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The '''Mayak Production Association''' (Russian: Производственное объединение «Маяк», from Маяк 'lighthouse') is one of the biggest nuclear facilities in the Russian Federation, housing plutonium production reactors and a reprocessing plant. The nuclear complex is located 150&nbsp;km south-east of [[Ekaterinburg]], between the towns of [[Kasli]] and [[Tatysh]], and 72&nbsp;km northwest of [[Chelyabinsk]]. The closest city, [[Ozyorsk]], is the central administrative territorial district. As part of the Russian (formerly Soviet) nuclear weapons program, Mayak was formerly known as Chelyabinsk-40 and later as Chelyabinsk-65, referring to the postal codes of the site.<ref name=Standring>{{cite journal| url=http://www.nrpa.no/dav/1fbb52ea04.pdf | title=Review of the current status and operations at Mayak Production Association | publisher=[[Norwegian Nuclear Energy Safety Authority|Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority]] | year = 2006 | author=Will Standring }}</ref>
The '''Mayak Production Association''' (Russian: Производственное объединение «Маяк», from Маяк 'lighthouse') is one of the biggest nuclear facilities in the Russian Federation, housing plutonium production reactors and a reprocessing plant. The nuclear complex is located 150&nbsp;km south-east of [[Ekaterinburg]], between the towns of [[Kasli]] and [[Tatysh]], and 72&nbsp;km northwest of [[Chelyabinsk]]. The closest city, [[Ozyorsk]], is the central administrative territorial district. As part of the Russian (formerly Soviet) nuclear weapons program, Mayak was formerly known as Chelyabinsk-40 and later as Chelyabinsk-65, referring to the postal codes of the site.<ref name=Standring>{{cite journal| url=http://www.nrpa.no/dav/1fbb52ea04.pdf | title=Review of the current status and operations at Mayak Production Association | publisher=[[Norwegian Nuclear Energy Safety Authority|Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority]] | year = 2006 | author=Will Standring }}</ref>


Built in total secrecy between 1945 and 1948, the Mayak plant was the first reactor used to create [[plutonium]] for the [[Soviet atomic bomb project]]. In accordance with [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] procedure and supervised by [[NKVD]] Chief [[Lavrenti Beria]], it was the utmost priority to produce enough weapons-grade material to match the U.S. nuclear superiority following the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]. Little to no consideration was paid to worker safety or responsible disposal of waste materials, and the reactors all were optimized for plutonium production, producing many tons of contaminated materials and utilizing primitive open-cycle cooling systems which directly contaminated every gallon of the thousands of gallons of cooling water the reactors used every day.<ref>[https://nuclear-news.net/information/nuclear-history/nuclear-history-the-forgotten-disaster/]</ref><ref name="nti">http://www.nti.org/learn/facilities/894/</ref>
⚫
In 1957 Mayak was the site of the [[Kyshtym disaster]], one of the worst nuclear accidents in history. During this catastrophe, a poorly maintained storage tank exploded, releasing 50-100 tons of [[high level waste|high-level radioactive waste.]] The resulting radioactive cloud contaminated an expansive territory of more than 750 km<sup>2</sup> (290 sq mi) in the eastern Urals with the consequence of sickness and death from [[radiation poisoning]].[[File:Mayak-FMSF-Cetac-25.jpg|thumb|250px|Fissile Material Storage Facility (FMSF). Looking at administration building of the storage facility to include all the support facilities. Excavator is one of the pieces of construction equipment procured by the USACE.]] The Soviet regime kept this accident secret for about thirty years. The event was eventually rated at 6 on the seven-level [[International Nuclear Event Scale|INES]] scale, third in severity only to the disasters at [[Chernobyl disaster|Chernobyl]] in Ukraine and [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster|Fukushima]] in Japan.<ref name=":0" />


Lake Kyzyltash was the largest natural lake capable of providing cooling water to the reactors; it was rapidly contaminated via the open-cycle system. Lake Karachay was even closer, however the lake was too small to provide sufficient cooling water. Lake Karachay was then designated a close-by and convenient dumping ground for large quantities of high level radioactive waste too "hot" to store in the facility's underground storage vats. The original plan was to use the lake to store highly radioactive material until it could be returned to the Mayak facility's underground concrete storage vats, but this proved impossible due to the lethal levels of radioactivity. The lake was used for this purpose until the [[Kyshtym Disaster]] in 1957, in which the underground vats exploded due to a faulty cooling system. This incident caused widespread contamination of the entire Mayak area (as well as a large swath of territory to the northeast). This led to greater caution among the administration, fearing international attention, and caused the dumping grounds to be spread out over a variety of areas (including several lakes and the [[Techa River]], along which many villages lay).<ref name="nti" />

⚫
In 1957 Mayak was the site of the [[Kyshtym disaster]], one of the worst nuclear accidents in history. During this catastrophe, a poorly maintained storage tank exploded, releasing 50-100 tons of [[high level waste|high-level radioactive waste.]] The resulting radioactive cloud contaminated an expansive territory of more than 750 km<sup>2</sup> (290 sq mi) in the eastern Urals with the consequence of sickness and death from [[radiation poisoning]].[[File:Mayak-FMSF-Cetac-25.jpg|thumb|250px|Fissile Material Storage Facility (FMSF). Looking at administration building of the storage facility to include all the support facilities. Excavator is one of the pieces of construction equipment procured by the USACE.]] The Soviet regime kept this accident secret for about thirty years. The event was eventually rated at 6 on the seven-level [[International Nuclear Event Scale|INES]] scale, third in severity only to the disasters at [[Chernobyl disaster|Chernobyl]] in Ukraine and [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster|Fukushima]] in Japan.<ref name=":0" />


==Design and structure==
==Design and structure==

Revision as of 13:18, 28 May 2017

For other uses, see Mayak (disambiguation).
Mayak
Company typeFederal State Unitary Enterprise
IndustryNuclear energy
Founded1948
Headquarters
Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast
,
Russia
Revenue195,000,000 United States dollar (1994) Edit this on Wikidata
Websitepo-mayak.ru
Satellite image/map of the Mayak nuclear facility.

The Mayak Production Association (Russian: Производственное объединение «Маяк», from Маяк 'lighthouse') is one of the biggest nuclear facilities in the Russian Federation, housing plutonium production reactors and a reprocessing plant. The nuclear complex is located 150 km south-east of Ekaterinburg, between the towns of Kasli and Tatysh, and 72 km northwest of Chelyabinsk. The closest city, Ozyorsk, is the central administrative territorial district. As part of the Russian (formerly Soviet) nuclear weapons program, Mayak was formerly known as Chelyabinsk-40 and later as Chelyabinsk-65, referring to the postal codes of the site.[1]

Built in total secrecy between 1945 and 1948, the Mayak plant was the first reactor used to create plutonium for the Soviet atomic bomb project. In accordance with Stalinist procedure and supervised by NKVD Chief Lavrenti Beria, it was the utmost priority to produce enough weapons-grade material to match the U.S. nuclear superiority following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Little to no consideration was paid to worker safety or responsible disposal of waste materials, and the reactors all were optimized for plutonium production, producing many tons of contaminated materials and utilizing primitive open-cycle cooling systems which directly contaminated every gallon of the thousands of gallons of cooling water the reactors used every day.[2][3]

Lake Kyzyltash was the largest natural lake capable of providing cooling water to the reactors; it was rapidly contaminated via the open-cycle system. Lake Karachay was even closer, however the lake was too small to provide sufficient cooling water. Lake Karachay was then designated a close-by and convenient dumping ground for large quantities of high level radioactive waste too "hot" to store in the facility's underground storage vats. The original plan was to use the lake to store highly radioactive material until it could be returned to the Mayak facility's underground concrete storage vats, but this proved impossible due to the lethal levels of radioactivity. The lake was used for this purpose until the Kyshtym Disaster in 1957, in which the underground vats exploded due to a faulty cooling system. This incident caused widespread contamination of the entire Mayak area (as well as a large swath of territory to the northeast). This led to greater caution among the administration, fearing international attention, and caused the dumping grounds to be spread out over a variety of areas (including several lakes and the Techa River, along which many villages lay).[3]

In 1957 Mayak was the site of the Kyshtym disaster, one of the worst nuclear accidents in history. During this catastrophe, a poorly maintained storage tank exploded, releasing 50-100 tons of high-level radioactive waste. The resulting radioactive cloud contaminated an expansive territory of more than 750 km2 (290 sq mi) in the eastern Urals with the consequence of sickness and death from radiation poisoning.

Fissile Material Storage Facility (FMSF). Looking at administration building of the storage facility to include all the support facilities. Excavator is one of the pieces of construction equipment procured by the USACE.

The Soviet regime kept this accident secret for about thirty years. The event was eventually rated at 6 on the seven-level INES scale, third in severity only to the disasters at Chernobyl in Ukraine and Fukushima in Japan.[4]

Design and structure

Mayak's nuclear facility plant covers about 90 square kilometers. The site borders Ozyorsk, in which a majority of the staff of Mayak live. Mayak, itself, was not shown on Soviet public maps. The location of the site together with the plant city was chosen to minimize the effects that harmful emissions could potentially have on populated areas. Mayak is surrounded by a ~250 km2 exclusion zone. Nearby is the site of the South Urals nuclear power plant.[5]

The Mayak plant was built between 1945–48, in a great hurry and in total secrecy as part of the Soviet Union's atomic bomb project. Five nuclear reactors were built to make, refine, and machine plutonium for weapons. Later the plant came to specialize in reprocessing spent nuclear fuel from nuclear reactors and plutonium from decommissioned weapons. Today the plant makes tritium and radioisotopes, not plutonium. In recent years, proposals that the plant reprocess waste from foreign nuclear reactors have given rise to controversy.

Nuclear history

In the early years of its operation, the Mayak plant released quantities of radioactively contaminated water into several small lakes near the plant, and into the Techa river, whose waters ultimately flow into the Ob River. Mayak continues to dump low-level radioactive waste directly into the Techa River today. Medium level waste is discharged into the Karachay Lake. According to the data of the Department of Natural Resources in the Ural Region, in the year 2000, more than 250 million m³ of water containing thousands of curies of tritium, strontium, and cesium-137 were discharged into the Techa River. The tritium concentration, alone, in the Techa River near the village Muslyumovo exceeds the permissible limit by 30 times.[4]

Rosatom, a state-owned nuclear operations corporation, began to resettle residents of Muslyumovo in 2006. However, only half of the residents of the village were moved. [4] People continue to live in the immediate area of the plant, including Ozersk and other downstream areas. Residents report no problems with their health and the health of Mayak plant workers. However, these claims lack hard verification, and many who worked at the plant in 1950s and 1960s subsequently died from the effects of radiation.[6][7] While the situation has since improved, the administration of the Mayak plant has been repeatedly criticized in recent years by Greenpeace and other environmental advocates for environmentally unsound practices.

Kyshtym disaster

Main article: Kyshtym disaster
Fissile Material Storage Facility (FMSF). Looking at the south side of the main Administration Building and security building of the storage facility.

Working conditions at Mayak resulted in severe health hazards and many accidents.[8] The most notable accident occurred on 29 September 1957, when the failure of the cooling system for a tank storing tens of thousands of tons of dissolved nuclear waste resulted in a chemical (non-nuclear) explosion having an energy estimated at about 75 tons of TNT (310 gigajoules). This released 740 PBq (20 MCi) of fission products, of which 74 PBq (2 MCi) drifted off the site, creating a contaminated region of 15,000-20,000 km2 called the East Urals Radioactive trace.[9][10] Subsequently, an estimated 49 to 55 people died of radiation-induced cancer,[10] 66 were diagnosed with chronic radiation syndrome,[11] 10,000 people were evacuated from their homes, and 470,000 people were exposed to radiation.[4]

The Soviet Union did not release news of the accident and denied it happened for close to thirty years. However, residents of Chelyabinsk district in the Southern Urals reported observing polar-lights in the sky near the plant, and American aerial spy photos had documented the destruction of the disaster by 1960.[12] This nuclear accident, the Soviet Union's worst before the Chernobyl disaster, is categorized as a Level 6 "Serious Accident" on the 0-7 International Nuclear Events Scale.

When Zhores Medvedev exposed the disaster in a 1976 article in the New Scientist, some exaggerated claims circulated in the absence of any verifiable information from the Soviet Union. People "grew hysterical with fear with the incidence of unknown 'mysterious' diseases breaking out. Victims were seen with skin 'sloughing off' their faces, hands and other exposed parts of their bodies."[13] "Hundreds of square miles were left barren and unusable for decades and maybe centuries. Hundreds of people died, thousands were injured and surrounding areas were evacuated."[14] Professor Leo Tumerman, former head of the Biophysics Laboratory at the Institute of Molecular Biology in Moscow, disclosed what he knew of the accident around the same time. Russian documents gradually declassified from 1989 onward show the true events were less severe than rumored.

According to Gyorgy,[15] who invoked the Freedom of Information Act to open up the relevant Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) files, the CIA knew of the 1957 Mayak accident all along, but kept it secret to prevent adverse consequences for the fledgling USA nuclear industry. "Ralph Nader surmised that the information had not been released because of the reluctance of the CIA to highlight a nuclear accident in the USSR, that could cause concern among people living near nuclear facilities in the USA."[13] Only in 1992, shortly after the fall of the USSR, did the Russians officially acknowledge the accident.

Other accidents

Fissile Material Storage Facility (FMSF). The building is the ventilation center of the storage facility. The ventilation tunnel showing in the north of the ventilation center.

In December 1968, the facility was experimenting with plutonium purification techniques. Two operators were using an "unfavorable geometry vessel in an improvised and unapproved operation as a temporary vessel for storing plutonium organic solution."[16] "Unfavorable geometry" means that the vessel was too compact, reducing the amount of plutonium needed to achieve a critical mass to less than the amount present. After most of the solution had been poured out, there was a flash of light and heat. After the complex had been evacuated, the shift supervisor and radiation control supervisor re-entered the building. The shift supervisor then entered the room of the incident, caused another, larger nuclear reaction and irradiated himself with a deadly dose of radiation.[17]

The Mayak plant is associated with two other major nuclear accidents. The first occurred as a result of heavy rains causing Lake Karachay, a dried-up radioactively polluted lake (used as a dumping basin for Mayak's radioactive waste since 1951), to release radioactive material into surrounding waters. The second occurred in 1967 when wind spread dust from the bottom of Lake Karachay over parts of Ozersk; over 400,000 people were irradiated[quantify].[9][better source needed]

Major accidents at Mayak, 1953-2008:[18]

  • 15/03/1953 - Criticality accident. Contamination of plant personnel occurred.
  • 13/10/1955 - Rupture of process equipment and the destruction of a process building.
  • 21/04/1957 - Criticality accident. One operator died from receiving over 3000 rad. Five others received doses of 300 to 1,000 rem and temporarily became sick with radiation poisoning.
  • 10/02/1958 - Criticality accident in SCR plant. Plant workers conducted experiments to determine the critical mass of enriched uranium in a cylindrical container with different concentrations of uranium in solution. Personnel received doses from 7600 to 13,000 rem, resulting in three deaths and one case of blindness caused by radiation sickness.
  • 12/05/1960 - Criticality accident. Five people were contaminated.
  • 26/02/1962 - Destruction of equipment. An explosion occurred in the absorption column.
  • 09/07/1962 - Criticality accident.
  • 16/12/1965 - Criticality accident. Seventeen individuals received exposure to small amounts of radiation over a period of 14 hours.
  • 10/12/1968 - Criticality accident. Plutonium solution was poured into a cylindrical container with dangerous geometry. One person died, another took a high dose of radiation and radiation sickness, after which he had both legs and his right arm amputated.
  • 11/02/1976 - Unsafe actions of staff development at the radiochemical plant caused an autocatalytic reaction of concentrated nitric acid and organic liquid complex composition. The device exploded, contaminating the repair zone and areas around the plant. The incident merited a International Nuclear Event Scale rating of 3.
  • 10/02/1984 - Explosion.
  • 16/11/1990 - Explosion. Two people received burns and one was killed.
  • 07/17/1993 - Accident at radioisotope plant, resulting in the destruction of the absorption column and release into the environment of a small amount of α-aerosols. Radiation emission was localized at the manufacturing facility of the shop.
  • 08/02/1993 - Depressurization of a pipeline caused 2 m^3 of radioactive slurry (about 100 m^2 of contaminated surface) to leak to the surface of the pulp radioactive activity of about 0.3 Ci. Radioactive trace was localized, contaminated soil removed.
  • 12/27/1993 - Incident at radioisotope plant where the replacement of a filter resulted in the release into the atmosphere of radioactive aerosols. Emissions were on the α-activity of 0.033 Ci, and β-activity of 0.36 mCi.
  • 04/02/1994 - Recorded increased release of radioactive aerosols: the β-activity of 2-day levels of Cs-137 subsistence levels, the total activity of 7.15 mCi.
  • 30/03/1994 - Recorded excess daily release of Cs-137 in 3, β-activity - 1,7, α-activity - by 1.9 times. In May 1994 the ventilation system of the building of the plant spewed activity 10.4 mCi β-aerosols. Emission of Cs-137 was 83% of the control level.
  • 07/07/1994 - The control plant detected a radioactive spot area of several square decimeters. Exposure dose was 500 millirems per second. The spot was formed by leaking sewage.
  • 31/08/1994 - Registered an increased release of radionuclides to the atmospheric pipe building reprocessing plant (238.8 mCi, with the share of Cs-137 was 4.36% of the annual emission limit of this radionuclide). The reason for the release of radionuclides was depressurization of VVER-440 fuel elements during the operation segments idle all SFA (spent fuel assemblies) as a result of an uncontrollable arc.
  • 24/03/1995 - Recorded excess of 19% of normal loading apparatus plutonium, which can be regarded as a dangerous nuclear incident.
  • 15/09/1995 - High-level liquid radioactive waste (LRW) was found in flow of cooling water. Operation of a furnace into the regulatory regime has been discontinued.
  • 21/12/1995 - Cutting of a thermometric channel exposed four workers (1.69, 0.59, 0.45, 0.34 rem) when operators violated process procedures.
  • 24/07/1995 - Cs-137 aerosols released, the value of which amounted to 0.27% of the annual value of MPE for the enterprise.
  • 14/09/1995 - Replacement covers and lubrication step manipulators registered a sharp increase in airborne α-nuclides.
  • 22/10/1996 - Depressurization occurred in a coil while channeling cooling water from one storage tanks of high-level waste. The result was contaminated pipe cooling system repositories. As a result of this incident, 10 people were exposed to radiation dose of 2.23 to 48 milli-Sieverts.
  • 20/11/1996 - A chemical-metallurgical plant in the works on the electrical exhaust fan caused aerosol release of radionuclides into the atmosphere, which made up 10% of the allowed annual emissions of the plant.
  • 27/08/1997 - In building RT-1 in one of the rooms was found to be contaminated floor area of 1 to 2 m 2, the dose rate of gamma radiation from the spot was between 40 and 200 mR / s.
  • 06/10/1997 - Recorded increasing radioactivity in the assembly building, the RT-1. Measurement of the exposure dose indicated up to 300 mR / s.
  • 23/09/1998 - While increasing power output of reactor P-2 ("Lyudmila") after engaging automatic protection allowable power level was exceeded by 10%. As a result, the three channels of the fuel rod seal failed, resulting in the contamination of equipment and pipelines of the first circuit.[19]

More recent major accidents:

  • In 2003, the plant's operating licence was revoked temporarily due to liquid radioactive waste handling procedures resulting in waste being disposed into open water.[20]
  • In June 2007, an accident involving a radioactive pulp occurred over a two-day period.[21]
  • In October 2007, a valve failure during transport of a radioactive liquid resulted in spilling of a radioactive material.[21]
  • In 2008, a repair worker was injured during a "pneumatic" incident, involving a quantity of alpha emitter release. The worker's hand was injured and the wound contaminated, with the worker's finger amputated to avoid further injury.[22]

See also

Looking at storage facility processing materials, controls, accountability, and fissile material container storage from south-west angle.

References

  1. ^ Will Standring (2006). "Review of the current status and operations at Mayak Production Association" (PDF). Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ^ [1]
  3. ^ a b http://www.nti.org/learn/facilities/894/
  4. ^ a b c d "Kyshtym Disaster". Nuclear-Heritage.net. 6 January 2014. Retrieved 25 October 2014.
  5. ^ This section copied and translated from the German Wikipedia entry for "Mayak", with some grammatical errors corrected
  6. ^ Koshurnikova, N.A.; Shilnikova, N.S.; Sokolnikov, M.E.; Bolotnikova, M.G.; Okatenko, P.V.; Kuznetsova, I.S.; Vasilenko, E.K.; Khokhryakov, V.F.; Kreslov, V.V. (2006). "Medical-dosimetry registry of workers at the 'Mayak' production association". International Journal of Low Radiation. 2 (3/4). Inderscience Publishers: 236–242. doi:10.1504/IJLR.2006.009516. Retrieved 6/01/2012. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  7. ^ Azizova, Tamara V.; Muirhead, Colin R.; Moseeva, Maria B.; Grigoryeva, Evgenia S.; Sumina, Margarita V.; O’Hagan, Jacqueline; Zhang, Wei; Haylock, Richard J. G. E.; Hunter, Nezahat (2011). "Cerebrovascular diseases in nuclear workers first employed at the Mayak PA in 1948–1972". Radiation and Environmental Biophysics. 50 (4). Springerlink: 539–552. doi:10.1007/s00411-011-0377-6. PMID 21874558. Retrieved 6/01/2012. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  8. ^ Larin, Vladislav (September–October 1999). "Mayak's walking wounded". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 55 (5): 20–27. doi:10.2968/055005008.
  9. ^ a b A report on the 1957 accident and on endemic radioactive pollution at Mayak
  10. ^ a b Standring, William J.F.; Dowdall, Mark and Strand, Per (2009). "Overview of Dose Assessment Developments and the Health of Riverside Residents Close to the "Mayak" PA Facilities, Russia". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 6 (1): 174–199. doi:10.3390/ijerph6010174. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 2672329. PMID 19440276. Retrieved 11 June 2012.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  11. ^ Gusev, Igor A.; Gusʹkova, Angelina Konstantinovna; Mettler, Fred Albert (28 March 2001). Medical Management of Radiation Accidents. CRC Press. pp. 15–29. ISBN 978-0-8493-7004-5. Retrieved 11 June 2012.
  12. ^ "The nuclear disaster of Kyshtym 1957 and the politics of the Cold War". Arcadia. Environment and Society. 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2014.
  13. ^ a b Pollock, Richard, 1978. "Soviets Experience Nuclear Accident," Critical Mass Journal 3 pp.7–8
  14. ^ Zhores Medvedev, The Australian, 9.12.1976
  15. ^ Gyorgy, A. et al., 1980. No Nukes: Everyone's Guide to Nuclear Power. South End Press ISBN 0-89608-006-4. pp. 13, 128
  16. ^ McLaughlin et al. "A Review of Criticality Accidents" by Los Alamos National Laboratory (Report LA-13638), May 2000
  17. ^ Glowing Georji: A 1994 Darwin Award nominee
  18. ^ "Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation – 2008 Report to the General Assembly" (pdf). United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. 2011. {{cite web}}: |chapter= ignored (help)
  19. ^ All of the above list transferred directly from the Russian Wikipedia entry for "Mayak". Translated and some grammatical errors corrected
  20. ^ http://www.bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/nuke_industry/siberia/mayak/27922
  21. ^ a b http://www.bellona.org/articles/articles_2007/Mayak_leak
  22. ^ http://www.bellona.org/articles/articles_2008/another_mayak_incident
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