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[[File:Gallia Cisalpina-fr.svg|thumb|Peoples of northern Italy during the 4th to 3rd centuries BC.]]
[[File:Gallia Cisalpina-fr.svg|thumb|Peoples of northern Italy during the 4th to 3rd centuries BC.]]


The Canegrate culture (13th century BC) may represent the first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic<ref>Venceslas Kruta: ''La grande storia dei celti. La nascita, l'affermazione e la decadenza'', Newton & Compton, 2003, ISBN 88-8289-851-2, ISBN 978-88-8289-851-9</ref> population from the northwest part of the Alps that, through the [[Alpine passes]], had already penetrated and settled in the western [[Po River|Po]] valley between [[Lake Maggiore]] and [[Lake Como]] ([[Scamozzina culture]]). They brought a new [[funerary]] practice—[[cremation]]—which supplanted [[inhumation]]. It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto-Celtic presence can be traced back to the beginning of the Middle [[Bronze Age]] (XVI-XV century BC), when North Westwern Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artifacts, including ornaments, to the western groups of the [[Tumulus culture]].<ref>"The Golasecca civilization is therefore the expression of the oldest [ [ Celts ] ] of Italy and included several groups that had the name of Insubres, Laevi, Lepontii, Oromobii (o Orumbovii)". (Raffaele C. De Marinis)</ref> ([[Central Europe]], 1600 BC - 1200 BC). The bearers of the Canegrate culture maintained its homogeneity for only a century, after which it melded with the [[Ligures|Ligurian]] aboriginal populations and with this union gave rise to a new phase called the [[Golasecca culture]],<ref>Maps of the Golasecca culture. [http://nuke.costumilombardi.it/Portals/0/k%C3%A0%20cartina%20Golasecca%20297.jpg] [http://members.fortunecity.it/zichin/gola5.jpg]</ref><ref>G. Frigerio, ''Il territorio comasco dall'età della pietra alla fine dell'età del bronzo'', in ''Como nell'antichità'', Società Archeologica Comense, Como 1987.</ref> which is nowadays identified with the Celtic Lepontii.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kruta|first=Venceslas|title=The Celts|year=1991|publisher=Thames and Hudson|pages=52–56}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Stifter|first=David|title=Old Celtic Languages|year=2008|pages=24–37|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_2_lepontic.pdf}}</ref>
There are no historical sources on Gauls south of the Alps prior to the 600 BC. But it seems likely that the early [[Celts]], who were the bearers of the [[Hallstatt culture]] north of the Alps, were in cultural contact with the bearers of the [[Golasecca culture]] from an early time, and Celtic peoples may have settled south of the Alps from as early as the 9th century BC in what is now the Swiss [[canton of Ticino]], specifically the [[Lepontii]], who in the 6th century BC left inscriptions in the area of [[Lake Lugano]] and [[Lago Maggiore]], although there is strong evidence that before them, the [[Canegrate culture]] (13th Century BC) may represent the first proto-Celtic migratory wave into Italy.<ref>Venceslas Kruta: ''La grande storia dei celti. La nascita, l'affermazione e la decadenza'', Newton & Compton, 2003, ISBN 88-8289-851-2, ISBN 978-88-8289-851-9</ref>


[[Ligures]] lived in Northern Mediterranean Coast straddling South-east French and North-west Italian coasts, including parts of [[Tuscany]], [[Elba]] island and [[Corsica]]. Ligurian tribes were also present in Latium (see [[Rutuli]])<ref>Hazlit, William. ''The Classical Gazetteer'' (1851), p. 297.</ref> and in Samnium.<ref>http://www.academia.edu/5326887/DEPORTATION_OF_INDIGENOUS_POPULATION_AS_A_STRATEGY_FOR_ROMAN_DOMINION_IN_HISPANIA</ref> According to [[Plutarch]] they called themselves ''Ambrones'', which could indicate a relationship with the [[Ambrones]] of northern Europe.<ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=Boardman |title=The Cambridge ancient history: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525-479 BC |year=1988 |page=716}}</ref> Little is known of the Ligurian language. Only place-names and personal names remain. It appears to be an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] branch with both [[Italic languages|Italic]] and particularly strong [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] affinities. Strabo tells us that they were of a different race from the Gauls who inhabited the rest of the Alps, though they resembled them in their mode of life.<ref>Strabo, ''Geography'', book 2, chapter 5, section 28.</ref> Modern linguists, like Xavier Delamarre argues that [[Ligurian language (ancient)|Ligurian]] was a Celtic language, similar to, but not the same as Gaulish.<ref>http://www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_v/vasio.html</ref><ref>http://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=Ligurian%20language%20(ancient)</ref> The Ligurian-Celtic question is also discussed by Barruol (1999). Ancient Ligurian is either listed as Celtic (epigraphic),<ref name=kruta1>{{cite book|last=Kruta|first=Venceslas|title=The Celts|year=1991|publisher=Thames and Hudson|pages=54}}</ref> or Para-Celtic (onomastic).<ref name=kruta2>{{cite book|last=Kruta|first=Venceslas|title=The Celts|year=1991|publisher=Thames and Hudson|pages=55}}</ref>
The late Golasecca culture shows increasingly strong Celtic cultural influence, but at the same time there was an expansion of the [[Etruscan civilization]] from the south, the [[Po Valley]] being culturally dominated by the Etruscans by the end of the 6th century BC. Northern Italy during the 5th century BC was thus an ethnic mix of Gauls, Etruscans, [[Ligurians]], [[Raetians]] and [[Adriatic Veneti|Venetians]], and only in the early 4th century BC did the Gauls gain the upper hand, to be replaced in turn by the [[Roman conquest of Italy|Romans]] by the end of the 3rd century BC.


The Veneti (also called ''heneti'' in [[Latin]], ἐνετοί ''enetoi'' in [[Greek language|Greek]]) were an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]] who inhabited north-eastern [[Italy]], in an area corresponding to the modern-day region of the [[Veneto]].<ref name="ven3">
[[Polybius]] in the 2nd century BC wrote about co-existence of the [[Celts]] in northern [[Italy]] with Etruscan nations in the period before the [[Battle of the Allia|Sack of Rome]] in 390 BC. [[Livy]] (v. 34) has the [[Insubres]], led by [[Bellovesus]], arrive in northern Italy during the reign of [[Tarquinius Priscus]] (6th century BC), occupying the area between [[Milan]] and [[Cremona]]. Milan (''Mediolanum'') itself is presumably a Gaulish foundation of the early 4th century BC, its name having a Celtic etymology of "[city] in the middle of the [Padanic] plain".
[http://www.venetoimage.com/svc.htm Storia, vita, costumi, religiosità dei Veneti antichi] at .www.venetoimage.com (in Italian). Accessed on 2009-08-18.</ref> They spoke the [[Venetic language|Venetic]], an extinct [[Indo-European language]] which is attested in approximately 300 short inscriptions dating from the 6th to 1st centuries BC. Venetic appears to share several similarities with [[Latin language|Latin]] and the [[Italic languages]], but also has some affinities with other IE languages, especially [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] and [[Celtic languages|Celtic]].<ref>Michel Lejeune (1974), ''Manuel de la langue vénète.'' Heidelberg: Indogermanische Bibliothek, Lehr- und Handbücher.</ref><ref>[[Julius Pokorny]] (1959), ''Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch''. Publisher Bern.
</ref> By the 4th century BC the [[Adriatic Veneti|Veneti]] had been so Celticized that [[Polybius]] wrote that the Veneti of the 2nd century BC were identical to the Gauls except for language. <ref>History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC by H. H. Scullard,2002,page 16: "... of healing. In the fourth century their culture became so Celticized that Polybius described the second-century Veneti as practically in- distinguishable ..."</ref> The Greek historian [[Strabo]] (64 BC–AD 24), on the other hand, conjectured that the Adriatic Veneti were descendant from Celts who in turn were related to later [[Veneti (Gaul)|Celtic tribe of the same name]] who lived on the Belgian coast and fought against [[Julius Caesar]]. He further suggested that the identification of the Adriatic Veneti with the Paphlagonian Enetoi led by Antenor — which he attributes to [[Sophocles]] (496–406 BC) — was a mistake due to the similarity of the names.<ref name="strabo">
Strabo, ''Geography'', ''Book IV, Chapter 4:''
"It is these Veneti [the Gallic tribe of the Belgae], I think, who settled the colony that is on the Adriatic (for about all the Celti that are in Italy migrated from the transalpine land, just as did the [[Boii]] and [[Senones]]), although, on account of the likeness of name, people call them Paphlagonians. I do not speak positively, however, for with reference to such matters probability suffices." ''Book V, Chapter 1:'' "Concerning the Heneti there are two different accounts: Some say that the Heneti too are colonists of those Celti of like name who live on the ocean-coast; while others say that certain of the Heneti of Paphlagonia escaped hither with Antenor from the Trojan war, and, as testimony in this, adduce their devotion to the breeding of horses — a devotion which now, indeed, has wholly disappeared, although formerly it was prized among them, from the fact of their ancient rivalry in the matter of producing mares for mule-breeding." ''Book 13, Chapter 1:'' "At any rate, [[Sophocles]] says that [...] Antenor and his children safely escaped to Thrace with the survivors of the Heneti, and from there got across to the Adriatic Henetice, as it is called."
</ref>

[[Livy]] (v. 34) has the [[Insubres]], led by [[Bellovesus]], arrive in northern Italy during the reign of [[Tarquinius Priscus]] (7th-6th century BC), occupying the area between [[Milan]] and [[Cremona]]. Milan (''Mediolanum'') itself is presumably a Gaulish foundation of the early 4th century BC, its name having a Celtic etymology of "[city] in the middle of the [Padanic] plain". In 391 BC Gauls "who had their homes beyond the Alps streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennine mountains]] and the Alps" according to [[Diodorus Siculus]]. [[Polybius]] in the 2nd century BC wrote about co-existence of the Celts in northern [[Italy]] with Etruscan nations in the period before the [[Battle of the Allia|Sack of Rome]] in 390 BC.


===Gallic expansion and Roman conquest===
===Gallic expansion and Roman conquest===

Revision as of 12:05, 1 July 2015

This article is about the Roman province. For other uses of the word "Cisalpine", see Cisalpine (disambiguation).
Map of Cisalpine Gaul, extending from Venice on the Adriatic, to Pisa and Nice on the Mediterranean, to Lake Geneva in the west, and the Alps in the North, from Abraham Ortelius' Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, the first modern atlas of the world. Antwerp, 1608.

Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina), also called Gallia Citerior or Gallia Togata,[1] was the part of Northern Italy inhabited by Celts (Gauls) since 600 century BC. Conquered by the Roman Republic in the 220s BC, it was a Roman province from c. 81 BC until 42 BC, when it was merged into Roman Italy.[2] Until that time, it was considered part of Gaul, precisely that part of Gaul on the "hither side of the Alps" (from the perspective of the Romans), as opposed to Transalpine Gaul ("on the far side of the Alps").[3]

Gallia Cisalpina was further subdivided into Gallia Cispadana and Gallia Transpadana, i.e. its portions south and north of the Po River, respectively. The Roman province of the 1st century BC was bounded on the north and west by the Alps, in the south as far as Placentia by the river Po, and then by the Apennines and the river Rubicon, and in the east by the Adriatic Sea.[4] In 49 BC all inhabitants of Cisalpine Gaul received Roman citizenship,[5] and eventually the province was divided among four of the eleven regions of Italy: Regio VIII Gallia Cispadana, Regio IX Liguria, Regio X Venetia et Histria and Regio XI Gallia Transpadana.[6]

History

Early history

Further information: Ancient peoples of Italy
Peoples of northern Italy during the 4th to 3rd centuries BC.

The Canegrate culture (13th century BC) may represent the first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic[7] population from the northwest part of the Alps that, through the Alpine passes, had already penetrated and settled in the western Po valley between Lake Maggiore and Lake Como (Scamozzina culture). They brought a new funerary practice—cremation—which supplanted inhumation. It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto-Celtic presence can be traced back to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (XVI-XV century BC), when North Westwern Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artifacts, including ornaments, to the western groups of the Tumulus culture.[8] (Central Europe, 1600 BC - 1200 BC). The bearers of the Canegrate culture maintained its homogeneity for only a century, after which it melded with the Ligurian aboriginal populations and with this union gave rise to a new phase called the Golasecca culture,[9][10] which is nowadays identified with the Celtic Lepontii.[11][12]

Ligures lived in Northern Mediterranean Coast straddling South-east French and North-west Italian coasts, including parts of Tuscany, Elba island and Corsica. Ligurian tribes were also present in Latium (see Rutuli)[13] and in Samnium.[14] According to Plutarch they called themselves Ambrones, which could indicate a relationship with the Ambrones of northern Europe.[15] Little is known of the Ligurian language. Only place-names and personal names remain. It appears to be an Indo-European branch with both Italic and particularly strong Celtic affinities. Strabo tells us that they were of a different race from the Gauls who inhabited the rest of the Alps, though they resembled them in their mode of life.[16] Modern linguists, like Xavier Delamarre argues that Ligurian was a Celtic language, similar to, but not the same as Gaulish.[17][18] The Ligurian-Celtic question is also discussed by Barruol (1999). Ancient Ligurian is either listed as Celtic (epigraphic),[19] or Para-Celtic (onomastic).[20]

The Veneti (also called heneti in Latin, ἐνετοί enetoi in Greek) were an Indo-European people who inhabited north-eastern Italy, in an area corresponding to the modern-day region of the Veneto.[21] They spoke the Venetic, an extinct Indo-European language which is attested in approximately 300 short inscriptions dating from the 6th to 1st centuries BC. Venetic appears to share several similarities with Latin and the Italic languages, but also has some affinities with other IE languages, especially Germanic and Celtic.[22][23] By the 4th century BC the Veneti had been so Celticized that Polybius wrote that the Veneti of the 2nd century BC were identical to the Gauls except for language. [24] The Greek historian Strabo (64 BC–AD 24), on the other hand, conjectured that the Adriatic Veneti were descendant from Celts who in turn were related to later Celtic tribe of the same name who lived on the Belgian coast and fought against Julius Caesar. He further suggested that the identification of the Adriatic Veneti with the Paphlagonian Enetoi led by Antenor — which he attributes to Sophocles (496–406 BC) — was a mistake due to the similarity of the names.[25]

Livy (v. 34) has the Insubres, led by Bellovesus, arrive in northern Italy during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus (7th-6th century BC), occupying the area between Milan and Cremona. Milan (Mediolanum) itself is presumably a Gaulish foundation of the early 4th century BC, its name having a Celtic etymology of "[city] in the middle of the [Padanic] plain". In 391 BC Gauls "who had their homes beyond the Alps streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the Apennine mountains and the Alps" according to Diodorus Siculus. Polybius in the 2nd century BC wrote about co-existence of the Celts in northern Italy with Etruscan nations in the period before the Sack of Rome in 390 BC.

Gallic expansion and Roman conquest

Detail of the Tabula Peutingeriana showing northern Italy between Augusta Pretoria (Aosta) and Placentia (Piacenza); the Insubres are marked as inhabiting the Po Valley upstream of Ticeno (Pavia) and downstream of the Trumpli and Mesiates which occupy the upper reaches of the Sesia and Agogna rivers.
Further information: Boii, Carni, Cenomani (Cisalpine Gaul), Graioceli, Insubres, Lepontii, Lingones, Orobii, Salassi, Segusini, Senones, Taurini, and Vertamocorii

In 391 BC, Celts "who had their homes beyond the Alps, streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the Appennine mountains and the Alps" according to Diodorus Siculus. The Roman army was routed in the battle of Allia, and Rome was sacked in 390 BC by the Senones.

The defeat of the combined Samnite, Celtic and Etruscan alliance by the Romans in the Third Samnite War ending in 290 BC sounded the beginning of the end of the Celtic domination in mainland Europe. At the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC, a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed.

In the Second Punic War, the Boii and Insubres allied themselves with the Carthaginians, laying siege to Mutina (Modena). In response, Rome sent an expedition led by L. Manlius Vulso. Vulso's army was ambushed twice, and the Senate sent Scipio with an additional force of in support. These are the Roman forces encountered by Hannibal after his crossing of the Alps. The Romans were defeated in the Battle of the Ticinus, moving all Gauls except for the Cenomani to join the insurgency. Rome now sent the army of Tiberius Sempronius Longus who engaged Hannibal in the Battle of the Trebia, also resulting in a Roman defeat, forcing Rome to temporarily abandon Gallia Cisalpina altogether, returning only after the defeat of Carthage in 202 BC. Rome conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdom in Italy[which?] in 192 BC.

Roman province

See also: Roman Republican governors of Gaul

Sometimes referred to as Gallia Citerior ("Hither Gaul"), Provincia Ariminum, or Gallia Togata ("Toga-wearing Gaul", indicating the region's early Romanization). Gallia Transpadana denoted that part of Cisalpine Gaul between the Padus (now the Po River) and the Alps, while Gallia Cispadana was the part to the south of the river.

Probably officially established around 81 BC, the province was governed from Mutina (modern-day Modena), where, in 73 BC, forces under Spartacus defeated the legion of Gaius Cassius Longinus, the provincial governor.

In 49 BC, with the Lex Roscia, Julius Caesar granted to the populations of the province the full Roman citizenship.

The Rubicon River marked its southern boundary with Italia proper. By crossing this river in 49 BC with his battle-hardened legions, returning from the conquest of Gaul, Julius Caesar precipitated the civil war within the Roman Republic which led, eventually, to the establishment of the Roman Empire. To this day the term "crossing the Rubicon" means, figuratively, "reaching the point of no return".

The province was merged into Italia about 42 BC, as part of Octavian's "Italicization" program during the Second Triumvirate. The dissolution of the provincia required a new governing law or lex, although its contemporary title is unknown. The parts of it inscribed on a bronze tablet preserved in the museum at Parma are entirely concerned with arranging the judiciary: the law appoints two viri and four viri juri dicundo, and also mentions a Prefect of Mutina.

Virgil, Catullus and Livy,[26] three famous sons of the province, were born in Gallia Cisalpina.[27]

Archaeology

Further information: La Tène culture
Gallic Phalerae (a type of military decoration) found in Lombardy; Santa Giulia Museum (Brescia).[28]

The Canegrate culture

Main article: Canegrate culture

The Canegrate culture reflects a late Bronze Age to early Iron Age culture in the Pianura Padana. These areas are now known as western Lombardy, eastern Piedmont and Canton Ticino.

The Canegrate culture testifies to the arrival of a first "proto-Celtic"[dubious – discuss][29] migratory wave of populations from the northwest part of the Alps that, crossing the alpine passes, had not yet infiltrated and settled down in the western Po area between Lake Maggiore and the Lake of Como. They were bearers of a new funerary practice, which supplanted the old culture of inhumation instead introducing cremation.

The population of Canegrate maintained its own homogeneity for a limited period of time, approximately a century, after which they blended with the Ligurian aboriginal populations to create a new culture called the Golasecca culture.

Golasecca culture

Main articles: Golasecca culture and Hallstatt culture

The Culture of Golasecca (9th to 4th centuries BC) spread between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age in the areas of northwestern Lombardy and Piedmont, and the Canton Ticino [3]. At the end of the prehistoric period, this was an area where travelers frequently stopped and had contact with the Hallstatt culture to the west, the Urnfield culture to the north and with the Villanova culture to the south. The Golasecca culture was initially concentrated in the foothills area south of the Alps. It later spread throughout the lakes area, and established many settlements representing this original culture. The oldest remains found thus far can be dated from the 9th century BC.

Language

Main articles: Cisalpine Gaulish and Lepontic language
File:Castelletto Ticino S 113 575BC.JPG
The oldest known Lepontic inscription (from Castelletto sopra Ticino), dated ca. 575 BC.

There is some debate whether the Lepontic language should be considered as a Gaulish dialect or an independent branch within Continental Celtic. Apart from Lepontic, the "Cisalpine Gaulish language" proper would be the Gaulish language as spoken by the Gauls invading northern Italy in the 4th century BC. This is a dialect of the larger Gaulish language, with some known phonetic features distinguishing it from Transalpine dialects, such as -nn- replacing -nd- and s(s) replacing -χs-.

Sources

  1. ^ von Hefner, Joseph (1837). Geographie des Transalpinischen Galliens. Munich.
  2. ^ Long, George (1866). Decline of the Roman republic: Volume 2. London.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ^ Snith, William George (1854). Dictionary of Greek and Roman geography: Vol.1. Boston.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  4. ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1857). A manual of ancient geography. Philadelphia.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  5. ^ Cassius Dio XLI, 36.
  6. ^ Brouwer, Hendrik H. J. (1989). Hiera Kala: Images of animal sacrifice in archaic and classical Greece. Utrecht.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  7. ^ Venceslas Kruta: La grande storia dei celti. La nascita, l'affermazione e la decadenza, Newton & Compton, 2003, ISBN 88-8289-851-2, ISBN 978-88-8289-851-9
  8. ^ "The Golasecca civilization is therefore the expression of the oldest [ [ Celts ] ] of Italy and included several groups that had the name of Insubres, Laevi, Lepontii, Oromobii (o Orumbovii)". (Raffaele C. De Marinis)
  9. ^ Maps of the Golasecca culture. [1] [2]
  10. ^ G. Frigerio, Il territorio comasco dall'età della pietra alla fine dell'età del bronzo, in Como nell'antichità, Società Archeologica Comense, Como 1987.
  11. ^ Kruta, Venceslas (1991). The Celts. Thames and Hudson. pp. 52–56.
  12. ^ Stifter, David (2008). Old Celtic Languages (PDF). pp. 24–37.
  13. ^ Hazlit, William. The Classical Gazetteer (1851), p. 297.
  14. ^ http://www.academia.edu/5326887/DEPORTATION_OF_INDIGENOUS_POPULATION_AS_A_STRATEGY_FOR_ROMAN_DOMINION_IN_HISPANIA
  15. ^ Boardman, John (1988). The Cambridge ancient history: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525-479 BC. p. 716.
  16. ^ Strabo, Geography, book 2, chapter 5, section 28.
  17. ^ http://www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_v/vasio.html
  18. ^ http://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=Ligurian%20language%20(ancient)
  19. ^ Kruta, Venceslas (1991). The Celts. Thames and Hudson. p. 54.
  20. ^ Kruta, Venceslas (1991). The Celts. Thames and Hudson. p. 55.
  21. ^ Storia, vita, costumi, religiosità dei Veneti antichi at .www.venetoimage.com (in Italian). Accessed on 2009-08-18.
  22. ^ Michel Lejeune (1974), Manuel de la langue vénète. Heidelberg: Indogermanische Bibliothek, Lehr- und Handbücher.
  23. ^ Julius Pokorny (1959), Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Publisher Bern.
  24. ^ History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC by H. H. Scullard,2002,page 16: "... of healing. In the fourth century their culture became so Celticized that Polybius described the second-century Veneti as practically in- distinguishable ..."
  25. ^ Strabo, Geography, Book IV, Chapter 4: "It is these Veneti [the Gallic tribe of the Belgae], I think, who settled the colony that is on the Adriatic (for about all the Celti that are in Italy migrated from the transalpine land, just as did the Boii and Senones), although, on account of the likeness of name, people call them Paphlagonians. I do not speak positively, however, for with reference to such matters probability suffices." Book V, Chapter 1: "Concerning the Heneti there are two different accounts: Some say that the Heneti too are colonists of those Celti of like name who live on the ocean-coast; while others say that certain of the Heneti of Paphlagonia escaped hither with Antenor from the Trojan war, and, as testimony in this, adduce their devotion to the breeding of horses — a devotion which now, indeed, has wholly disappeared, although formerly it was prized among them, from the fact of their ancient rivalry in the matter of producing mares for mule-breeding." Book 13, Chapter 1: "At any rate, Sophocles says that [...] Antenor and his children safely escaped to Thrace with the survivors of the Heneti, and from there got across to the Adriatic Henetice, as it is called."
  26. ^ Uchicago.edu
  27. ^ The Dawn of the Roman Empire, by Livy, John Yardley, Waldemar Heckel.
  28. ^ "Museo del monastero di Santa Giulia in Brescia". Santagiulia.info. Retrieved 2011-09-16.
  29. ^ Kruta, Venceslas: La grande storia dei celti. La nascita, l'affermazione e la decadenza, Newton & Compton, 2003, ISBN 88-8289-851-2, ISBN 978-88-8289-851-9

See also

Literature

  • ARSLAN E. A. 1992 (1995), La Nécropole celtique de Garlasco (Province de Pavie), in L’Europe celtique du Ve au IIIe Siècle avant J.-C. (Hautvillers, 8-10 octobre 1992), Sceaux, pp. 169–188.
  • Luigi Bossi, Della istoria d'Italia antica e moderna, Milano, 1819
  • Jean Bousquet, La Cisalpine gauloise du IIIe au Ier siècle avant J.-C.
  • Corbella, Roberto: "Celti : itinerari storici e turistici tra Lombardia, Piemonte, Svizzera", Macchione, Varese c2000; 119 p., ill.; 20 cm; ISBN 88-8340-030-5; EAN: 9788883400308
  • Corbella, Roberto: "Magia e mistero nella terra dei Celti : Como, Varesotto, Ossola"; Macchione, Varese 2004; 159 p. : ill. ; 25 cm; ISBN 88-8340-186-7; EAN: 9788883401862
  • D'Aversa, Arnaldo: "La Valle Padana tra Etruschi, Celti e Romani", PAIDEIA, Brescia 1986, 101 p. ill., 21 cm, ISBN 88-394-0381-7
  • Raffaele De Marinis and Venceslas Kruta in ‘’Italia, omnium terrarum alumna’’, Garzanti-Scheiwiller, 1990
  • Grassi, Maria Teresa: "I Celti in Italia" - 2. ed, Longanesi, Milano 1991 ([Biblioteca di Archelogia] Error: {{Lang}}: missing language tag (help)); 154 p., 32 c. di tav., ill. ; 21 cm; ISBN 88-304-1012-8
  • Grassi, Maria Teresa: "La ceramica a vernice nera di Calvatone-Bedriacum", All'Insegna del Giglio, Firenze 2008, pp. 224 brossura, ISSN/ISBN 9788878143692
  • GRASSI M. T. 1995, La romanizzazione degli Insubri. Celti e Romani in Transpadana attraverso la documentazione storica e archeologica, Milano.
  • GRASSI M. T. 1999, I Celti della Cisalpina Centrale: dall’ager Insubrium alla XI Regio Transpadana, in Insubri e Cenomani tra Sesia e Adige, Seminario di Studi (Milano 27-28.2.1998), “Rassegna di Studi del Civico Museo Archeologico e del Civico Gabinetto Numismatico di Milano”, LXIII-LXIV, pp. 101–108.
  • Lawrence Keppie, The Making of the roman army, From Republic to Empire, University of Oklahoma, 1998
  • Kruta, Venceslas: "I celti e il Mediterraneo", Jaca Book, 2004, 78 p., ISBN 88-16-43628-X, ISBN 978-88-16-43628-2
  • Kruta, Venceslas: "La grande storia dei celti. La nascita, l'affermazione e la decadenza", Newton & Compton, 2003, 512 p., ISBN 88-8289-851-2, ISBN 978-88-8289-851-9
  • Kruta, Venceslas & Manfredi, Valerio M.: "I celti d'Italia", Mondadori, 2000 (Collana: Oscar storia), ISBN 88-04-47710-5, ISBN 978-88-04-47710-5
  • Giuseppe Micali, L'Italia avanti il dominio dei Romani, Genova, 1830
  • Violante, Antonio; introduzione di Venceslas Kruta: "I Celti a sud delle Alpi", Silvana, Milano 1993 (Popoli dell'Italia Antica), 137 p., ill., fot.; 32 cm; ISBN 88-366-0442-0

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