Human rights in cyberspace: Difference between revisions
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==Governance in cyberspace== |
==Governance in cyberspace== |
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[[Anja Mihr]] says that cyberspace harbors more individuals than any other country in the world, yet it is without any government, legislative bodies, law enforcement or any other sort of constitution. Without these mechanisms difficulties arise in protecting and enjoying citizen's rights.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{rp|1}} [[Intergovernmental organization|International Governmental Organisations]] (IGO's), such as the [[United Nations]] (UN), the [[Organization of American States]], the [[African Union]] or the [[European Union]] aim to set international standards for the use of cyberspace and the Internet to be enforced by national governments, but commonly fail to do so. The problem is that state powers and their mechanisms of enforcement do not extend past the state's borders.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{rp|2}} Because cyberspace has no borders the ways and means to govern it are |
[[Anja Mihr]] says that cyberspace harbors more individuals than any other country in the world, yet it is without any government, legislative bodies, law enforcement or any other sort of constitution. Without these mechanisms difficulties arise in protecting and enjoying citizen's rights.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{rp|1}} [[Intergovernmental organization|International Governmental Organisations]] (IGO's), such as the [[United Nations]] (UN), the [[Organization of American States]], the [[African Union]] or the [[European Union]] aim to set international standards for the use of cyberspace and the Internet to be enforced by national governments, but commonly fail to do so. The problem is that state powers and their mechanisms of enforcement do not extend past the state's borders.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{rp|2}} |
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Because cyberspace has no borders, the ways and means to govern it are as-yet undefined. This leads to problems wherein those who are willing to commit crimes find it easier to cross borders through the web, as it is unclear where jurisdiction lies.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fanchiotti|first1=Vittoriio|last2=Pierini|first2=Jean Paul|date=2012|title=Impact of Cyberspace on Human Rights and Democracy|pages=51}}</ref> If a governing regime was ever established, it would most likely consist of multiple stakeholders and actors including national, international, and private actors such as representatives of companies, social networks, nongovernmental organizations as well as individuals.<ref name="ReferenceA" />{{rp|2}} |
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==Liability of Internet service providers== |
==Liability of Internet service providers== |
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A question arises when there is a breach of an individual's |
A question arises when there is a breach of an individual's basic human rights. Should the liability fall only on the originator of the breached right, or should the burden also fall on the [[Internet service provider]] (ISP)? This is an especially relevant issue when it comes to balancing free speech against defamation.<ref name=mansell>{{cite web |last1=Mansell |first1=Robin|title=Introduction- human rights and equity in Cyberspace |url= http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/3707/1/Introduction%E2%80%93Human_Rights_and_Equity_in_Cyberspace_%28LSERO%29.pdf |accessdate=April 10, 2015}}</ref> The increasing speed and limitless audience of the Internet pose a greater danger to individuals and their reputations.<ref name=AHRC>{{cite web|title=Background Paper: Human Rights in Cyberspace |url= https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/document/publication/human_rights_cyberspace.pdf |website=Australian Human Right Commission|accessdate=April 10, 2015}}</ref> |
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ISPs may not have the means to monitor content published on their websites, and may be unaware that a defamatory statement exists on their site.<ref name="humanrights.ee" /> This was demonstrated in the case [[Cubby, Inc. v. CompuServe Inc.]]<ref name="Rowland D, Free expression and Defamation">{{cite journal |last1=Klang, Murray|first1=M. A. |title=Human Rights in the Digital Age|date=2005|pages=Chapter 5, p65}}</ref> where it was found that the ISP was acting as a mere distributor and could not be liable for the content posted on its bulletin. However, in [[Stratton Oakmont, Inc. v. Prodigy Services Co.]]<ref name="Rowland D, Free expression and Defamation" /> the [[New York Supreme Court]] held that Prodigy acted as a publisher with an editorial function, and so was found liable. |
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These cases highlight the ambiguity surrounding the liability placed upon ISPs.<ref name="humanrights.ee">{{cite web|last1=Kijanen|first1=Pekka|title=New Generation for Human rights in Cyberspace|url=http://humanrights.ee/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Kijanen_research.pdf |accessdate=April 2015}}</ref> A further question is whether ISPs will take it upon themselves to function as “moral guardians”<ref name="mansell" /> of cyberspace. If over-fanatical ISPs start refusing to host certain Internet sites, this may, in turn, compromise rights for the freedom of speech and freedom of expression. In comparison, ambiguity about ISPs liability could mean ISPs permit content without regard to its potentially harmful effects.<ref name="mansell" /> |
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==Cybersecurity== |
==Cybersecurity== |
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Given the prevalence of hacking, viruses and zero day exploits, the [[World Wide Web]] ([[World Wide Web|WWW]]) is a non-secure storage space for the storage of sensitive private information.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-08/smiley-credit-check-australians-financial-information-at-risk/8887198|title=Australians' financial information at risk in data breach of US company|date=2017-09-08|work=ABC News|access-date=2018-02-26|language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thesslstore.com/blog/cybercrime-super-bowl-lii-not-get-hacked/|title=Cybercrime at Super Bowl LII - How not to get Hacked|date=2018-01-31|work=Hashed Out by The SSL Store™|access-date=2018-02-26|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://face2faceafrica.com/article/8-ways-stay-safe-online|title=8 ways to stay safe online - Face2Face Africa|date=2018-02-06|work=Face2Face Africa|access-date=2018-02-26|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/sep/16/10-ways-keep-personal-data-safe|title=Internet security: 10 ways to keep your personal data safe from online snoopers|last=Naughton|first=John|date=2013-09-16|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gigaom.com/2018/02/23/ransomware-attacks-rose-rapidly-in-2017-heres-how-you-can-protect-your-data/|title=Ransomware Attacks Rose Rapidly in 2017: Here’s How You Can Protect Your Data|last=Thompson|first=Jessica|date=2018-02-23|website=gigaom.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529015231/http://www.netindex.com/|title=Global Broadband and Mobile Performance Data Compiled by Ookla {{!}} Net Index|date=2015-05-29|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref> Cyberspace is a tool where individuals can exercise their freedom rights but cyberspace cannot guarantee our freedom.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{rp|11}} Today there are around 2.5 billion internet users. We are living in a world where everyone has a long data trail so internet security is a high priority.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{rp|12}} |
Given the prevalence of hacking, viruses and zero day exploits, the [[World Wide Web]] ([[World Wide Web|WWW]]) is a non-secure storage space for the storage of sensitive private information.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-08/smiley-credit-check-australians-financial-information-at-risk/8887198|title=Australians' financial information at risk in data breach of US company|date=2017-09-08|work=ABC News|access-date=2018-02-26|language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thesslstore.com/blog/cybercrime-super-bowl-lii-not-get-hacked/|title=Cybercrime at Super Bowl LII - How not to get Hacked|date=2018-01-31|work=Hashed Out by The SSL Store™|access-date=2018-02-26|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://face2faceafrica.com/article/8-ways-stay-safe-online|title=8 ways to stay safe online - Face2Face Africa|date=2018-02-06|work=Face2Face Africa|access-date=2018-02-26|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/sep/16/10-ways-keep-personal-data-safe|title=Internet security: 10 ways to keep your personal data safe from online snoopers|last=Naughton|first=John|date=2013-09-16|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gigaom.com/2018/02/23/ransomware-attacks-rose-rapidly-in-2017-heres-how-you-can-protect-your-data/|title=Ransomware Attacks Rose Rapidly in 2017: Here’s How You Can Protect Your Data|last=Thompson|first=Jessica|date=2018-02-23|website=gigaom.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529015231/http://www.netindex.com/|title=Global Broadband and Mobile Performance Data Compiled by Ookla {{!}} Net Index|date=2015-05-29|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref> Cyberspace is a tool where individuals can exercise their freedom rights, but cyberspace cannot guarantee our freedom.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{rp|11}} Today there are around 2.5 billion internet users. We are living in a world where everyone has a long data trail, so internet security is a high priority.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{rp|12}} |
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Today more people than ever have a common understanding of privacy or freedom of expression therefore share common ideas as to how to protect and secure their private data.<ref name="ReferenceA" />{{rp|13}} Still according to the Freedom in the Net Index <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529015231/http://www.netindex.com/|title=Global Broadband and Mobile Performance Data Compiled by Ookla {{!}} Net Index|date=2015-05-29|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref> issued in 2013, most countries in the world censor Internet freedom, some more than others. Countries will do this in various ways. For example, using [[Internet police]]. There are many methods of filtering and censoring the exercise of freedom rights.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kelly|last2=Truong|last3=Earp|last4=Reed|last5=Shahbaz|last6=Groco-Stoner|first1=Sanja|first2=Mai|first3=Madeline|first4=Laura|first5=Adrian|first6=Ashley|title=A Global Assessment of Internet and Digital Media|url=http://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/resurces/FOTN%202013_Full%20Report_0.pdf|website=Freedom on the net 2013|publisher=Freedom House 2013}}</ref> |
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The EU has invested in many filtering projects such as NETprotect I and II projects,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.netprotect.com/|title=NetProtect|website=NetProtect|language=en-US|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=More Information available at|url=http://www.net-protect.org/en/default.htm|accessdate=April 2015}}</ref> ICRAsafe projects <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.fosi.org/icra/|title=Thank you for inquiring about ICRA®|access-date=2018-02-26}}</ref><ref name="More Information available at">{{cite web|title=More Information available at|url=http://europa.eu/information_society/activities/sip/projects/targeted/filtering/closed_projects/icrasafe/index_en.htm|accessdate=April 2015}}</ref> and the PRINCIP programme.<ref name="More Information available at" /> But it has been stated that the self-censorship that Internet users impose on themselves is probably the most serious threat to Internet freedom. The massive surveillance, and fear of private communications made public lead to self-censorship. This results is individuals no longer using search engines or social networks to express ideas or opinions, as, certain keywords may trigger national security agencies, resulting in the Internet becoming a political and manipulating tool.<ref name="ReferenceA" />{{rp|13}} |
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==Discriminatory behaviours== |
==Discriminatory behaviours== |
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===Hate speech=== |
===Hate speech=== |
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Article 20 of the ICCPR states “Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.”<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx |title=International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights |publisher=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |accessdate=15 November 2015}}</ref> [[Hate speech]] is intended to disturb violence or prejudicial actions against a group of people based on their ethnicity, race, nationality or sexual orientation.<ref name="humanrights.ee"/> Cyberspace has also been used in this way as a medium for destruction. The danger to human rights becomes apparent when terrorists form together to scheme and agitate people to commit violence towards a common good. “[[Al-Qaeda]]” moved to cyberspace, “the ultimate ungoverned territory” where schools were set up for promotion of ideological and military training and active propaganda arms.<ref>{{cite web |title=A world wide web of terror|url=http://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9472498 |website=The Economist |accessdate=April 2015}}</ref> It has become a stated subject of importance that these situations are monitored to prepare for future generations of cyber-terrorists.<ref name="humanrights.ee"/> |
Article 20 of the ICCPR states “Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.”<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx |title=International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights |publisher=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |accessdate=15 November 2015}}</ref> [[Hate speech]] is intended to disturb violence or prejudicial actions against a group of people based on their ethnicity, race, nationality or sexual orientation.<ref name="humanrights.ee"/> Cyberspace has also been used in this way as a medium for destruction. |
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The danger to human rights becomes apparent when terrorists form together to scheme and agitate people to commit violence towards a common good. “[[Al-Qaeda]]” moved to cyberspace, “the ultimate ungoverned territory” where schools were set up for promotion of ideological and military training and active propaganda arms.<ref>{{cite web |title=A world wide web of terror|url=http://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9472498 |website=The Economist |accessdate=April 2015}}</ref> It has become a stated subject of importance that these situations are monitored to prepare for future generations of cyber-terrorists.<ref name="humanrights.ee" /> |
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==Future of human rights in the Digital Age== |
==Future of human rights in the Digital Age== |
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Revision as of 06:55, 26 February 2018
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Human rights in cyberspace is a relatively new and uncharted area of law. The United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) has stated that the freedoms of expression and information under Article 19(2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) include the freedom to receive and communicate information, ideas and opinions through the Internet.[1]
An important clause is Article 19(3) of the ICCPR, which provides that:
The exercise of the right provided in paragraph two of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subjected to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary:
(a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others;
(b) For the protection of national security or of public order, or of public health and morals.[1]
The HRC has stated that "the same rights that people have offline must also be protected online" (mentioning, in particular, freedom of expression).[2] It is widely regarded that this freedom of information must be balanced with other rights. The question is raised whether people's expectations of human rights are different in cyberspace.[3]
Public privacy
Public privacy encompasses freedom of information and expression on the Internet on the one side, and security and privacy in cyberspace on the other side.[4]: 3 In the context of cyberspace, privacy means using the Internet as a service tool for private purposes without the fear of third parties accessing and using user data in various ways without their consent.[4]: 3
The right to freedom encompasses the right of expression and is stated in several international treaties.[4]: 3 The right includes freedom to receive and impart information and ideas and to hold opinions without any state interference. It also includes the right to express oneself in any medium including exchanging ideas and thoughts through Internet platforms or social networks.[4]: 3 Freedom means the right to political expression especially when it raises matters of public importance.[4]: 3
Most democratic countries advance the installation of the Internet for economic and communication purposes; therefore, political expression is given some protection on the Internet. Some governments actively move to protect citizen's data on the Internet. However, these intergovernmental agreements can lead to misuse and abuse of private data, which in turn can affect many other fundamental freedoms and basic human rights.[4]: 4 The challenge for governments is balancing private interests with rules against privacy and freedom rights for all.[4]: 3
Governance in cyberspace
Anja Mihr says that cyberspace harbors more individuals than any other country in the world, yet it is without any government, legislative bodies, law enforcement or any other sort of constitution. Without these mechanisms difficulties arise in protecting and enjoying citizen's rights.[4]: 1 International Governmental Organisations (IGO's), such as the United Nations (UN), the Organization of American States, the African Union or the European Union aim to set international standards for the use of cyberspace and the Internet to be enforced by national governments, but commonly fail to do so. The problem is that state powers and their mechanisms of enforcement do not extend past the state's borders.[4]: 2
Because cyberspace has no borders, the ways and means to govern it are as-yet undefined. This leads to problems wherein those who are willing to commit crimes find it easier to cross borders through the web, as it is unclear where jurisdiction lies.[5] If a governing regime was ever established, it would most likely consist of multiple stakeholders and actors including national, international, and private actors such as representatives of companies, social networks, nongovernmental organizations as well as individuals.[4]: 2
Liability of Internet service providers
A question arises when there is a breach of an individual's basic human rights. Should the liability fall only on the originator of the breached right, or should the burden also fall on the Internet service provider (ISP)? This is an especially relevant issue when it comes to balancing free speech against defamation.[6] The increasing speed and limitless audience of the Internet pose a greater danger to individuals and their reputations.[3]
ISPs may not have the means to monitor content published on their websites, and may be unaware that a defamatory statement exists on their site.[7] This was demonstrated in the case Cubby, Inc. v. CompuServe Inc.[8] where it was found that the ISP was acting as a mere distributor and could not be liable for the content posted on its bulletin. However, in Stratton Oakmont, Inc. v. Prodigy Services Co.[8] the New York Supreme Court held that Prodigy acted as a publisher with an editorial function, and so was found liable.
These cases highlight the ambiguity surrounding the liability placed upon ISPs.[7] A further question is whether ISPs will take it upon themselves to function as “moral guardians”[6] of cyberspace. If over-fanatical ISPs start refusing to host certain Internet sites, this may, in turn, compromise rights for the freedom of speech and freedom of expression. In comparison, ambiguity about ISPs liability could mean ISPs permit content without regard to its potentially harmful effects.[6]
Cybersecurity
Given the prevalence of hacking, viruses and zero day exploits, the World Wide Web (WWW) is a non-secure storage space for the storage of sensitive private information.[9][10][11][12][13][14] Cyberspace is a tool where individuals can exercise their freedom rights, but cyberspace cannot guarantee our freedom.[4]: 11 Today there are around 2.5 billion internet users. We are living in a world where everyone has a long data trail, so internet security is a high priority.[4]: 12
Today more people than ever have a common understanding of privacy or freedom of expression therefore share common ideas as to how to protect and secure their private data.[4]: 13 Still according to the Freedom in the Net Index [15] issued in 2013, most countries in the world censor Internet freedom, some more than others. Countries will do this in various ways. For example, using Internet police. There are many methods of filtering and censoring the exercise of freedom rights.[16]
The EU has invested in many filtering projects such as NETprotect I and II projects,[17][18] ICRAsafe projects [19][20] and the PRINCIP programme.[20] But it has been stated that the self-censorship that Internet users impose on themselves is probably the most serious threat to Internet freedom. The massive surveillance, and fear of private communications made public lead to self-censorship. This results is individuals no longer using search engines or social networks to express ideas or opinions, as, certain keywords may trigger national security agencies, resulting in the Internet becoming a political and manipulating tool.[4]: 13
Discriminatory behaviours
Cyber bullying
Discriminatory behaviours that occur ‘off-line’ also occur ‘online’ One of these behaviours is ‘cyber bullying’. Cyberbullying affects at least one in ten students in Australia.[21] Cyberbullying can impact on a range of human rights including: the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health;[22] rights to work and fair working conditions;[23] the right to freedom of expression and to hold opinions without interference;[24] a child or young person’s right to leisure and play.[25]
Cyber-racism
Cyber racism can be in the form of individuals posting racist comments or participating in group pages specifically set up for a racist purpose.[3] A well publicised example of this was an Aboriginal memes Facebook page that consisted of various images of indigenous people with racist captions. It was reported that Facebook classified the page as ‘controversial humour’.[26]
Hate speech
Article 20 of the ICCPR states “Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.”[27] Hate speech is intended to disturb violence or prejudicial actions against a group of people based on their ethnicity, race, nationality or sexual orientation.[7] Cyberspace has also been used in this way as a medium for destruction.
The danger to human rights becomes apparent when terrorists form together to scheme and agitate people to commit violence towards a common good. “Al-Qaeda” moved to cyberspace, “the ultimate ungoverned territory” where schools were set up for promotion of ideological and military training and active propaganda arms.[28] It has become a stated subject of importance that these situations are monitored to prepare for future generations of cyber-terrorists.[7]
Future of human rights in the Digital Age
The future as to the management of human rights in cyberspace depends on the evolution of the law and its interpretation.[6] Jon Bing warns that once rules and regulations are automated, they become extremely arduous to subject to judicial review.[6] Bing states that we face a situation in which “technology [is] implementing the law”.[6]
Roger Brownsword looked at issues associated with developments in biotechnology and human rights alongside those raised by digital technologies and suggested three main ethical positions on the issues: a utilitarian pragmatic stance, a defence of human rights and a “dignitarian alliance”.[6] Of the three positions Brownsword claims the first two are becoming popular in the UK. He claims that technologies are being developed that treat human subjects as if they lack the capacity to choose.[6]
Recent official discussions have taken place as to the future of cyberspace. In April 2008 the Virtual Law Conference[29] was held in New York. The conference included participants such as Microsoft, Sony and the Walt Disney Company. The agenda included discussion on Intellectual property enforcement, legal issues in virtual currency, legal issues in virtual property, ethical concerns for attorneys and executives in virtual worlds and how to litigate a virtual lawsuit.[7]
The US Congressional Hearing on Virtual Worlds also took place and its purpose was to educate and sort out the prospects of virtual worlds.[30] The agenda included analysing concerns related to consumer protection, intellectual property protection and child protection, amongst other things. The hearing was one of the first legislative inquiries into virtual worlds. It remains to be seen whether either of these gatherings have any lasting results.[7]
See also
References
- ^ a b United Nations Human Rights Committee. "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights". General Comment no.34, note 4, para 12.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|dead-url=(help) - ^ "The promotion, protection and enjoyment of human rights on the Internet" (PDF). Human Rights Council Resolution. Retrieved April 10, 2015.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|dead-url=(help) - ^ a b c "Background Paper: Human Rights in Cyberspace" (PDF). Australian Human Right Commission. Retrieved April 10, 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Mihr, Anja (2013). "Public Privacy Human Rights in Cyberspace" (PDF).
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Fanchiotti, Vittoriio; Pierini, Jean Paul (2012). "Impact of Cyberspace on Human Rights and Democracy": 51.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ a b c d e f g h Mansell, Robin. "Introduction- human rights and equity in Cyberspace" (PDF). Retrieved April 10, 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f Kijanen, Pekka. "New Generation for Human rights in Cyberspace" (PDF). Retrieved April 2015.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help) - ^ a b Klang, Murray, M. A. (2005). "Human Rights in the Digital Age": Chapter 5, p65.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "Australians' financial information at risk in data breach of US company". ABC News. 2017-09-08. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
- ^ "Cybercrime at Super Bowl LII - How not to get Hacked". Hashed Out by The SSL Store™. 2018-01-31. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
- ^ "8 ways to stay safe online - Face2Face Africa". Face2Face Africa. 2018-02-06. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
- ^ Naughton, John (2013-09-16). "Internet security: 10 ways to keep your personal data safe from online snoopers". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
- ^ Thompson, Jessica (2018-02-23). "Ransomware Attacks Rose Rapidly in 2017: Here's How You Can Protect Your Data". gigaom.com. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
- ^ "Global Broadband and Mobile Performance Data Compiled by Ookla | Net Index". 2015-05-29. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
- ^ "Global Broadband and Mobile Performance Data Compiled by Ookla | Net Index". 2015-05-29. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
- ^ Kelly, Sanja; Truong, Mai; Earp, Madeline; Reed, Laura; Shahbaz, Adrian; Groco-Stoner, Ashley. "A Global Assessment of Internet and Digital Media" (PDF). Freedom on the net 2013. Freedom House 2013.
- ^ "NetProtect". NetProtect. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
- ^ "More Information available at". Retrieved April 2015.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help) - ^ "Thank you for inquiring about ICRA®". Retrieved 2018-02-26.
- ^ a b "More Information available at". Retrieved April 2015.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help) - ^ "See the Alannah and Madeline Foundation's Bullying hurts brochure at". Retrieved April 2015.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help) - ^ "UDHR, art 25". ICESCR, art 12 (1); CRC art 24.
{{cite web}}: Missing or empty|url=(help) - ^ "UDHR, art 23". ICESCR, arts 6 and 7.
{{cite web}}: Missing or empty|url=(help) - ^ "UDHR, art 19". ICESCR, art 19.
{{cite web}}: Missing or empty|url=(help) - ^ "CRC, art 31".
{{cite web}}: Missing or empty|url=(help) - ^ Moses, A; Lowe, A. "Contents removed from racist Facebook page". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved April 2015.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help) - ^ "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
- ^ "A world wide web of terror". The Economist. Retrieved April 2015.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help) - ^ "More Information available at". Retrieved April 2015.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help) - ^ "Online Virtual World: Applications in a User Generated Medium". The Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet. Retrieved April 2015.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help)