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A study conducted in horses showed similar results to those found in cats, indicating a heightened state of arousal when negative emotions were being exhibited.The study also revealed differences in behaviour across various breed types. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schrimpf|first=Anne|last2=Single|first2=Marie-Sophie|last3=Nawroth|first3=Christian|date=2020/1|title=Social Referencing in the Domestic Horse|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/1/164|journal=Animals|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=164|doi=10.3390/ani10010164}}</ref>
A study conducted in horses showed similar results to those found in cats, indicating a heightened state of arousal when negative emotions were being exhibited.The study also revealed differences in behaviour across various breed types. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schrimpf|first=Anne|last2=Single|first2=Marie-Sophie|last3=Nawroth|first3=Christian|date=2020/1|title=Social Referencing in the Domestic Horse|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/1/164|journal=Animals|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=164|doi=10.3390/ani10010164}}</ref>

<br />

== Deficits in Social Referencing ==

=== Autism ===
Children display social referencing skills during the period of 9-12 months in normal development. Unfortunately, individuals with [[autism]] have trouble approaching social referencing (Feinman, 1982; Klinnert, Campos, Sorce, Emde, & Svejda, 1983; Moor & Corkum, 1994)<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-2462-9|title=Social Referencing and the Social Construction of Reality in Infancy|date=1992|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-2464-3|editor-last=Feinman|editor-first=Saul|location=Boston, MA|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-2462-9}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=KLINNERT|first=MARY D.|title=EMOTIONS AS BEHAVIOR REGULATORS: SOCIAL REFERENCING IN INFANCY|date=1983|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-558702-0.50009-1|work=Emotions in Early Development|pages=57–86|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-558702-0|access-date=2020-05-13|last2=CAMPOS|first2=JOSEPH J.|last3=SORCE|first3=JAMES F.|last4=EMDE|first4=ROBERT N.|last5=SVEJDA|first5=MARILYN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moore|first=Chris|last2=Corkum|first2=Valerie|date=1994-12|title=Social Understanding at the End of the First Year of Life|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/drev.1994.1014|journal=Developmental Review|volume=14|issue=4|pages=349–372|doi=10.1006/drev.1994.1014|issn=0273-2297}}</ref>. Sigman, Arbelle, & Dissanayake (1995) suggested that social referencing is absent from autistic children<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sigman|first=Marian|last2=Arbelle|first2=Shoshana|last3=Dissanayake|first3=Cheryl|date=1995-08|title=Current Research Findings on Childhood Autism|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/070674379504000603|journal=The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry|volume=40|issue=6|pages=289–294|doi=10.1177/070674379504000603|issn=0706-7437}}</ref>. Bacon et al. (1998) reported that preschoolers with autism were less likely to employ social referencing. In the presence of ambiguous and unfamiliar stimuli, these autistic children did not attempt to seek for the information from adults<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bacon|first=Alyson L.|last2=Fein|first2=Deborah|last3=Morris|first3=Robin|last4=Waterhouse|first4=Lynn|last5=Allen|first5=Doris|date=1998|title=The Responses of Autistic Children to the Distress of Others|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1026040615628|journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders|volume=28|issue=2|pages=129–142|doi=10.1023/a:1026040615628|issn=0162-3257|via=}}</ref>. Another study that investigated 18-month-old siblings of children with autism indicated that deficit in social referencing may be considered as an early signal to predict autism (Cornew et al., 2012). In the experiment, Cornew found that autistic infants took longer time to start seeking for vocalization and facial expression than their siblings without autism and typical developing children. In addition, infants whose siblings developed autism did not advance emotional information from adults to regulate their behaviors regardless of later autism diagnosis. It suggested that this impairment of social referencing may represent an [[endophenotype]] for autism disorder<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cornew|first=Lauren|last2=Dobkins|first2=Karen R.|last3=Akshoomoff|first3=Natacha|last4=McCleery|first4=Joseph P.|last5=Carver|first5=Leslie J.|date=2012-03-29|title=Atypical Social Referencing in Infant Siblings of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1518-8|journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders|volume=42|issue=12|pages=2611–2621|doi=10.1007/s10803-012-1518-8|issn=0162-3257}}</ref>.

However, many studies which used behavioral procedures to teach social referencing skills to autistic children suggested that individuals with autism can attain some social referencing skills after training (Gena, Krantz, McClannahan, and Poulson, 1996). In the study about training and generalization of affective behavior, adolescents with autism received treatment including modeling, verbal prompting, and reinforcement. After the training, contextually appropriate affective responding increased and treatment effects were generalized across untrained scenarios, therapists, time, and settings<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gena|first=Angeliki|last2=Krantz|first2=Patricia J.|last3=McClannahan|first3=Lynn E.|last4=Poulson|first4=Claire L.|date=1996-09|title=TRAINING AND GENERALIZATION OF AFFECTIVE BEHAVIOR DISPLAYED BY YOUTH WITH AUTISM|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1996.29-291|journal=Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis|volume=29|issue=3|pages=291–304|doi=10.1901/jaba.1996.29-291|issn=0021-8855}}</ref>. In another study by Buffington, Krantz, McClannahan, and Poulson (1998), four autistic children were taught to use contextually appropriate gestures across three response categories: attention directing/getting behavior, affective behavior, and descriptive behavior. After participating in the study, children can respond in novel settings, show more socially appropriate behavior, and have the same social interaction as their peers did<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Buffington|first=Dawn M.|last2=Krantz|first2=Patricia J.|last3=McClannahan|first3=Lynn E.|last4=Poulson|first4=Claire L.|date=1998|title=Procedures for Teaching Appropriate Gestural Communication Skills to Children with Autism|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1026056229214|journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders|volume=28|issue=6|pages=535–545|doi=10.1023/a:1026056229214|issn=0162-3257|via=}}</ref>.

Moreover, although children with autism may suffer deficit in development of social referencing, they possibly develop social referencing skills later in life. In other words, autistic children achieve social skills later than typical developing children. Warreyn et al. (2005) conducted a study to examine social referencing in autistic children from 3 to 6 years old, these children did not show social referencing deficit. Nevertheless, compared to typically developing children, individuals with autism experienced a delay in social communicative development because 5-year-old children without autism did not show social referencing in the experimental tasks. An explanation is that the children with autism may function on the level of younger children. This study also suggests that future research should approach social referencing in younger children to clarify the delay in social communicative development of autistic children<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Warreyn|first=Petra|last2=Roeyers|first2=Herbert|last3=de Groote|first3=Isabel|date=2005-10|title=Early social communicative behaviours of preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder during interaction with their mothers|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362361305056076|journal=Autism|volume=9|issue=4|pages=342–361|doi=10.1177/1362361305056076|issn=1362-3613}}</ref>.<references />

Revision as of 07:52, 13 May 2020

Social Referencing in non-humans

Social referencing has been shown in multiple animal species when a human acts as a caregiver and informant. Animals can refer back to the informant to obtain emotional messages about behaviour as well as novel objects.[1]

The process of referencing differs between species. However, research shows that there are striking similarities between chimpanzees and human infants.[2] Similarities include referential looking towards the caregiver followed by the adaption of behaviour towards a novel object, which underlines the importance of social referencing for infants and primates. One of the main differences accentuates uncertainty in chimpanzees which results in more frequent looking rate at the caregiver.[3] The chimpanzee either approaches a novel object and then references emotions from the caregiver or vice versa. Whereas human infants may embark in a situation solely on their own emotions without referencing.[3]

Since the domestication of cats and dogs, the living environments thus has overlapped considerably with the ones of humans. Research in social referencing in cats show species specific behaviour overrule the signal from the owner.[4] Cats show a low interaction when the familiar caregiver shows positive emotions. Whereas the interaction increases as their caregiver displays negative emotions.[4] The cat is referencing emotions in order to seek security resulting in a species typical behaviour called Fight-or-flight response. Cats are not synchronising their emotions and behaviours while referencing their owners, such as dogs and infants do.[4]

Dogs, on the other hand, synchronise and monitor their behaviour regardless of the relationship to the informant. [5]

A study conducted in horses showed similar results to those found in cats, indicating a heightened state of arousal when negative emotions were being exhibited.The study also revealed differences in behaviour across various breed types. [6]


Deficits in Social Referencing

Autism

Children display social referencing skills during the period of 9-12 months in normal development. Unfortunately, individuals with autism have trouble approaching social referencing (Feinman, 1982; Klinnert, Campos, Sorce, Emde, & Svejda, 1983; Moor & Corkum, 1994)[7][8][9]. Sigman, Arbelle, & Dissanayake (1995) suggested that social referencing is absent from autistic children[10]. Bacon et al. (1998) reported that preschoolers with autism were less likely to employ social referencing. In the presence of ambiguous and unfamiliar stimuli, these autistic children did not attempt to seek for the information from adults[11]. Another study that investigated 18-month-old siblings of children with autism indicated that deficit in social referencing may be considered as an early signal to predict autism (Cornew et al., 2012). In the experiment, Cornew found that autistic infants took longer time to start seeking for vocalization and facial expression than their siblings without autism and typical developing children. In addition, infants whose siblings developed autism did not advance emotional information from adults to regulate their behaviors regardless of later autism diagnosis. It suggested that this impairment of social referencing may represent an endophenotype for autism disorder[12].

However, many studies which used behavioral procedures to teach social referencing skills to autistic children suggested that individuals with autism can attain some social referencing skills after training (Gena, Krantz, McClannahan, and Poulson, 1996). In the study about training and generalization of affective behavior, adolescents with autism received treatment including modeling, verbal prompting, and reinforcement. After the training, contextually appropriate affective responding increased and treatment effects were generalized across untrained scenarios, therapists, time, and settings[13]. In another study by Buffington, Krantz, McClannahan, and Poulson (1998), four autistic children were taught to use contextually appropriate gestures across three response categories: attention directing/getting behavior, affective behavior, and descriptive behavior. After participating in the study, children can respond in novel settings, show more socially appropriate behavior, and have the same social interaction as their peers did[14].

Moreover, although children with autism may suffer deficit in development of social referencing, they possibly develop social referencing skills later in life. In other words, autistic children achieve social skills later than typical developing children. Warreyn et al. (2005) conducted a study to examine social referencing in autistic children from 3 to 6 years old, these children did not show social referencing deficit. Nevertheless, compared to typically developing children, individuals with autism experienced a delay in social communicative development because 5-year-old children without autism did not show social referencing in the experimental tasks. An explanation is that the children with autism may function on the level of younger children. This study also suggests that future research should approach social referencing in younger children to clarify the delay in social communicative development of autistic children[15].

  1. ^ http://hdl.handle.net/2434/217623
  2. ^ www.karger.com. doi:10.1159/000156263 https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/156263. Retrieved 2020-05-09. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  3. ^ a b Russell, Connie L.; Bard, Kim A.; Adamson, Lauren B. (1997). "Social referencing by young chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 111 (2): 185–193. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.111.2.185. ISSN 1939-2087.
  4. ^ a b c Merola, I.; Lazzaroni, M.; Marshall-Pescini, S.; Prato-Previde, E. (2015-05-01). "Social referencing and cat–human communication". Animal Cognition. 18 (3): 639–648. doi:10.1007/s10071-014-0832-2. ISSN 1435-9456.
  5. ^ Merola, I.; Prato-Previde, E.; Marshall-Pescini, S. (2012-03-01). "Social referencing in dog-owner dyads?". Animal Cognition. 15 (2): 175–185. doi:10.1007/s10071-011-0443-0. ISSN 1435-9456.
  6. ^ Schrimpf, Anne; Single, Marie-Sophie; Nawroth, Christian (2020/1). "Social Referencing in the Domestic Horse". Animals. 10 (1): 164. doi:10.3390/ani10010164. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  7. ^ Feinman, Saul, ed. (1992). Social Referencing and the Social Construction of Reality in Infancy. Boston, MA: Springer US. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-2462-9. ISBN 978-1-4899-2464-3.
  8. ^ KLINNERT, MARY D.; CAMPOS, JOSEPH J.; SORCE, JAMES F.; EMDE, ROBERT N.; SVEJDA, MARILYN (1983), "EMOTIONS AS BEHAVIOR REGULATORS: SOCIAL REFERENCING IN INFANCY", Emotions in Early Development, Elsevier, pp. 57–86, ISBN 978-0-12-558702-0, retrieved 2020-05-13
  9. ^ Moore, Chris; Corkum, Valerie (1994-12). "Social Understanding at the End of the First Year of Life". Developmental Review. 14 (4): 349–372. doi:10.1006/drev.1994.1014. ISSN 0273-2297. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ Sigman, Marian; Arbelle, Shoshana; Dissanayake, Cheryl (1995-08). "Current Research Findings on Childhood Autism". The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 40 (6): 289–294. doi:10.1177/070674379504000603. ISSN 0706-7437. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ Bacon, Alyson L.; Fein, Deborah; Morris, Robin; Waterhouse, Lynn; Allen, Doris (1998). "The Responses of Autistic Children to the Distress of Others". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 28 (2): 129–142. doi:10.1023/a:1026040615628. ISSN 0162-3257.
  12. ^ Cornew, Lauren; Dobkins, Karen R.; Akshoomoff, Natacha; McCleery, Joseph P.; Carver, Leslie J. (2012-03-29). "Atypical Social Referencing in Infant Siblings of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 42 (12): 2611–2621. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1518-8. ISSN 0162-3257.
  13. ^ Gena, Angeliki; Krantz, Patricia J.; McClannahan, Lynn E.; Poulson, Claire L. (1996-09). "TRAINING AND GENERALIZATION OF AFFECTIVE BEHAVIOR DISPLAYED BY YOUTH WITH AUTISM". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 29 (3): 291–304. doi:10.1901/jaba.1996.29-291. ISSN 0021-8855. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ Buffington, Dawn M.; Krantz, Patricia J.; McClannahan, Lynn E.; Poulson, Claire L. (1998). "Procedures for Teaching Appropriate Gestural Communication Skills to Children with Autism". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 28 (6): 535–545. doi:10.1023/a:1026056229214. ISSN 0162-3257.
  15. ^ Warreyn, Petra; Roeyers, Herbert; de Groote, Isabel (2005-10). "Early social communicative behaviours of preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder during interaction with their mothers". Autism. 9 (4): 342–361. doi:10.1177/1362361305056076. ISSN 1362-3613. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
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