014-10-10.
  12. ^ a b Lebel T, Dunk CW, May TW. (2013). "Rediscovery of Multifurca stenophylla (Berk.) T.Lebel, C.W.Dunk & T.W.May comb. nov. (Russulaceae) from Australia". Mycological Progress. 12 (3): 497–504. doi:10.1007/s11557-012-0856-4.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)|
  13. ^ Buyck B, Hofstetter V, Verbeken A, Walleyn R. (2010). "Proposal to conserve Lactarius nom. cons. (Basidiomycota) with conserved type". Taxon. 118: 447–453.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ "An integrated approach to the phylogeny and phylogeography of the Russulaceae (Basidiomycota)". Retrieved 2014-10-10.
  15. ^ a b c d Verbeken A, Nuytinck J. (2013). "Not every milkcap is a Lactarius" (PDF). Scripta Botanica Belgica. 51: 162–168.
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