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=== Nuclear DNA Analysis ===
=== Nuclear DNA Analysis ===
Human nuclear DNA is located inside the nucleus of every cell and makes up the human genome. Humans inherit half of their nuclear DNA from their mother and half from their father.


=== Y-Chromosome Analysis ===
=== Y-Chromosome Analysis ===
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== References ==
== References ==
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== External links ==
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Revision as of 01:53, 25 March 2015

Anzick-1 is the name given to the skeletal remains of Paleo-Indian male infant found in Western Montana in 1968 that date to 12,707-12,556 years BP.[1] Anzick-1 is the only human that has been discovered from the Clovis Complex, and is the first ancient Native American genome to be fully sequenced.[2]

Paleogenomic analysis of the remains revealed Siberian ancestry and a close genetic relationship to modern Native Americans.[1][2] These findings support the hypothesis that modern Native Americans are descended from Asian populations who crossed Beringia between 32,000 and 18,000 years ago, and discredits the Solutrean Hypothesis[1][2].

Anzick-1's discovery and subsequent analysis is controversial because although the researchers did not violate the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), many Montana tribal members believe they should have been consulted before the analysis of the infant's skeleton and genome.[3]

Discovery

The Anzick site was accidentally discovered by a construction worker in a collapsed rock shelter near Wilsal, Montana.[4][5] The site contained hundreds of of stone projectile points, blades, and bifaces as well as two juveniles[5] Some of the artifacts were covered in red ochre.[5] The stone points were identified as part of the Clovis Complex because of their distinct shape and size.[4] Originally, the two human skeletons were both thought to contemporaneous with the Clovis Complex stone points, but later carbon dating revealed that only one of the human skeletons, Anzick-1, was from the Clovis period.[4] Anzick-1 predates the other skeleton by two millennia.[4]

Osteological Findings

Overview

Anzick-1's skeletal remains included 28 cranial fragments, the left clavicle, and several ribs.[4] These bones were discovered in highly fragmented states; however, partial reconstruction of the crania allowed for age estimation, investigation of basic health indicators, and some information about cultural practices. Originally, investigators thought the left clavicle showed evidence of cremation, but further analysis revealed that the discoloration was the result of groundwater staining and not fire.[4] Additionally, all of the Anzick-1 remains were stained with ocher, which masks the natural color of the infant's bones.[4]

Age estimation, health status, and cultural modifications

Cranial bones fuse together along suture lines throughout the life of every human, and can be used to estimate the age at death of human remains.[6] The size and suture closure of Anzick-1's crania revealed that the individual was 1-2 years old.[4]

The cranial bones can also be useful for detecting evidence of physiological perturbations.[6] For example, porosity on the frontal, parietal, and occipital bones can be an indicator of a nutritional deficiency that leads to anemia.[7] The reconstructed frontal, parietal, and occipital bone fragments of Anzick-1 showed no evidence of cribra orbitalia or porotic hyperostosis.[4]

Many cultures use wrappings and boards to manipulate the malleable cranial bones of infants into different shapes which may hold cultural significance.[8] This practice has been recorded in several different bioarchaeological contexts throughout the Americas.[8] The shape of the cranial vault revealed no evidence of cultural cranial vault modification.[4]

Paleogenetic Findings

A team of researchers throughout the United States and Europe conducted paleogenetic research on the Anzick-1 skeletal remains. They sequenced the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), the full nuclear DNA, and the Y-chromosome, and compared these sequences to those of modern populations throughout the world.[1] The results of these analyses allowed the researchers to make conclusions about ancient migration patterns and the peopling of the Americas.

Mitochondrial DNA Analysis

MtDNA is DNA located in mitochondria, an organelle that is found in human cells. The mitochondria is maternally inherited and analysis of the mtDNA can provide information about maternal ancestry.[9] MtDNA genomes are classified into different haplogroups based on a shared common ancestor, and distinct haplogroups provide information about ancient migration patterns.[10] Morten Rasumssen and Sarah L. Anzick et al. sequenced the mitochondrial DNA of Anzick-1 and determined that the infant represents an ancient migration to North America from Siberia. They found that Anzick-1's mtDNA belongs to the haplogroup D4h3a, a "founder" haplogroup that might represent an early coastal migration route into the Americas.[1] The D haplogroup is also found in modern Native American populations, which provides a link between Anzick-1 and modern Native Americans.[11]

Nuclear DNA Analysis

Human nuclear DNA is located inside the nucleus of every cell and makes up the human genome. Humans inherit half of their nuclear DNA from their mother and half from their father.

Y-Chromosome Analysis

Implications

Beringia Hypothesis

[12][13][14]

Solutrean Hypothesis

[15]

Controversy

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act

[16]

Montana State Burial Statutes

[17]

Native American Consultation

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Rasmussen, Morten; et al. (February 13, 2014). "The genome of a Late Pleistocene human from a Clovis burial site in western Montana". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature13025. Retrieved March 21, 2015. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  2. ^ a b c Raff, Jennifer; Bolnick, Deborah (February 13, 2014). "Palaeogenomics: Genetic roots of the first Americans". Nature. doi:10.1038/506162a. Retrieved March 21, 2015.
  3. ^ Callaway, Ewen (February 12, 2014). "Ancient genome stirs ethics debate". Nature. doi:10.1038/506142a. Retrieved March 21, 2015.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Owsley, Douglas W; Hunt, David (May 2001). "Clovis and early Archaic crania from the Anzick site (24PA506), Park County, Montana". Plains Anthropologist. Retrieved March 22, 2015.
  5. ^ a b c Lahren, Larry; Bonnichsen, Robson (October 11, 1974). "Bone Foreshafts from a Clovis Burial in Southwest Montana". Science. Retrieved March 22, 2015.
  6. ^ a b Buikstra, Jane E.; Ubelaker, Douglas H. (1994). Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains: Proceedings of a Seminar at the Field Museum of Natural History. Arkansas Archaeological Report Research Series. ISBN 978-1563490750.
  7. ^ Walker, Phillip L. (2009). "The Causes of Porotic Hyperostosis and Cribra Orbitalia: A Reappraisal of the Iron-Deficiency-Anemia Hypothesis" (PDF). American Journal of Physical Anthropology. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21031. Retrieved March 24, 2015.
  8. ^ a b Torres Rouff, Christina (Feburary 2002). "Cranial Vault Modification and Ethnicity in Middle Horizon San Pedro de Atacama, Chile". Current Anthropology. doi:10.1086/338290. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ Fagundes, Nelson J. R.; et al. (March, 2008). "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas". American Journal of Human Genetics. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013. Retrieved March 22, 2015. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  10. ^ Van Oven, Mannis; Kayser, Manfred (October 13, 2008). "Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation". Human Mutation. doi:10.1002/humu.20921. Retrieved March 22, 2015.
  11. ^ Reich, David; et al. (August 16, 2012). "Reconstructing Native American population history". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature11258. Retrieved March 22, 2015. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  12. ^ Stanford, Dennis J.; Bradley, Bruce A. (2012). Pre-Clovis First Americans. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520227835.
  13. ^ Owsley, Douglas W.; Jantz, Richard L. (2014). Kennewick Man : the scientific investigation of an ancient American skeleton. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 9781623492007.
  14. ^ Peterson, Barbara Bennett (2011). Peopling of the Americas : Currents, Canoes, and DNA. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
  15. ^ Oppenheimer, Stephen; et al. (October 31, 2014). "Solutrean hypothesis: genetics, the mammoth in the room". World Archaeology. doi:10.1080/00438243.2014.966273. Retrieved March 22, 2015. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  16. ^ Weimer, Douglas Reid (August 10, 2005). Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA): Legal and Legislative Developments. Library of Congress.
  17. ^ McClure, Eddye (August, 2000). "MONTANA'S HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS AND BURIAL SITE PROTECTION ACT: REPATRIATION AND BOARD REIMBURSEMENT" (PDF). Retrieved March 22, 2015. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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