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Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities is a topic of great debate, with some people believing that traditional heterosexual gender roles are often erroneously enforced on non-heterosexual relationships by means of heteronormative culture and attitudes towards these non-conformative relationships.[1]

History

Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities have been the subject of debate in Western society. Peter M. Nardi of Pitzer College says that:

The connection between sexual orientation and gender roles has been confused by many people. Too often, assumptions about homosexuality or heterosexuality have led to assumptions about masculinity or femininity. [...] Understanding the differences between sexual identity and gender roles in enhanced when focusing on the issues of friendship and sex among gay men. For many people, being gay has been interpreted in terms of not being masculine or, more specifically, being seen as feminine.[2]

It has also been suggested by some queer activists (such as Peter Tatchell and the Gay Liberation Front) that:

Queers subvert the gender system. Gay men love males and are not adequately macho and aggressive. Lesbians love women and are insufficiently passive and dependent on men. That's why we're persecuted. Our nonconformity threatens the system which sustains the social hegemony of male heterosexuality and misogyny.

This has been described as ""gender fuck" politics".[3]

Terms such as butch, are used within the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender (LGBT) and cross-dressing subcultures[4][5][6] to ascribe or acknowledge a masculine identity with its associated traits, behaviors, styles, self-perception and so on.[7]

Gay and bisexual women

The application of the traditional "man" and traditional "woman" in lesbian relationships is common, as with gay male relationships. Most often in lesbian relationships, there will become a point when someone asks the question: "So which one's the guy?", even if there are no actual males involved in the relationship. This is believed to stem from heteronormative and patriarchal setups of traditional heterosexual relationships.[1]

Lesbian feminism

Main article: Lesbian feminism

One large myth about gay women (lesbians) is that they are all feminists. While this is not true,[1] there is a specific branch of feminism called "lesbian feminism".

Lesbian feminism typically situates the state of being a lesbian as a form of resistance to patriarchal institutions. Sexual orientation is posited here as a choice, or at least a conscious response to a situation.[8] It is also seen as a critique of male supremacy, chauvinism and of masculinity in general.[9]

Lesbian separatism is a form of separatist feminism specific to lesbians. In separatist feminism, lesbianism is posited as a key feminist strategy that enables women to invest their energies in other women, creating new space and dialogue about women's relationships, and typically, limits their dealings with men.[10]

Gay men

Dr. Joseph Pleck argues that the hierarchy of masculinities among men exist largely in a dichotomy of homosexual and heterosexual males and explains that "our society uses the male heterosexual-homosexual dichotomy as a central symbol for all the rankings of masculinity, for the division on any grounds between males who are "real men" and have power, and males who are not". [11] Michael Kimmel[12] furthers this notion and adds that the trope "you're so gay" indicates that one is devoid of masculinity, rather than being sexually attracted to members of the same sex. Pleck argues that to avoid the continuation of male oppression of women and themselves and other men, patriarchal structures, institutions, and discourse must be eliminated from North American society.

Gay men are considered by some to "deviate from the masculine norm", and are benevolently stereotyped as "gentle and refined", even amongst other gay men. For example, human rights campaigner Peter Tatchell, an openly gay man, says that:

Contrary to the well-intentioned claim that gays are "just the same" as straights, there is a difference. What is more, the distinctive style of gay masculinity is of great social benefit. Wouldn't life be dull without the flair and imagination of queer fashion designers and interior decorators? How could the NHS cope with no gay nurses, or the education system with no gay teachers? Society should thank its lucky stars that not all men turn out straight, macho and insensitive. The different hetero and homo modes of maleness are not, of course, biologically fixed.[13]

In a documentary called The Butch Factor, a number of gay men (one of them transgender) were asked about their views on masculinity. The consensus was that showing masculine traits was an advantage, both in and out the closet. For the "butch" gay men, this allowed them to conceal their sexual orientation for longer when doing masculine activities such as playing sports (as effeminacy is often incorrectly[14] associated with homosexuality),[15] so much so that they doubted their own sexual orientation because as they did not see themselves as effeminate, they did not feel that they were gay. They did not feel as much of a connection with gay culture because of this.[16]

On the other hand, the men who had a more feminine appearance were the first to come out of the closet, as they were the first to be labelled as gay by their peers. They were more likely to face bullying and harassment throughout their lives,[16] and many gay men have been taunted by derogatory words which imply feminine qualities (e.g. sissy). Effeminate or camp-acting gay men sometimes use what has been described by John R. Ballew as "camp humour", such as referring to one another by female pronouns, as "a funny way of defusing hate directed toward us [gay men]". However, Ballew has also stated that this "can cause us [gay men] to become confused in relation to how we feel about being men."[17]

Some feminine gay guys in the documentary felt uncomfortable about their femininity (even if they are comfortable with their sexuality),[18] and feminine gay men are often looked down upon amongst stereotypically masculine men in the gay community.[19][20]

[Heterosexual] men are sometimes advised to get in touch with their "inner feminine." Maybe gay men need to get in touch with their "inner masculine" instead. Identifying those aspects of being a man we most value and then cultivate those parts of our selves can lead to a healthier and less distorted sense of our own masculinity.

— John R. Ballew, Gay men and masculinity[17]

A study conducted by researchers from the Center for Theoretical Study at Charles University in Prague and The Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic found that there are "significant" shape differences in faces of heterosexual and gay men, with gay men having "masculine" features, which they say "undermined stereotypical notions of gay men as more feminine looking."[21]

The way in which gay men have been presented in the media has been in a stereotypical feminine way (and one which is open to ridicule), although films such as Brokeback Mountain are breaking this stereotype.[17] A newer portrayal of gay men in the LGBT community is as bears, a subculture of gay men who celebrate rugged masculinity[22][23] and "secondary sexual characteristics of the male: facial hair, body hair, proportional size, baldness".[24]

Masculinity, gay men and second-wave feminism

Second-wave pro-feminism paid increased attention to issues of sexuality, particularly the relationship between homosexual men and hegemonic masculinity. This shift led to more cooperation between the men's liberation and gay liberation movements. In part this cooperation arose because masculinity was understood to be a social construction, and as a response to the universalization of "men" seen in previous men's movements. Men's rights activists worked to stop second-wave feminists from having influence in the gay rights movement, and promoted the idea of hypermasculinity as an inherent part of gay sexuality.[25]

Feminine gender roles

Boys who have more feminine gender roles at a younger age and/or identify as gay or bisexual are at higher risk of suicide, sexual abuse, drug abuse, and arrests for sexual misconduct.[26] Many various cultures have their own categorisations of sexual orientation/identity and gender identity (such as the kathoey in Thailand), which are difficult to categorise using the Western labels of gay or transgender.[27]

In the United States, boys are often homosocial,[28] and gender role performance determines social rank.[29] While gay boys receive the same enculturation, they are less compliant. Martin Levine summarizes:

Harry (1982, 51-52), for example, found that 42 percent of his gay respondents were 'sissies' during childhood. Only 11 percent of his heterosexual samples were gender role nonconformists. Bell, Weinberg, and Hammersmith (1981, 188) reported that half of their man homosexual subjects practiced gender-inappropriate behaviour in childhood. Among their heterosexual men, the rate of noncompliance was 25 percent. Saghir and Robins (1973, 18) found that one-third of their gay man respondents conformed to gender role dictates. Only 3 percent of their heterosexual men deviated from the norm.

Thus effeminate boys, or sissies, are physically and verbally harassed, causing them to feel worthless and "de-feminise" themselves.[30][31][32]

Prior to the Stonewall riots, changes in stereotypical gender role performance were observed amongst certain segments of the gay male population:[33][34][35]

They have a different face for different occasions. In conversations with each other, they often undergo a subtle change. I have seen men who appeared to be normal suddenly smile roguishly, soften their voices, and simper as they greeted homosexual friends [...] Many times I saw these changes occur after I had gained a homosexual's confidence and he could safely risk my disapproval. Once as I watched a luncheon companion become an effeminate caricature of himself, he apologised, [saying that] "It is hard to always remember that one is a man."[36][37]

There is a definite prejudice towards men who use femininity as part of their palate; their emotional palate, their physical palate. Is that changing? It's changing in ways that don't advance the cause of femininity. I'm not talking frilly-laced pink things or Hello Kitty stuff. I'm talking about goddess energy, intuition and feelings. That is still under attack, and it has gotten worse.

— RuPaul[38]

Pre-Stonewall "closet" culture accepted homosexuality as effeminate behaviour, and thus emphasized camp, drag, and swish including an interest in fashion and decorating. Masculine gay men were marginalised and formed their own communities, such as the leather subculture and/or wore clothes that were commonly associated with working-class individuals, such as sailor uniforms.[39][40]

Post-Stonewall, "clone culture" became dominant and effeminacy is now marginalised. One indicator of this is a definite preference shown in personal ads for masculine-behaving men.[41]

The avoidance of effeminacy by men, including gay ones, has been linked to possible impedance of personal and public health. Regarding HIV/AIDS, masculine behaviour was stereotyped as being unconcerned about safe sex practices while engaging in promiscuous sexual behaviour. Early reports from New York City indicated that more women had themselves tested for HIV/AIDS than men.[42]

David Halperin compares "universalising" and "minoritising" notions of gender deviance: "'Softness' either may represent the specter of potential gender failure that haunts all normative masculinity, an ever-present threat to the masculinity of every man, or it may represent the disfiguring peculiarity of a small class of deviant individuals."[43]

The term effeminaphobia was coined to describe strong anti-effeminacy. Michael Baile coined the similar term femiphobia to describe the ambivalence gay men and culture have about effeminate behaviour in 1955.[44] Gay author Tim Bergling also coined the term sissyphobia in Sissyphobia: Gay Men and Effeminate Behavior.[45][46]

Parenting

The presence of gay or heterosexual relationships in the family may in turn influence play patterns in children. It has been suggested that children of same-sex couples are raised differently, resulting in gender roles different from those of opposite-sex parents (according to the gender binary). In a recent study by Goldberg, Kashy, and Smith, it was shown that that sons of lesbian mothers were less masculine in the way in which they played than those of gay fathers or heterosexual parents.[47] While this study supports one viewpoint on the effects of same-sex parenting, further research to validate the long-term consequences of such parenting is necessary.

References

  1. ^ a b c Jaroniec, Mila (1 May 2012). "5 Common Misconceptions About Lesbians". thoughtcatalog.com. Thought Catalog. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
  2. ^ Nardi 1992, p. 173.
  3. ^ Tatchell, Peter. "The "gender fuck" politics of the London Gay Liberation Front 1970-73". petertatchell.net. Unpublished. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
  4. ^ Wickens, Kathryn. "Butch–Femme Definitions". Butch–Femme Network, founded in Massachusetts in 1996. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
  5. ^ Hollibaugh, Amber L. (2000). My Dangerous Desires: A Queer Girl Dreaming Her Way Home. Duke University Press. p. 249. ISBN 0822326191.
  6. ^ Boyd, Helen (2004). My Husband Betty: Love, Sex and Life With a Cross-Dresser. Sdal Press. p. 64. ISBN 1560255153.
  7. ^ Kramararae, Chris (2000). Rutledge International Encyclopaedia of Women. Routledge. p. 133. ISBN 0415920892.
  8. ^ "Lesbians in Revolt: Male Supremacy Quakes and Quivers", The Furies: Lesbian/Feminist Monthly Vol. 1, January, 1972. Accessed 2 June 2008.
  9. ^ Jeffreys, Sheila: "Unpacking Queer Politics," p. 19. Polity, 2003.
  10. ^ Revolutionary Lesbians: "How to Stop Choking to Death Or: Separatism," 1971, in, "For Lesbians Only: A Separatist Anthology," ed. Hoagland, Sarah Lucia, and Julia Penelope. p. 22-24. Onlywomen Press, 1988.
  11. ^ Pleck, Joseph. "Understanding Patriarchy and Men's Power". nomas.org. National Organization for Men Against Sexism (Nomas). Archived from the original on 1 March 2010. Retrieved 21 March 2015. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Kimmel, Michael S., and Summer Lewis. Mars and Venus, Or, Planet Earth?: Women and Men in a New Millenium [sic]. Kansas State University, 2004.
  13. ^ Tatchell, Peter (January 1999). "What Straight men Could Learn From Gay Men - A Queer Kind of Masculinity?". Woman's Journal. {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
  14. ^ "Gender Identity and Expression Issues at Colleges and Universities". National Association of College and University Attorneys. 2005-06-02. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
  15. ^ "Chrysler TV ad criticized for using gay stereotypes". The Advocate. 2006-04-07. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
  16. ^ a b ifsbutscoconuts. "The Butch Factor: Masculinity from a Gay Male Perspective". Retrieved 6 March 2015.
  17. ^ a b c John R. Ballew, M.S., L.P.C. "Gay men and masculinity". Retrieved 6 March 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Curry, Tyler. "The Strength in Being a Feminine Gay Man". Retrieved 6 March 2015.
  19. ^ Jones, Darianna. "Why Do Masculine Gay Guys Look Down On Feminine Guys?". Retrieved 6 March 2015.
  20. ^ Jones, Darianna. "An Open Letter to Gay Guys Who Look Down On "Fem Guys"". Retrieved 6 March 2015.
  21. ^ Saul, Heather (8 November 2013). "Gay and straight men may have different facial shapes, new study suggests". The Independent. Retrieved 6 March 2015. Their results found that homosexual men were rated as more stereotypically 'masculine' than heterosexual men, which they said undermined stereotypical notions of gay men as more feminine looking.
  22. ^ "When The Advocate Invented Bears". The Advocate. Here Media Inc. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
  23. ^ George Mazzei, (1979). Who's Who in the Zoo?. "The Advocate", pages 42–43.
  24. ^ Suresha, Ron (2009). Bears on Bears: Interviews and Discussions. Lethe Press. p. 83. ISBN 1590212444.
  25. ^ Unpacking Queer Politics by Shiela Jeffreys
  26. ^ Remafedi, Gary, James A. Farrow, and Robert W. Deisher. "Risk factors for attempted suicide in gay and bisexual youth." Pediatrics 87.6 (1991)
  27. ^ Duthel 2013, p. 9.
  28. ^ Gagnon 1997.
  29. ^ David and Brannon, 1976
  30. ^ Harry 1982.
  31. ^ Saghir and Robins 1973, 18-19
  32. ^ Levine, 1998, p. 5-16
  33. ^ Karlen, 1978
  34. ^ Cory and LeRoy, 1963
  35. ^ Newton, 1972
  36. ^ Stearn 1962, 29
  37. ^ Levine, 1998, p. 21-23
  38. ^ Interview with RuPaul, David Shankbone, Wikinews, October 6, 2007.
  39. ^ Cory and LeRoy, 1963
  40. ^ Levine, 1998, p. 21-23, 56
  41. ^ Bailey et al. 1997.
  42. ^ Levine, 1998, p. 148
  43. ^ David Halperin, 2002
  44. ^ Michael Bailey, 1995
  45. ^ Dylan Vox, "Would Life Be Better if You Were Straight?", Gaywired.com, Dec 20, 2007, also appeared in Edge, Boston
  46. ^ Bergling, Tim. Sissyphobia: Gay Men and Effeminate Behavior. ISBN 1-56023-989-1
  47. ^ Goldberg, Abbie E.; Kashy, Deborah A.; Smith, JuliAnna Z. (2012). "Gender-Typed Play Behavior in Early Childhood: Adopted Children with Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Parents". Sex Roles. 67 (9–10): 503–515. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0198-3. ISSN 0360-0025. PMC 3572788. PMID 23420542.

Bibliography

  • Darryl B. Hill, "Feminine" Heterosexual Men: Subverting Heteropatriarchal Sexual Scripts? (The Journal of Men's Studies, Spring 2006, Men's Studies Press; ISSN 1060-8265)
  • Bergling, Tim (2001). Sissyphobia: Gay Men and Effeminate Behavior. New York: Harrington Park Press. ISBN 1-56023-990-5.
  • Gagnon, John H. (1977). Human Sexualities. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman.
  • Harry (1982). Gay Children Grown Up: Gender, Culture and Gender Deviance. New York: Praeger.
  • Saghir and Robins (1973).
  • Levine, Martin P. (1998). Gay Macho. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-4694-2.
  • Karlen, Arno (1978). "Homosexuality: The Scene and Its Student", The Sociology of Sex: An Introductory Reader, James M. Henslin and Edward Sagarin eds. New York: Schocken.
  • Cory, Donald W. and LeRoy, John P. (1963). The Homosexual and His Society: A View from Within. New York: Citadel Press.
  • Newton, Esther (1972). Mother Camp: Female Impersonators in America. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
  • Stearn, Jess (1962). The Sixth Man. New York: MacFadden.
  • Bailey, Michael; Kim, Peggy; Hills, Alex; and Linsenmeier, Joan (1997). "Butch, Femme, or Straight Acting? Partner Preferences of Gay Men and Lesbians.", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(5), pp. 960–973.
  • Halperin, David M. (2002). How To Do The History of Homosexuality, p. 125. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-31447-2.
  • Bailey, Michael (1995). "Gender Identity", The Lives of Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals, p. 71-93. New York: Harcourt Brace.
  • Duthel, Heinz (26 July 2013). Kathoey Ladyboy: Thailand's Got Talent. BoD – Books on Demand. ISBN 9783732236633. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
  • Nardi, Peter M. (26 February 1992). Men's Friendships. SAGE Publications. ISBN 9781452253077. Retrieved 22 March 2015.


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